Control Volume
• Systems may be considered to be CLOSED or OPEN, depending on whether a
fixed mass or a fixed volume in space is chosen for study.
• An OPEN SYSTEM, or a control volume, is a properly selected region in space.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
• The boundaries of a control volume are called a control surface, and they can be
real or imaginary.
• For CV, mass can cross the
boundaries, and so we must keep
track of the amount of mass entering
and leaving the CV.
• The amount of mass flowing
through a control surface per unit
time is called the mass flow rate 𝒎ሶ
(kg/s). The dot over a symbol is used
to indicate time rate of change.
• The 𝒎ሶ accross the entire cross-
sectional area of a pipe or duct is
obtained by integration:
The normal velocity Vn for a
surface is the component of
• While this expression for 𝒎ሶ is exact, velocity perpendicular to the
it is not always convenient for surface.
engineering analyses because of the
integral.
• For convenience, we would like instead to express the 𝒎ሶ in terms of
average values over a cross section of the pipe.
• In many practical applications, density ρ is essentially uniform over
the pipe cross section. However, velocity varies from zero at the walls
to some maximum value at or near the centerline of the pipe, because
of the no-slip condition at the walls.
• We define the average velocity Vavg as the average value of Vn across
the entire cross section of the pipe:
• Thus for incompressible flow or even for compressible flow where ρ
is approximated as uniform across Ac , the 𝒎ሶ becomes:
• The volume of the fluid flowing through a cross section per unit time
is called the volume flow rate 𝑽ሶ (m3/s) and is given by:
• In summary, the amount of mass flowing through a cross
ሶ and is
section per unit time is called the mass flow rate 𝒎,
expressed as:
• The term ρ is density of fluid, A is cross-sectional area normal
to flow direction, and V is average fluid velocity normal to A.
• The volume of the fluid flowing through a cross section per unit
time is called the volume flow rate 𝑽,ሶ and is expressed as:
Conservation of Mass
“The net mass transfer to or from a control volume during a time
interval ∆t is equal to the net change (increase or decrease) of the
total mass within the control volume during ∆t.”
That is:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑇𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑒𝑟 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
• The conservation of mass
principle for any system
undergoing any kind of process
can be expressed in simplified
form (kg):
𝑚𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚𝑜𝑢𝑡 = ∆𝑚𝑐𝑣
• It also can be expressed in the
rate form (kg/s), as
𝑑𝑚𝑐𝑣
𝑚ሶ 𝑖𝑛 − 𝑚ሶ 𝑜𝑢𝑡 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑚𝑐𝑣
𝑚ሶ − 𝑚ሶ =
𝑑𝑡
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢𝑡
• For steady flow, the total amount of
mass contained in CV is constant
(rate of mass change within CV,
𝒅𝒎𝒄𝒗 Τ𝒅𝒕 = 0). Total amount of
mass entering must be equal to total
amount of mass leaving:
• For steady flow (single-stream),
where it has only one inlet & one
outlet, it reduces to:
• For steady, incompressible flow, the
conservation of mass relations can be
simplified even further when the fluid
is incompressible (density, ρ is
approximately constant), which is
usually the case for liquids:
• For steady, incompressible flow
(single-stream), it reduces to:
Example 5-1
A garden hose attached with a nozzle is used to fill a 40 L bucket.
The inner diameter of the hose is 2 cm, and it reduces to 0.8 cm at the
nozzle exit (Fig). If it takes 50 s to fill the bucket with water,
determine:
a) Volume and mass flow rates of water through the hose
b) Average velocity of water at the nozzle exit
Example 5-2
A 1.2-m-high, 0.9-m-diameter
cylindrical water tank whose top is
open to the atmosphere is initially
filled with water. Now the discharge
plug near the bottom of the tank is
pulled out, and a water jet whose
diameter is 1.3 cm streams out (Fig).
The average velocity of the jet is
approximated as 𝑉 = 2𝑔ℎ, where h
is the height of water in the tank
measured from the center of the hole
(a variable) and g is the gravitational
acceleration. Determine how long it
takes for the water level in the tank to
drop to 0.6 m from the bottom.
