years has been ation over the past 30 nd to online bill a frie nas made our world preakthrough in technology and communic atand advancement of computer network. From emailing Gwntoading data from the internet to e-commerce, networking ‘and forever changed the way we communicate asy and comfortable be it sending an paring audio des features which have made our life ing money from the ATM, online railway or airline reservation [Apart from these, the most extensively-used feature is the to get a printout from a printer attached to some other computer Tis the network that connects various computers to each other and handles ors Print command sent All this ‘of network in our everyday life: computers: banks and hospital networks6.2 COMPUTER NETWORK—AN OVERVIEW r c ication/trans her for reliable commun ces connected to each ot! , Be covet taser n consist of a computer, a fax machine, a printer Br etaeatn of Interconnected computers Is A CAMers ‘alled a Computer Net Work. ‘1, ty are capable of sharing and oye, interconnected if they are cap. ac changing | ae “a very 8 protocol (set of rules). The network size yi if Rua ean, on the number of computers It connects. A compute, Networ, ett, Pseia tits called naides) suchas, desktop, laptop and cetty,, Phong in Wye eres networking devices like switch, router, mous computers, devices are used to connect multiple computers in different settings A computer netw ac -d cor CTM: A computer network is a collection of Interconnectes resources (hardware and software). IMPuters and other deyicy. §.2.1 Advantages of Computer Networks: wa | me, UserPC User PC: a Fig. 5.2: Network Diagram essential. Are there worked — User PC Letus now discuss why networks are ‘over stand-alone machines? Yes, neti any advanta, ges of networked con, A networ! at v users and, hence, the printe: ard disk, DVD drive, scanne sharing database, audio Printers and scanners, etc, etc, can also be video files, antivi Shared on a computer net rus software, twork. For example, application software, Informatics Practices with Python-xi1communication: A computer ne } it caves time and offen ner bes fst, reliable and secure communication Mees ct ctcinenen oan communication methods. For example, 1) ap Be any change made by one ae to prepare financial reports. While working er ‘ sacar Bl arts Thus, anetworkallows managers toch oe a a incre Ts to easily update a ‘This increases ency and allows them to complete their work as Information: ommunication Cost: Sharing resources also reduces communication cost. USIE e ied a ee. a large quantity of data at a low cost, Internet and mobile y of Data: Reliability means backing up of data, ie, data can be copied and multiple computers. In a network system, all computers are connected to each 5, the information or message which is shared by each device is stored on their ive workstations (computers), If due to some reason (hardware crash, etc.) the data rupted and, thus, becomes unavailable on one computer, a copy of the same data | ssed from another workstation for future use. This leads to smooth functioning 1 processing without disruption, storage of Data: Files can be stored on a central node (the file server) in a network in. With s, there gan be shared and made available to each and every user in an organizatio Jized processing, data is stored and retrieved from a single central location. Thu: ost of set-up and maintenance: It is difficult to set up a large network as the systems ork are sophisticated and complex to run, Even cabling and equipment may cost 2 ition to this, maintenance cost may also be very high for large networks. data security: Unauthorized access to steal or corrupt data, computer viruses, id not evolve in a single day; rather, it took decades to become more powerful, able, The network has passed through several stages which are described below: (Advanced Research Project Agency Network): ARPANET, which was jointly nd named by the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) and US Department e (DoD), was the first network and came into existence in 1969. It was a project that andful of computers at different universities and US DoD for sharing data and d playing long-distance games, and socializing with people to share their views. onal Science Foundation Network): In the mid-80's, another federal agency, da new network which was more efficient than ARPANET. Its main aim was to for academic research and not for any private business activity. Later, many combined their own private networks with ARPANET and NSFNET to make nd broader network—the internet. It is the internet that links two or moreof internet + Internet: In the 1990's, internet, which is a network of networks, came into exist Sptemet has evlveffom ARPANET. The computes are connected through gn wie ‘that comprises a large network and shares a common communication Protocol (Ty, Control Protocol/Internet Protocol—TCP/IP). It allows computers of differen, ™ 2 information and is known as internet. Millions of domestic, business ‘ are connected to each other for the purpose of sharing flee mputers are not connected directly to the internet. Instead, ti Which are further connected to a backbone network and gov... data, email, «5 they are con, through gate,,.. ce: Interspace is an application environment or software program that allow: 1 a client-server environment to communicate with each other by sendin; lous types such as data files, video, audio and textual data in a 31 * online real-time exchange of data. Interspace is the most ad ion available on the internet today. le B aN rece D environ vanced term , things about the internet is that nobody really owns it. Itis a global collect, on oth big and small. These networks connect together in many different way. that we know as internet. In fact, the very name comes from this ide, ., ing in 1969, the internet has grown from four host computer systems to tens of er, just because nobody owns the internet does not mean that it is not monitore, d in different ways. The Internet Society, a non-profit group established in 1992Google © Google Search Tm Feeling Luck fot ae Fig. 5.4(a): Working of internet Bort WI pid gredl eey = ervers, the basic underlying structure of the internet, e.g., domain name ser pout or connects P d backbones, we first need to understand how our computer co” points am ‘ our that is connected to the internet is part of a network, even the one eee we may use a modem and dial a local number to connect to an Inte : twork (LAN), bu with. le, Mer ISP). At work, a computer may be part of a Local Area Ne jl connects to the internet using an ISP that the company has contracted ae ; ISP, it becomes part of their network. The ISP may then connect 10 rt of that network. The internet is simply a network of networ’ 5 connecting various local nication companies have their own dedicated backbone: the company has a Point of Presence (POP). The POP is a place for edicated line. veral h region. the company's network, often through a local phone number or d Ing here is that there is no overall controlling network. Instead, there are Se ‘rks connecting to each other