A.

Radiowave
Radio waves are electromagnetic waves generally ranging from 3 kHz to 1 GHz.
Although their frequency overlaps with microwaves, they are often distinguished
by their behavior rather than exact frequency.

Key Characteristics

Omnidirectional propagation: Radio waves travel in all directions from the

transmitting antenna. → Sending and receiving antennas do not need alignment.

Susceptible to interference: Because they spread in all directions, signals can

interfere with other antennas using the same frequency.

Long-distance capability: Radio waves—especially those traveling in sky

mode—can cover long distances. → Suitable for long-range broadcasting, such
as AM radio.

Omnidirectional Antenna

Used to transmit radio waves in all directions.

Antenna type varies based on wavelength, signal strength, and purpose.

Because radio waves are omnidirectional, they are suitable for multicasting—one
sender and many receivers.

Examples of multicasting using radio waves: AM/FM radio, television, maritime

radio, cordless phones, paging systems.

B. Microwaves
Microwaves are a line-of-sight, high-frequency wireless communication
technology.

Used to transmit voice, video, and data at high speed.

They are unidirectional:

Signals are narrowly focused.

Sending and receiving antennas must be aligned.

Alignment prevents interference between separate communication pairs.

Unidirectional Antenna

Microwaves use unidirectional antennas that transmit in one direction only.

Two main types of microwave antennas:

Parabolic dish antenna

Horn antenna

Parabolic Dish Antenna

Based on the geometry of a parabola, where parallel incoming waves reflect to a

single point called the focus.

Functions like a funnel, collecting a wide range of signals and directing them to
one point.

Recovers more signal compared to a simple point-based antenna

Microwave Communication Setup

Microwave devices require line-of-sight placement, usually at high locations.

Information is converted into a microwave signal, transmitted through the air,

and recovered by the receiving antenna.

Horn Antenna

Shaped like a large scoop.

Outgoing signals travel through a stem and are directed outward in narrow
beams by the curved head.

Incoming signals are collected by the scoop and funneled down into the stem,
similar to a parabolic dish.

Applications of Microwave Technology

Used for unidirectional (one-to-one) communication.

Common applications include:

Cellular phones

Satellite communication networks

Wireless LANs

C. Infrared Waves
Infrared waves (or infrared light) are a form of electromagnetic radiation with
wavelengths longer than visible light, making them invisible to the human eye.
They are commonly used in short-range communication systems. A familiar
example is the TV remote control, which uses infrared signals to send
commands to the television.

2.3 Telecommunications Network

2.3.1 Telecommunications Concepts

Telecommunications refers to all types of long-distance communication using
technologies such as telephone, radio, and television. It involves the exchange of
information—voice, text, data, images, audio, and video—across networks. Data
communication is a subset of telecommunications and relies on
telecommunication technologies to transfer data.

In modern organizations, communication technologies are integrated to

overcome time and distance barriers. Telecommunications is essential for
multinational businesses that operate 24/7, enabling continuous interaction
between customers, suppliers, vendors, and regulatory bodies.

Telecommunications System
A telecommunications system is a coordinated set of hardware and software
designed to transmit information from one location to another. It can send
different forms of information, including text, data, graphics, voice, documents,
and video. A typical telecommunications system includes components such as
transmitters, receivers, communication channels, and supporting software.

A telecommunications system has two sides—a transmitter and a receiver—and

includes several key components that work together to transfer information.

Major Components

Hardware – Includes computers and communication processors such as

modems and specialized communication devices.

Communications Media – The physical pathways for signals, including wireline

(cables) and wireless media.

Communications Networks – The connections linking computers and

communication devices.

Communications Processors – Devices that handle specific communication

tasks (e.g., front-end processors, controllers, multiplexers, modems).

Communications Software – Manages and controls the telecommunications

system and transmission processes.
Data Communications Providers – Organizations that offer communication
services (e.g., telecom companies).

Communications Protocols – Rules governing how information is transmitted

across the system.

Communications Applications – Services such as EDI, teleconferencing,

videoconferencing, email, fax, and electronic funds transfer.

Basic Functions of a Telecommunications System

To send and receive information, the system must be able to:

Transmit information.

Establish an interface between the sender and receiver.

Telecommunications System Functions

A telecommunications system performs several important functions to ensure

accurate, efficient, and secure communication. These functions include:

Routing messages along the most efficient paths.

Processing information so that each message reaches the correct receiver.

Error checking and reformatting messages when necessary.

Converting message speeds or formats to match different communication lines.

Controlling information flow by routing messages, polling receivers, and

managing network information.

Securing information throughout the communication process.

Electronic Signals
Telecommunications media transmit two basic types of signals:

1. Analog Signals

Continuous waves that carry information by changing amplitude and frequency.

Natural phenomena like sound are analog.

Traditionally used in radio, telephones, and recording devices, though many

systems now convert to digital.

2. Digital Signals
Made up of discrete on/off pulses representing binary 1’s and 0’s.

More resistant to interference and less affected by noise than analog signals.

Preferred for modern communication systems because they are more reliable
and easier to process.