through Network Access Points or NAPs: Backbone Conventional Phone, Digital Subscriber or ‘Cable Modem Line Wome Business Fig. 5.4(b): POP and NAP ice which is essential to be placed in any network is Gateway, a device that networks. A backbone is a central interconnecting structure that connects just like the trunk of a tree. — Computer Networks 2At the source computer, the message to be sent is broken down into sma Bach packet is given a serial number, eg, 1, 2, 3. All these packets 3,,, Somputer, The destination computer receives the packets in random org, Teceived before first packet). The packets are reassembled in the o; ‘message is restored. all parts Se ‘ (tenth, ° de Fder of «0 P How it functions smoothly: Every computer connected to the interne Fules for communication. A set of rules/regulations is called protocol Communic, © Used by internet is TCP/IP, The TCP part is responsible for dividing the Message the source computer and reassembling them at the destination compute, The 1p?! for handling the address of the destination computer so that the packet i is sen, “°, destination. 5. t uses t t -4.1 Elementary Terminology of Networks 1. Nodes (Workstations): The term node refers to computers that are attached and are seeking to share resources, e.g., PC, Laptop, etc. In a communication, ne device that is part of a network and can receive, Greate, store or send day, Retwork routes is called a node. In the context of data communication, aig anode | device such as a modem, hub, bridge, switch, router, Aigital telephone hang computer or a server, 2. Server: A server refers toa computer that facilitates sharing of data, resources on the network. Servers tend to have more m than a normal workstation. 3. Network Interface Unit establishing communicati adapter, LAN adapter, Software an, dha lemory, processing power d st, (NIU): A network interface unit is an inte ‘on between the server and the client. It is network interface controller or Network Interfa preter thay also calleg ,..! ce Card (Nic) ‘ontrol) add; ally written in any one of th, MM-MM-MM-SS-ss-ss ‘The first-half of MAC address co: second-half represents the seri For example, tains the ID number of the adapter manufacture ial number assigned to the adapter by the manuf 00: AO: co: 18: cS ; 3g Manufacturer ID ID Number IP Address: Every machine on a TCP/IP network h as a unique identifying number calle, IP Address. It helps in uniquely identifying a cor mputer on the network, This addres mat, It is generally expresse each number in the set is from 0 to 255 ran, im [Link] to [Link], eg,59.177 134.7 8 Pomain Name; It is a way to identify and locate the computers connected to the internet, i _ ‘Must be unique. d in a set numbers, for example, [Link]. Here, ‘Or we can say thata full IP address ranges fro EES Eers and other e NETWORKS ork may be small or big dependi ding upon the together. Th number of compute Hinked together. Thus, networks vary in size, complexity and padi << can logically be divided into two types plexity and geographical sP ke Oe (b) Peer-to-Peer Network ations are etwork: In Cl Sen i n Client-Server network, multiple clients or workst ations ast one central server, A ser er. A server is a powerful computer with all applica ce from another ver. gto at le: installed in it and a client is a computer which seeks any resour “when a client needs access to a these resource: ¥ Mis used for larger networks. sources, they access them from the s¢ Network: In a peer-to-pee Peed functions, Re tesriece network, all nodes in the network have equivalent together for Bhsving ices a server: In this network, all workstations aF© ' es, information or data. This net >| for small Syhere dedicated servers are not required a. This network is ideal for S work can be on a tal a ble, in a room, building, city, country, across continents OF orld, On the basis of geographical spread, networks may be classified as: Network (LAN) tan Area Network (MAN) and other 1 wireless s and sen, communication between a computer Bluetooth or Infrared ai 10 metres, using wired USB connectivity © ed devices to FS ster a are used to connect computers, laptops, mobile: Bernolozy implements Including emails, digital photos, audios, videos, ©t©- ints PAN. PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and oth-enabled h : : eadphones, wireless printers and TV remotes. People often connect5.5.2 Local Area Network (LAN) VAN is @ privately-owned computer network covering a small geographical arg a fea) like a home, office or a building such as a school. It can cover an are, . Metres (usually 100 metres) to a radius of a few kilometres. The cone, of wires, Ethernet cables, fibre optics or Wi-Fi. The geographical are. Fange from a single room, a floor, an office having one or more buildings in fiesg,*! laboratory, school, college or a university campus. ame py, Occasionally, a LAN can span.a group of nearby buildings. In addition to oper ALAN is owned, controlled and managed by a single person or organization, Lan Secure as only authentic users in the network can access other computers or tee ALAN canbe setup using wired media (UTP cables, coaxial cables, etc) or wireless nee Radio waves). Ha (Ing ating in ating Ifa LAN is set up using unguided media, it is known as WLAN (wireless LAN ‘fa LAN is to share resources. LAN users can share data, programs, printer, ). The key disk, moden LAN in Campus Fig. 5.6: Local Area Network (LAN) 2 Data transfer rate speed over a Local Area Network can vary from 10 Mbps (called Ethe;, to 1 Gbps (called Gigabit Ethernet measured as Gigabits per second) whereas Mbps stancis j,, ‘Megabits per second. Ethernet is a set of rules that decides how computers and other devices connect with each othe through cables in a local area network (LAN). 5.5.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) ‘MAN is larger than a LAN and can cover a city and its surrounding areas. A MAN uswall interconnects a number of LANs and individual computers. It also shares computing resource, among users. MAN is an extended form of LAN and covers a larger geographical area like a city ‘or a town. Data transfer rate in MAN also ranges in Mbps but it is considerably less as compared! ‘to a LAN. All types of communication media (guided and unguided) are used to set up a MAN _ MAN is typically owned and operated by a single entity such as a government body or a large rpo n. A good example of MAN is the interconnected offices of a Multinational Corporation able television networks available in the whole city. This kind of network can beFig. 5.7: Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) ‘Network (WAN) slecommunication network. This type of network spread! ‘es and continents. WANs are generally used to inter quch as LANs, MANs, etc. They facilitate fast and efficient exchange .d low cost. A WAN uses common carriers like satellite systems, tel graphical are types of ation at es, etc. s over a large geo connect several other of inform: Jephone lin e largest WAN that connects billions of computers, smartphones, and millions different continents. WAN can cover an area with a radius spanning hundreds of 4 network of ATMs, banks, government offices, international organizations’ offices, over a country, continent or covering many continents are some examples of WAN. ‘wide Area Network (WAN) Metropolitan ‘rea Network junication media (guided and unguided) are used to set up a WAN. The best-known AN is the internet. The internet is the largest WAN spanning the entire planet. Computer Networks‘The following table summarizes the characteristics of PAN, LAN, MAN ang a Smollarea(upte A building or campus Acity (up to a ; 10m radius) (up to 100m) 50-60 km radius) Networking cost Negligible Inexpensive Expensive : “Transmission speed High speed High speed Moderate speeq lan p Bror rate Lowest Lowest Moderate Highs’ eed Network devices WLAN, USB. LANAWLAN, Hub/Switch, Router, Gateway —p,, : used Dongle Repeater, Modem Er, Gate, ‘Technology/media Infrared, Ethemet, Wi-Fi Optical fibre, Radio tic, used Bluetooth wave, Microwave way Comparing LAN and WAN AS we have seen, computer networks can be classified as LAN, MAN and WAN on the eographical domains. A WAN extends over a large geographical area, such as states ALAN is confined to relatively smaller areas, such as an office, a building, ete. MAN y." an entire city. It uses the LAN technology. The most common example of MAN is the cab, network. The basic points of difference between LAN and WAN are as follows 1. The distance between the nodes ina LAN connection is limited toa specific range, limit is approximately 10 km and the lower limit is one metre. On the other hang, Spread across thousands of kilometres in different countries or regions ee 2 LANs operate between speeds of 1 mega bit per second (Mbps) and 10 Mbps wh), , ‘operate at a speed of less than 1 Mbps. To achieve speed of several hundred 1), advisable to use the optical fibre technology. s 3. The error rate in LANs is lower than that in WANs because of the short distances invo| LANs. The error rate in LANs is approximately one thousand times less than that », "As LANs are limited by distance, an entire LAN is usually under the control of a single Such as an organization. On the other hand, WANs are usually operated and contro." multiple organizations. : ‘Thus, we can say that in comparison to WANs, LANs cover a limited area but they operat, “high speed and low error rates. | and WAN are the two primary and best-known categories of area networks; others jay, technological advances, Modem: A MODEM (Modulator Demodulator) is an electronic device that enables a compute "to transmit data over telephone lines. It is a device used to convert digital signals into analo, g _ Signals and vice versa. There are two types of modems, namely internal modem and externa| lem. We know computers store and process data in terms of Os and 1s. However. to transmit data from a sender to a receiver, or while browsing the internet, digital data is ‘converted to an analog signal and the medium (be it free-space or a physical media) carries the signal to the receiver. There are modems connected to both the source and destination nodes. The modem at the sender's end acts as a Modulator that converts the digital data into analog signals while the modem at the receiver's end acts as a Demodulator that converts the analog signals into digital data for the destination node to understand.Modulation onsen Demoduiavon LH Soe by eames ha Modem Fig. 5.9(a): Working of Modem ys connector: RJ-45 is a standard type of connector for network % 1c RJ-45 (Registered Jack) connectors are the plug-in my. cables: TH i devices used im networking and telecommunications applications. are used primarily for connecting LANs, particularly we Enernet Y gig. 5.9(b): RI-45 Connect poe” , yp is a short term for Registered Jack-45, It is an eight-wire connector used to connect computers e lly Ethernets. “LANs, especie Card: Itisa hardware device that helps in the connection of ot thernet i . nodes within a network. Ethernet card is also known as a network card, network adapter or NIC (network interface card). It is a card i that allows computers to communicate over a computer network. x fon Ethernet card, a physical address of each communicating fomputer is mentioned. Physical address is known as MAC address, (ghich helps in uniquely identifying an adapter on a LAN. a multi-port and unintelligent network device which simply transfe f the network to another. A hub is a hardware device used to conne computers together with different ports. When the data packet reaches one port, itis anit to all other ports of the hub without changing the destination address. In other words, i Simply copies the data and broadcasts it to all of the nodes connected to the hub. ubs can be either active or passive, Hubs can usually support 8, 12 or 24 RJ-45 ports. ard, Fig. 5.9(¢): Ethernet C data from ct several 4, Hub: Itis one port o Fig. 5.9(d): Hub However, the problem with the hub is that it is not an intelligent device. It shares bandwidth with all the attached devices and broadcasts data, i.e,, sends the data packets to all the connected nodes as it does not remember devices/computers connected to it, Also, it cannot ™ filter the data and causes unnecessary traffic jams. Ahub can both send as well as receive information but does only one task at a time. However, hub is an inexpensive way to connect multiple nodes/devices to a network. [mn isaaev ce used to connect several computers in a network. Computer Networks — a>hich is useq device wi intelligen ei ackets 0 sentry rk. It filters: a network tas ina is intended aci kets received fr mee ind so the data pacl network. The mai an i ei a ae ives ON one port o; © all th. rt ol 56) r d to the iis what i. of the devices attached, lenercors lg ers or corrupted. It drops suey, S which are noi the signals 10 inter, nly to on. & MUlti-pors 4 Port of ne, data link lay well as on) i : eae Sea iicdne layer (lq mee jents rk seg -netwo A Yer 2 folloy, Signa nly to hat te Segments t Wyscpara ites the sr ae bridge, tneibe ae h at ‘the destin: several Pe internet, s twor rks. ssimilar net dissimaadevice which establishes an inte, , cllige tworks wil "nt conne, Inet with completely different sconection between a local area network ctures, On of data rec, the intern, rovides necessary translati cognized by devices within Sived from network into a format or ‘al network. Web Server ee that operates only on the physical layer of the OSI model. a rd restores signee ne core attenuation of the signal a repeater is used which and restores signals for long-distance transmission. A repeater is an electronic t receives a signal before it becomes too weak and regenerates the original signal. tis a two-port network device that strengthens the signal intensity and connects two cal networks. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required runs longer than 70 metres. A repeater does not change the functionality of the instead, it makes the signal strong before it degrades. Regenerated Signal Repeater No signal ‘through the hill ‘Communication only possible by bouncing the signal through the repeaterENDING A NETWORK sina. INNECTION AND A SECOND py, OUTER es ss to connect a local area network to the internet ¢ ch, a router has advanced capabilities as it can analyze 4, network, decide or alter how it is packaged, ang rs Premroreeraie| data ha: e to be carrie abkets Inisuchialcase, t Package, yetwork by a r¢ a8 sma P computers is ss card slots on Fi9.5.4):yare five types of topologies and each topology has some advantages and Types of Topologies y y ri y StarTopology Bus Topology Ring Topology Tree Topology Fig. 5.10: Classification of Network Topologies ogy, each computer is connected with pI mputer. There is a point-to-point link igs | Gaedicated node (workstation). In this type qe) ‘the link carries traffic only between the two ices. A fully connected mesh network has \ , where n is the total number of connecting Fig. 5.11: Mesh Topology i i ‘hus municating device carries its own data through its own dedicated link, t ing traffic problems. pology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not affect the entire system point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy. Traffic can be routed to with suspected problems. This facility enables the network manager to discoverinicating device is connected to called hub or switch. (A hub or switch ‘used to connect several computers ology, the devices in star topology -ctly; the data passes to and from the d to be sent from one computer and omputer, then this can be accomplished mntroller as each data is first sent to the Compy Fig. 5.12: star ly used LAN technology, Ethernet, currently o Polog erates in sea.” a broadcasting device (hub), which means data ora unicast device (switch), which means the n, to that node only. ary, Poly Will be "og lode emi 2M idengig ted vy th % as compared to mesh topology which, thus, Teduces the % hn Umbe, er of nance of network is easy and takes less time. ts in this network as all computers are dependent : ont jeans that any problem which makes the network ....° “ Non-fun, Ona ris fast as all the data packets or messages are transferred ice. hrough nected to each other, any problem in one node does not ham “nodes in the network. Per the ny node in star topology can take place easily without affec ting network. pee tallation of central controller known as switch/hy\, spendent on central networking device. Thus, an lown the entire network. fire network is directly dependent on the performance of the er is slow, it will cause the entire network to slow down, 9By as compared to any other topology (ring, bus, tree) entral networking device. Y Problem ral devices are connected to a main long ne. Nodes are connected by drop lines and end of the cable to the other. the signal reaches the end,« the signal travels a long distance, it becomes weaker and weaker: Server ~ ‘Terminator Terminator Fig. 5.13: Bus Topology tis a common _ there should be a limited number of nodes connected to a line. Etherne| ‘bus topology: of Bus Topology scan be connected oF removed easily from bus network. squires less cable length than a star topology. kis easy to implement and can be extended up to a certain limit. is networ well for small networks. is a fault or break in the main cable, the entire network shuts down. are required at both ends of the backbone cable. lation is difficult to detect if the entire network shuts down. ‘network is required in more than one building, bus network cannot be used. becomes weaker if number of nodes increases. nce degradation occurs with increased number of nodes. ita can take place as several nodes can transmit data to each other at one time. FTcible which Ie connected to several workstations through taps. Collision of data geese ounter-ockwise the intermediate node regenerates signal to the destined node.in ring topology as the data is p. ‘the entire network. ‘one direction only and, hence, the transmission y, ‘ate of network nodes is easy as the process Tequires ch, assed between, en ty inne it easy to identify faults in network nodes, ‘each node transmits data to its next node ina ring. ‘cheaper as compared to star topology. ina single node, it can cause the entire network to fail, ‘or changes made to network nodes affect the entire network's ‘speed becomes slower with an increase in the number of nodes, Mee eet or break in a cable to which all other nodes are con; Petfory, nected, th. ected with the predecessor node as well a 5 with tted only in one direction, th Beis +O ‘Secondary hub Secondary, hub Fig. 5.15: Tree Topology eee departments of a university or corporation, where tions separately, and is also connected with the main noeBe aici se, as multiple segments are connect pes failure affects the ontire netw. to a central bu: network the network “ maintenance of the network may } ay be an issue whe a yftte BacKDone fails, the entire netwn hen the network spans a ork gets crippled i @ Though itis scalable, the number of nodes h ibe central bus and on the cable type that can be added depends on th ee Pein each node is con nected to the esas the central hub, connecting all oth the central node through a single path, The ro er nodes pot node a and maintaining Connectivity throughout the net ae se decision to select a particular topology for a net ropoloky erin the type of media and access mae he not take place in isolation as the ethods that would be use. qerefore, before selecting a topology several factors « hat would be used on the network follows: are taken into consideration, which are a > Cost: eerie the network should be cost-effective. For this, it d minim age costs This Gan be done by selecting an economical trenemission medium (that is, wires) for data exchan selecting an economical transmissio Z ge between the nel Ganalso be minimized by reducing theme eee the Network nodes. The network cost 0 : ‘ances between the nodes } Flexibility: Flexibility signifies that the network must be flexible enough, ie,, it should be to reconfigure. Reconfigi ne gh, i.e,, it should be easy config figuring a network means to rearrange the existing nodes or add new ‘ones to the network. isting add nev > Reliabili : elt Ser to the degree of trust that can be placed on a network. Like any other system, a network can also encounter failure. A network failure can occur due to the following causes: | 1, When an individual node stops working 2. When the entire network fails. This is caused by a more serious fault that stops the working of an individual node. 5.8 INTRODUCTION TO INTERNET AND WEB SERVICES Internet is described as a network of networks, an example of Wide Area Network (WAN). With the advent of internet, ithas become possible to access almost any information, communicate with anyone across the world, and carry out several internet-based tasks. Internet today is a widespread network and its influence is no longer limited to technical fields of computer communications. It is being used by everyone in society as is evident from the increasing use of online tools for education, creativity, entertainment, socialization and e-commerce. ‘All these tasks can be executed by connecting a computer to the internet, which is also called going online. Internet offers several important and extensively used features or services which are as under: 5.8.1 WWW (World Wide Web)/Web People usually think that the internet and the World Wide Web (WWW) are same entities. However, they are closely linked but quite different in their overall working and concept. Internet is a huge network of computers all connected together. The World Wide Web (www' or ‘web’ for short) is a collection of web pages found on this network of computers. Our web browser uses the internet to access the web. PN EE EEE Computer Networks ~~}The World Wide Web is a way of exchanging information between computers ON the through a huge collection of multimedia documents and elements. World Wide Web by Timothy Berners Lee in 1989 at CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Rese Geneva. World Wide Web came into existence as a proposal by Lee to allow researche,. 