Telecommunications Concepts

1. Digital vs. Analog Signals

Analog signals: Continuous waves that carry information by varying amplitude

and frequency (e.g., sound, traditional radio, old telephones).

Digital signals: Discrete pulses representing 1s and 0s.

Advantages of digital signals:

Less affected by noise.

Can be strengthened repeatedly over long distances.

Match the internal digital processing of computers, avoiding extra conversions.

2. Communications Processors Devices that support transmission and reception

of data in a network. Examples:

Modems

Multiplexers

Front-end processors

Concentrators

3. Modem

A modem converts digital signals from a computer into analog signals for
transmission over telephone lines (POTS).

Performs modulation (digital → analog) and demodulation (analog → digital).

The name modem comes from modulate/demodulate.

Modems work in pairs.

2.3.2 Importance of Telecommunications

Enables rapid communication and distance learning.
Helps businesses exchange information quickly, improving decision-making and
operations.

Connects people and organizations globally with minimal delay

Telecommunications Applications and Impact

1. Applications of Telecommunications Telecommunications support a wide

range of services including:

Telephony and video conferencing

Fax (facsimile)

Broadcast and interactive TV

Instant messaging and e-mail

Web- and Internet-based communication

Data transmission

Distributed collaboration (working together online)

2. Impact of Telecommunications

Influences daily life globally by enabling fast, efficient communication.

Helps people work together to solve problems and support causes worldwide.

Makes the world more connected, safer, and easier to interact with.

Example: Ethio-telecom expanding 4G LTE Advanced across regions to improve

connectivity.

2.4 Mobile Communication

Mobile communication refers to technologies that enable people to
communicate without physical connections like wires or cables. It makes
communication easier, saves time, and allows people to connect from different
locations.

2.4.1 A Bluetooth Network

Bluetooth Technology Bluetooth is a short-range wireless communication
technology used to replace cables between electronic devices. It enables devices
like phones, headsets, speakers, and computers to connect wirelessly. A
common example is using a Bluetooth headset to make phone calls without
holding the phone.

Frequency Band: Bluetooth devices operate in the unlicensed ISM band at 2.4
GHz, the same frequency range used by microwaves and Wi-Fi.

Connectivity: Bluetooth-enabled devices connect through pairing, allowing them

to communicate directly with each other.

Use Case: Enables short-range wireless communication between devices such

as phones, headsets, speakers, and computers

2.4.2 Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

WLAN is a wireless version of a local area network (LAN) using radio frequency
(RF) technology. It can function as an extension or alternative to a wired LAN.

Access Point (AP): Required to bridge wireless LAN traffic to the wired LAN.

Mobility: WLAN allows users to move within the coverage area while remaining
connected.

Data Rates: Current WLANs provide up to 11 Mbps, with ongoing development

toward higher speeds.

Standards: Defined by IEEE 802.11, with most WLANs marketed under the Wi-Fi
brand.

Advantages: Flexibility, mobility, and suitability for applications where wired

connections are impractical.

WLAN Access Points (APs)

Function of AP: Connects wireless nodes to the wired LAN and can act as a
repeater, extending the maximum distance between nodes.

Coverage for Larger Areas: Multiple APs can be installed with 10–15% overlap to
ensure continuous connectivity across a larger area.

Benefit: Ensures seamless wireless coverage and improves network reliability.

2.5 Cellular (Mobile) Networks

A cellular network is a radio network divided into land areas called cells, each
served by a base station (cell site).

Purpose: Enables communication between mobile stations (MSs) or between a

mobile unit and a stationary (land) unit.

Tracks and locates callers.

Assigns communication channels.

Transfers channels between base stations as callers move across cells.

Structure: Each cell contains an antenna and is controlled by a base station

powered by solar or AC electricity.

Mobile Switching Center (MSC) in Cellular Networks

Mobile Switching Center (MSC): A switching office that controls all base stations
in a cellular network.

Functions of MSC:

Coordinates communication between base stations and the telephone central

office.

Connects calls between mobile and landline users.

Records call information and handles billing.

Role: Centralized computerized control for efficient management of the cellular

system.

Generations of Cellular Systems

Cellular Generations: Cellular networks are classified as 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, and
emerging 5G.

Purpose of Generational Evolution: Each new generation improves data rates,

network capacity, connectivity, and services, addressing the limitations of the
previous generation.

A. Fourth Generation (4G)

High network capacity to support more users and devices.

Data rates:

100 Mbit/s for users in moving vehicles.

1 Gbit/s for stationary users.

Global connectivity: At least 100 Mbit/s between any two points in the world.
Smooth handoff: Seamless transition across heterogeneous networks.

Seamless connectivity and global roaming: Supports uninterrupted service

across multiple networks and regions.

Fourth Generation) Also called mobile broadband everywhere.

Supports high-quality service for next-generation multimedia applications.

Ensures interoperability with existing wireless standards.

4G LTE (Long Term Evolution):

A type of 4G technology.

Mobile broadband with data transfer rates up to 100 Mbps.

5G (Fifth Generation)

The latest generation of mobile networks, evolving beyond 4G LTE.