1" together effectively and efficiently at CERN. °. WWW/Web is an information service that can be used for sending and receiving inj, Over the internet through interlinked hypertext documents. Web pages may contain tayy videos and other multimedia components as well as web navigation features con, hyperlinks. The documents are formatted in a markup language called HTML (Hyper exe Language) that provides links to other documents as well as graphics, audio and video fy, World Wide Web is based on client-server architecture where a client sends a requess , Server processes that request and sends responses. A WWW client is called a web broy cn & WWW server is called a web server. 4 CTM: WWW is a set of programs and protocols that allows the user to create and display Multimedia Pages and is linked to the internet. 5.8.2 Domain Names To communicate over the internet, we can use IP addresses. But it is not possi, Femember the 1P address of a particular website or computer every time as it consist. series of numbers. Domain Name System makes it easier to resolve IP addresses into n for example, [Link], [Link], [Link], etc. It is the system which assigns , " to some computers (web servers) and maintains a database of these names and correspon, IP addresses, Domain names are used in URLs to identify particular web servers, for exam. the URL [Link] the domain name is [Link] A domain name consists of the following parts. 1. Top-level domain name or primary domain name; and 2. Sub-domain name(s). For example, In the domain name [Link]: in is the primary domain name nic is the sub-domain of in cbse is the sub-domain of nic The top-level domains are categorized into the following domain names: Generic Domain Names .com ~ Commercial business edu - Educational institutions gov - Government agencies mil - Military snet — Network organizations .org ~ Organizations (non-profit) Informatics Practices with Python-XIlnited States of America for Uniform Resource Locator that helps in locating a particular website or a weD fc , example, http//[Link]/academicsintml is a URL for a specific website. ) utp’ stands for hypertext transfer protocol and ‘[Link]’ indicates the or the domain name where the source is located. ‘[Link]’ specifies the name fied html document on the website of CBSE, i email (Electronic mail) electronic mail, e-mail or email is an information stored on a computer that i exchanged ople over @ network. It is a fast and efficient way to communicate with multiple useF® time and is the cheapest and fastest method to send files that may contain text, and other information across the network. The basic purpose of using email is to send e messages. It also allows a user to save messages in a file for future retrieval, Print s, reply and attach a file along with the mail message to be sent from the sender to - Salient features of email are: yard and redirection of messages. send copies of a message to many people. age headers contain information about the sender and recipients. Generally, following information: description of the topic of the message. : This is the sender's email address. jived (On): The date and time an email was sent is usually included of the recipient. is the receiver's email address, Computer Networks —_~Ge and Bee options ¢ Ce and Bee: When sending a message to multiple recipients, Ge stands for Garton copy and Bec stands for Blind carbon copy. It allows all recipic,, the email addresses of everyone the message was sent to but the email addresses of Specified in Bee (Blind carbon copy) field do not appear in the received message Body: The body of a message contains text that is the actual content automatically generated tox, The body of the message may also include signatures or inserted by the sender's email system. s of files that are attached to the message. The attachment ¢,,), Attachment: It cons document, a picture or any other file type. Email address: An email address is a unique identifier for an email account. It is useq sending and receiving email messages. Every email address has two main parts—a user, domain name. The username comes before ‘@’ and domain name comes after it. In the ; given below, ‘abc’ is the username and ‘[Link]’ is the domain name: abc@[Link] Protocols Used in Email {a) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) As the name suggests, SMTP is used for sending email messages to other netyo, computers. It handles only outgoing messages and not incoming messages. SMTP ¢q, create messages; rather, it helps in forwarding messages between client servers. It, to send messages to another host. For receiving messages, another protocol—pop Office Protocol) is used. Thus, email clients require addresses of both SMTP sory, another server that processes incoming messages (usually POP or IMAP). SMTP ys... port number 25 for standard communication. () IMAP (Internet Mail Access Protocol) IMAP is used for accessing and storing emails from a mail server over a TCP/IP conn: {c) POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) POP3 (Post Office Protocol 3) isa simple and standard method to access mailbox and dow messages to local computers. The user can receive messages with the help of POP prot The advantage is that once the messages are downloaded, an internet connection longer needed to read the mail. A user can read all emails offline as these are saved computer's hard disk. Like the SMTP protocol, the POP protocol (POP2 and POP3) sends text commands to the po; server. There are two main versions of this protocol—POP2 and POP3—to which p: 409 and 110 respectively are allocated and which operate using radically different commands. To get a mail from the POP server, a user must enter a valid username an password for their email account. POP3 protocol thus manages authentication using the username and password; however, it is not secure because the passwords, like the email circulate in plain text over the network. POP3 protocol blocks inbox during its access which ‘means that simultaneous access to the same inbox by two users is impossible. 5 Chat chatting is another method of internet conversation. It enables people connect from anywhere or live discussions. Chat sessions allow many users to join in the same free-form conversation, 1 Informatics Practices with Python-XIldon a discussion topic. The examples of ¢ ; Google {internet Relay Chat), Pidgin, et Ples of chatting software are Telegram, asi c1 * , vlna mist speed, it ts now possible to send mages, documents, audios stant messenge le to send images, documents, , SE oor Bal ere s. It means communicating parties can talk to each other an au She reOver: Its also possible to chat through text, audio and group. THUS, we can have group chats or group c alls, ions such as WhatSADD, Slack, Sky Pe, Google Chat, Facebook Messenger, etc. are examples it messengers. Some of these applicatio Facebook Messenger, partes 1, audio and video. Protocols used NS support instant messaging throug! Nee Estensi ‘ Sed in Chat applica = IRC (Internet Relay oor (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol}. are IRC ( . vol? {Voice over Internet Protocol)—Protocol for Audio BH over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a technology that allows us to make voice calls using 2 oi nd intermet connection instead of a regular (or analog) phone pron jee into a digital signal that travels over the internet, If we are calling a regular P' G0 per the signal is converted to a regular telephone signal before it reaches the destination: ume allow us to make a call directly from a computer or a spe IP phone. In addition, pcan ee iccstion nputer or a special VoIP PI ae Fee oe eae ta auch 28 airports, parks and cafes allow us to connect to eet and may enable us to use VoIP service wirelessly, int ne. VoIP services convert hone tages of VoIP Less cost ‘accessibility plexibility etter voice quality pxtra/Less expensive features tack of Redundancy @ o) o @ © @ ~pisadvantages of VoIP @ Reliable internet connection required Power outages/Emergencies guatency ack of Redundancy ion examples of VoIP apps are Nextiva, Aircall, Skype, WhatsApp, Google Meet, Viber, soft Teams and Facebook Messenger. isa collection of various web pages, images, videos, audios or other kinds of digital assets hosted on one or several web servers. The first page of a website is known as home page the links related to other documents are displayed. The web pages of a website are sing HTML and the information is transferred over the internet through HTTP or HTTPS Computer Networks ~ 2Ee ~ 5.8.8 Web Page A web page is an electronic document/page designed using HTML. It displays informatio, rr OF graphical form. Traversal from one web page to another web page is possible through), | '°%! YPer The first page of a website is called home page. It generally contains information ang ,, el the related web pages. ach web page has a unique address that is visible on the aqq,,.!° a Hence, if we want to view a particular web page, its address has to be typed in the agg, Of the browser. The web pages that are linked to form a website share a unique domain,» bs For example, [Link] is a platform for supporting open data initiative Government of India. This portal is a single-point access to datasets, documents, seryicg.) and applications published by the ministries, departments and organizations of the Go... ‘°" of India. It is a collection of multiple web pages that are linked to the website a for diffe," Giffen, commercial and non-commercial purposes. ’ A web page can be classified into two types: > Static web page: A web page which displays same kind of information whenever a uso, itis known asa static web page. A static web page generally has .htm or html as e+, > Dynamic web page: An interactive web page is a dynamic web page. A dynamic ,, uses scripting languages to display changing content on the web page. Such a page has .php, .asp, or .jsp as extension. 5.8.9 Web Server A web server is a server that stores web pages and when a web client sends any request server, the server responds to the request and displays the requested web page. A web « is a program that runs on a computer connected to the internet, Web server waits for a re, finds the documents and generates information, if required, and sends it back to the brows: Tequested for it. A single web server may support multiple websites, or a single website m hosted on several linked or mirrored web servers. 0 the Sends request Sends response Fig. 5.16: Sending and Receiving Request Some popular web servers are Apache, Netscape, Internet Information Services, ete | server stores web documents and responds to the requests made by web browsers. 5.8.10 Web Hosting Web hosting is a service which is provided by companies to their clients to allow them to construct their own websites which are accessible to the internet users via World Wide Web. Such companies are known as web hosts. These companies provide space on a web server they own for use by __ their clients as well as provide internet connectivity. The websites which are constructed display "information for their organization in the form of web pages. The host may also provide an interface or control panel for managing the web server so as to add news and events related to their organization for uploading some information which may be valuable for the internet users. A client can also control panel for installing scripts as well as other modules and service applications like email Informatics Practices with Python—X!! —sssssssssite [Link] is one of the toy domai companies on ne only hosting company win na NAME registration and web hosting companie e hich provides support in regional languages. 10 fr nt a website, follow the steps given below: the web hosting service prov A yell as Be rclogies and corre er that wil provide the web server space as well 25 Bre ce rologies such as database, ba ackup, firewal Binal service, ete. This has to be dons se eancicth data bacloP be done keep! atures and services that we want Co offer through our website. PIE mine oe ies gentify a domain name, which best suits ee main name Registrar. ce we get web space, create logins with a web space. your requirement, and get it registered through a ss to manage upload the files in properly organized folders on the allocated space. {get domain name mapped to the IP address of the web server. pPropriate rights and note down IP addre e pomain Name System (DNS) is a service that does the mapping between domain name and me gress When the address of a website is entered in a browser, the DNS finds out the ' address of the server corresponding to the requested domain name and sends a request co) hat server ‘cam: Web hosting is 2 Service that is provided by a company to its users to create web-based applications: 5.9 WEB BROWSER ris a software application that helps in accessing web pages and, thus, is also called web client. phelps the user to navigate through the World Wide Web and display web pages. Some popular web browsers are Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Brave, Webkit, Microsoft Edge, Google Chrome, Vivaldi, etc. web browser is a WWW client that navigates through the WWW and displays web pages. ‘the primary function of a web browser is to render HTML code (the code used to design or émarkup” web pages). Each time a web browser loads a web page received from web server, itprocesses