Key Features:

Higher multi-Gbps peak data speeds.

Ultra-low latency for real-time applications.

Massive network capacity and increased availability.

Reliable and uniform user experience for more users.

Connects not only people but also machines, objects, and devices (IoT).

Enables new user experiences, supports new industries, and provides more
efficient and flexible networks.

2.6 Satellite Networks

A satellite network consists of nodes, including satellites, earth stations, end-
user terminals, and telephones, enabling communication between points on
Earth.

Components:

Earth stations – Ground-based communication facilities.

Uplink – Transmission from Earth to satellite.

Downlink – Transmission from satellite to Earth.

Transponder – Receives, amplifies, and retransmits signals.

Function: Satellites communicate with Earth using radio waves.

Similarity to Cellular Networks: Divide coverage into cells for efficient

communication.

Advantages:

Provide communication to remote or undeveloped areas.

Require less investment in ground-based infrastructure.

Ensure high-quality global communication.

2.6.1 Orbits of Satellite

The path an artificial satellite follows around the Earth.

Equatorial – Around the Earth’s equator.

Inclined – Tilted relative to the equator.

Polar – Passes over the Earth’s poles.

2.6.2 Categories of Satellites (Based on Orbit Location)

Geostationary Earth Orbit (GEO)

Altitude: 35,786 km

Appears stationary relative to a point on Earth.

Medium-Earth Orbit (MEO)

Altitude: 5,000–15,000 km

Used for navigation and communication systems.

Low-Earth Orbit (LEO)

Altitude: Below 2,000 km

Suitable for high-speed, low-latency communication.

Satellite Orbits and Van Allen Belts

Reason for Different Orbits: Avoid damage from the Van Allen belts, which are
layers of charged particles surrounding the Earth.
Effect on Satellites: Satellites passing through these belts would be destroyed by
energetic charged particles.

MEO Orbits: Positioned between the two Van Allen belts to ensure satellite safety
and functionality.

2.6.3 Data Communications

Data communication is a subset of telecommunications focused on the
electronic collection, processing, and distribution of data, usually between
computer hardware devices.

Key Characteristics of Effective Data Communication:

Delivery – Data must reach the correct destination.

Accuracy – Data must be received without errors.

Timeliness – Data must arrive when needed.

Jitter – Variations in data arrival time should be minimal.

2.6.4 Components of a Data Communication System:

A data communication system consists of five essential components ( include
sender, receiver, transmission medium, message, and protocol).

Data Transmission Modes / Flow

Data transmission mode refers to the direction of signal flow between two
connected devices.

1. Simplex

Unidirectional communication – data flows in one direction only.

One device transmits, the other only receives.

Example: Keyboard (input) → Monitor (output).

Channel usage: Entire capacity is used for one-way communication.

2. Half-Duplex

Two-way communication, but not simultaneously.

Only one device can transmit at a time; the other must wait to receive.

Analogy: One-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions.

Channel usage: Entire capacity is used by the transmitting device at a given time.

Example: Walkie-talkies.

3. Full-Duplex

Two-way communication simultaneously.

Signals share the link’s capacity in either of two ways:

Two separate transmission paths for send/receive.

Channel capacity divided between both directions.

Example: Telephone network – both parties can talk and listen at the same time.

Used when continuous two-way communication is required

2.7 Internet Protocol (IP)

The principal communication protocol used in internetworking.

Governs the format and delivery of data over the internet and local networks.

Essential for modern networking and communication between devices.

2.7.1 IP Address
A unique identifier for a device on the internet or a local network.

Differentiates devices, routers, and websites.

Provides location information and enables communication between devices.

Versions:

IPv4 – 32-bit addresses, expressed in dotted decimal format: x.x.x.x (0–255).

Example: [Link]

IPv6 – Designed to replace IPv4 to support more devices.

2.7.2 Classes of IP Address

Standardized in the 1980s to divide address space.

Classes: A, B, C, D, E

Determined by the value of the first octet.

Each class has a specific range of valid addresses.

Helps in routing and organizing networks efficiently.

IP Address Classes

IPv4 addresses were historically divided into five classes (A–E) based on
network size.

Classes A, B, and C are used for host addressing.

Class D is used for multicast.

Class E is reserved for experimental purposes.

Purpose of IP Classes

Designed to allocate IP addresses based on network size:

Class A → few networks, many hosts.

Class C → many networks, few hosts.

Class A

High-order bit: 0

Range: 0–127

Network portion: 1st octet

Host/subnet portion: octets 2, 3, 4

Network bits: 8

Class B

High-order bits: 10

Range: 128–191

Network portion: first 2 octets

Host/subnet portion: octets 3, 4

Network bits: 16

Class C

High-order bits: 110

Range: 192–223

Network portion: first 3 octets

Host/subnet portion: octet 4

Network bits: 24

Class D

High-order bits: 1110

Range: 224–239

Purpose: Multicast

Class E

High-order bits: 1111

Range: 240–255

Purpose: Experimental

Default Network Masks

Used to separate network and host portions:

Class A: [Link]

Class B: [Link]

Class C: [Link]