the HTML code, which may include text, links and references to images and other items, such as cascading style sheets and JavaScript functions. The browser processes these items, then renders them in the browser window. ‘The major functions carried out by a web browser are: > Send and receive internet resources ess web pages, render and display them Select and save our favourite pages Computer Networks sma5.8.1 Commonty-used Web Browsers Some of the most popularly used web browsers are explained in brief below: Google Chrome Google Inc. has developed Google Chrome. It is a free source on different operating systems like Microsoft Windows, macos Linux, Android and {0S. It was launched in 2008 and since then hy. most popular web browser across the world. Google Chrome is very «1 application performance and JavaScript processing speeds. It allows ua" local desktop shorteuts which opens the desired web page quickly ant i 4 applic Mozilla Firefox This web browser is a free and open-source application developed by ne NV Corporation and the Mozilla Foundation in 2004. It works on Microsoft w, macOS and Linux operating systems. Firefox features a pop-up blocle Wi" 5 anti-p and anti-malware warnings. Ni Phish, Apple Safari This Web browser is a free and partially closed source, developed by 4 Te works on mae0s, 10S and iPad operating systems. It was launched yet works on webkit to render graphics and run JavaScript, Safari is faster and, energy-efficient than other browsers. and mor Edge Microsoft Microsoft Edge is a proprietary, cross-platform web browser created by Micr, tt vas first released In 2015 for Windows. it was created as the sven" Internet Explorer (IE). It is now the default browser for all Windows 19 a. devices. Edge includes integration with Cortana and has extensions hosted o : is mae Opera Microsoft Store. Edge is easier to navigate and provides more control for its us, Opera is a web browser developed by Opera Software. Launched in 1995, i compatible mainly with Microsoft Windows and macOS operating systems, sit, eh It also works on older versions, It provides integrated ad blocker and sider” extension for multitasking, Itis known for its speed, security features and innovat,. web technologies. We will now discuss how to manage web browser settings. Google Chrome Browser Settings: 1. No More Notification Requests ~ chrome://settings/content/notifications 2(Get Around Ad Blocker Blocking - chrome://settings/content/javascript 3. Font and Sizing ~ chrome://settings/fonts 4. Review Passwords - chrome://settings/passwords 5. Customize Startup Pages - chrome://settings/onStartup 6. Send a Do Not Track Request ~ chrome://settings/privacy 7. Set Flash to Ask First - chrome://settings/content Informatics Practices with Python-XIIwl and camera Access - chrome://settings/content ic & -synohronization and Google Services - chrome://settings/syncSetup prs B chrome to Default Settings «tind F pot yas been uninstalled or gets corrupted and needs to be reset, then the following simple Mo be followed: their original oaila Firefox Browser Settings a 2 EB 4. pesetting Mozilla Firefox to Default Settings: Homepage, Font and Color, Downloads ~ //option/general search Bar and Search Engine ~ //option/search forms, Passwords, History, Cookies, Security - //option/privacy and security Firefox Account ~ //option/firefox account Click the menu icon, then click on "Help". Click on Firefox's main menu button, represe nt py three horizontal lines. | click “Troubleshooting Information’ Click on “Refresh Firefox". + Confirm. Click “Finish”. microsoft Edge Browser Settings: 4, Profiles, Privacy, Search and services, Appearance (font size) - //Settings and more/Settings options 2, Cookies and data stores, site permissions, Recent activity ~ //Settings and more/Settings option/Cookies and site permissions 4, Family safety - //Settings and more/Settings option/Activity reports, content filters 4, Share, copy and paste ~ //Settings and more/Settings option/URL copy & paste format default 5, Default Browser, Add-ons ~ //Settings and more/Settings option/Default browser 6, Phone and other devices // Settings and more/Settings option/Sign in to set up sync on your devices 7, Resetting Microsoft Edge to Default Settings - // Settings and more/Settings option/Reset settings .2 Add-on Extensions ‘Add-ons are tools which get integrated into our browser. They are similar to regular apps or programs but only run when the browser runs. Add-ons can allow the viewing of certain types of web content, such as Microsoft's Silverlight necessary for Netflix movies. Computer Networks ~~.How Add-ons are installed There are two key ways fo which add-ons can be installed—throuph, find through the browser's awn add-on service. The add-on service jc eh, Gf installing an add-on, with the browser service providing a relative yay,” etting Keneral safety of the add-on. Outside programs can also install add. Shae rocess. Microsoft Office, for e add-ons in web, Ne ‘of its separate installation pt s example, may place ‘speeds up the in-browser opening of Office documents Madd How to remove Add-ons Some add-ons, particularly the ones installed outside the browser an ‘Programs’ portion of the control panel. These can be removed in the sane ‘ ame way eee neg > MOWeVED can only be removed through me” manager. ‘5.9.3 Plug-ins Alun is a plece of software that acts as an add-on to a web browser and, ‘additional functionality. Plug-ins can allow a web browser, display additiongy «, Hot originally designed to display. An example ofa plugin is the po. Macromedi ‘a plug-in that allows the web browser to display animations using the Flash form, : ; Most plug-ins are available as free downloads, To in 4 i » To install the plug-in, we v Bie pligin's developer and click on a link that will downlocd ne fitler‘on tc, hhave created to organize all of our downloads. Once we have downloaded the inst fun/open it and follow the prompts to install the plug-in on our system. Difference between Add-ons and Plug-ins Plug-in is complete program whereas add-on is not a Program, For example, Flash, a plug bby Adobe, is required to play a video in fash player. Alsa Java isa plug-in made by Sun Micry. pees ete Programs based on java, Plug-ins are not bound to browse’, only. Flash ee geg computers to play flash files. Similarly Java can be installed to ra Javatiles Beets Hand, an add-on is not a complete program. It is used to add « part : stall an add-on on a different working environr e Sy WER operating system, we cannot do it. Thus, add-ons have a certain limit war, a applications only. 5.9.4 Cookies Cookies are small bits of data stored as text files on a browser. Websites use those small bi zi data to keep track of users and enable user-specific applications. What's in a Cookie Each cookie is effectively a small lookup table containing pairs of (key, data) values. Once the cookie has been read by the code on the server or client computer, the data can be retrieved and used to customize the web page appropriately. Informatics Practices with Python-XItP we want to have a counter for a webpage to acc po he user's computer. At first arte ood on tH PUter At first attempt, it will be 1 peso, the server will not allow to access that page ae re Cookies created wer, data t0 2 cookie Is usually done when a ni wat Ww web page is loade nde to create okies ay are cookies used BRR ikc aca) {formation from one session on a website to another gookiiween sessions on related websites, with ‘ al Ae petwe » without having to burden a server machine Beye arictnts of data storage, Storing data on the sere, wn a ak mas oblematic because it would be difficult to retrieve 5 partcattucers fatormation withc ring a logit On each visit to the website eee eae" ‘5 ww tong does a Cookie last Ho X ae time of expiry of a cookie can be set through us sing server site scripting language wher vie is created. By default, the cookie is hs meee iy ‘ cod destroyed when the current browser window is cl tit can be made to persist for an put arbitrary length of time after that pow secure are Cookies cookies are not a threat to privacy since they c an only be used to store information that t jas volunteered or that the web server already hes. ae er on our computer which stores and manage However viruses an also be disguised as cookies and cause harm to a computer. One c cookies by changing the Privacy ang Security Settings of the browser. 5.10 SETTING UP A COMPUTER NETWORK—AN EXAMPLE ‘The network tae is based on Client-Server architecture which requires ¢ efficient network design. It defines how clients are connected to server machine(s) « The most important rule or methodology f ‘or network (LAN) design is the 80:20 r The 80:20 Thumb Rule This thumb rule states that in a Well-organized and designed network 80 t traffic on a given network segment is local (ie, ceeeeeal fees asses a same workgroup) and not more than 20 per cent of the network tr: ff ea backbone, If the backbone in a network violates thi it congestion and traffic jams. a Keeping the above significant rule in mi iiiiein, ‘ind, let us take an example to understatThere is no need to put in any extra effort or incur expenses to link the school to its head of This can be taken care of using internet connection. 7 Tips to solve technical questions based on Networking Where Server should be placed: Server should be placed in the building where the number ot computers is maximum. Let us see how a computer network can be set up in the school sketch of the school with computers at various locations as follows St Of all, we = IComputer Lab 3 1._ Independent LANs can be set up in each of the following buildings: Compute, Lab2, Computer Lab3, Administrative Block and Accounts Office D1, 2 These LANs can be set up in STAR topology using UTP cable (economical, rej, available). 3. Forthis, one switch (with suitable number of ports) will be required in each oft, More than one switch can be used in computer labs if a switch with more ¢h,, not available. Two internet connections (broadband for high speed) can be procured in gn, Block. Two connections should be procured from two different ISPs so that: (a) Internet connection in Administrative Office can be kept separate from , Computer labs where students may do a lot of experimentation, (b) Ifone internet connection is not working, the other can be used in case of, 5. These buildings can then be connected as follows: Principals ‘Accounts Office Office This interconnection will ensure that each building is directly connected to the Admin Block. This way, an internet connection will be available in each building irrespective of tly. of the other building. 8. Server (if any) of the school may be placed in the Administrative Block so that it remaj (physically) and a firewall can be set up so that the whole network remains safe from kind of virus or intrusion attacks. 7 1. Suggesta suitable cable layout of connection: A suitable cable layout can be in the following ‘two ways: a) On the basis of server: First, the location ofthe server isto be decided, Server shouta "be placed in that building where the number of computers is maximum (according to & __ the 80:20 rule). After deciding the server position, each building distance is compared a with the server building directly or indirectly (taking other building(s) in between) ‘The shortest distance is counted, whether it is directly or indirectly calculated. ‘with Python-XIl, n the basis of distance from ¢. ) @) compared (0 I] other buildings, 4 calculated whether it is direct or are the following devices should be p + In the building ach building. either direct) through some The distance between each building oF indirect tanc The shortest di ‘Ome other building ced: wit h maximum number of computers Each building | In the server room | FItis use ter used if the dis pe dist Rep data and voice : When one ‘ances are higher than 70 m. It regenerates signals, . ; LAN is required to be connected to the other LAN. ‘ey A pest Layout Star (from Server), BUS topology ny pest cable # Twisted Pair, Ethernet Cable, Coaxial cable (when distance is 7 metres); Fibre-optic cable (for large distances) est connecting technique : In hilly regions, radio waves should be used and for city-to-city | B and state-to-state, satellite should be used. ¢ memory BYTES peret isa network of networks that spreads allover the word 7 gpanet was the fist internet folowed by NSFNET and other small networks 7 Fa ptewoy's sevice that connects dissimilar networks, i anasbone sa central interconnecting device that connects two or more computers tog rarer ernest computers pray oop hey ome of the services provided through the internet are information sharing, communication, 4, 7 al networking, ecommerce, etc. §) 5 sertootny uses central device where each computer indirect connects withthe other computer on the network. yp aset of rules 2 $ tcp protocols responsible for sequential arrangement of packets $i protocols responsible for addressing and routing packets on the internet > FP > TEINET is a remote login whei > HTTPis used for displaying wel fer is an application program that helps in opening web pages. data transfer, ind regulations that governs communication across the internet is called protocol. protocol is used to share files across networks. sre a user can login on another user's system. b pages by transferring data over the network or through the entire web. , Web browst ele >the frst page of any website is known as home page y > Communication media isa transmission media for transmitting data across the network. fet, + Guided media js also known as wired media and unguided media i also called wireless media. : > LAN, MAN, WAN and PAN are the four types of networks. y > internet is the largest WAN that connects millions of computers across the globe ed, Sera tg " y Servers tend to have more memory, processing power ‘and storage than a normal workstation. bn iy “address i a logical address of the computer that helps in identifying a computer on 2 network. ae dub refers to a networking component which acts as a convergence point of a network allowing the transfer of (hee =... = refers to a device which filters and forwards data packets across a network. Computer Networks i