Energy of Flowing Fluid
• Unlike closed systems, CV involves mass flow across their
boundaries, and some work is required to push the mass into or out
of the CV. This work is known as the flow work or wflow.
• The wflow is the energy needed to
push a fluid into, or out of a CV, and
it is equal to Pv.
• Unlike other work quantities, the
wflow is the product of two properties
of fluids.
• For that reason, it is also referred as
the flow energy Pv, or convected
energy, or transport energy.
In following discussion, we consider the flow energy Pv to be part
of the energy of a flowing fluid 𝑬𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐠 , since this greatly
simplifies the energy analysis of CV.
𝑒flowing = 𝑃𝑣 + 𝑒
= 𝑃𝑣 + 𝑢 + 𝑘𝑒 + 𝑝𝑒
= ℎ + 𝑘𝑒 + 𝑝𝑒
Therefore,
𝑉2
𝑒flowing =ℎ+ + 𝑔𝑧
2
𝑉2
𝐸flowing =𝑚 ℎ+ + 𝑔𝑧
2
• Since specifiv volume v=1/ρ, the term Pv is equivalent to P/ρ.
• Therefore, the specific energy of a flowing fluid 𝒆𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰𝐢𝐧𝐠 of a
CV also can be rearranged as:
𝑉2
𝑒flowing = ℎ + + 𝑔𝑧
2
𝑉2
= 𝑃𝑣 + 𝑢 + + 𝑔𝑧
2
𝑃 𝑉2
= +𝑢+ + 𝑔𝑧
𝜌 2
Mechanical Energy
• The mechanical energy 𝑬𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 is defined as:
“The form of energy that can be converted to mechanical work
completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device.”
• The kinetic energy KE and potential energy PE are the familiar
forms of mechanical energy. Internal energy U is not mechanical
energy, however, since it cannot be converted to work directly and
completely (the second law of thermodynamics).
• The specific mechanical energy 𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 of a flowing fluid can be
expressed on a unit-mass basis as:
𝑃 𝑉2
𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ = + + 𝑔𝑧
𝜌 2
• Transfer of 𝑬𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 is usually accomplished by a rotating shaft, thus
mechanical work is often referred as shaft work Wsh.
• The mechanical efficiency 𝜼𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 of a device or process can be
defined as:
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝜂𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ =
𝑀𝑒𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑜𝑢𝑡
=
𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑖𝑛
𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
=1−
𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑖𝑛
• For ideal flow (𝜼𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 = 𝟏) without irreversibilities such as friction, the
total mechanical energy must be conserved. Also, 𝑸𝒊𝒏 and ∆𝑼 must be
conserved, such as:
𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1
• For real flow (𝜼𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 < 𝟏) with
irreversibilities such as friction, the
mechanical energy loss 𝑬𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉,𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 in a
fluid flow system results in an increase
in the internal energy of the fluid and
thus in a rise of fluid temperature.
• Any increase in ∆𝑼 above 𝑸𝒊𝒏 is due to
the irreversible conversion of mechanical
energy to thermal energy, and thus
𝑬𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉,𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒔 can be represented as:
𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑈2 − 𝑈1 − 𝑄𝑖𝑛
(a) In fluid systems, we are usually
interested in increasing the pressure,
velocity, and/or elevation of a fluid.
This is done by supplying
mechanical power in the form of
shaft work Wsh that to the fluid by a
pump, a fan, or a compressor (we
refer to all of them as PUMP).
(b) Also, we are interested in the
reverse process of extracting
mechanical energy from a fluid by a
TURBINE and producing
mechanical power in the form of
shaft work Wsh that can drive a
generator or any other rotary device.
In summary:
• The PUMP : supplies shaft work Wsh and transfers it to the fluid as 𝑬𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 .
• The TURBINE : extracts 𝑬𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 of a fluid to produce shaft work Wsh.
• The degree of perfection of the
conversion process between the Wsh
supplied or extracted and the
𝑬𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 of the fluid is expressed by the
pump efficiency ηpump and the
turbine efficiency ηtutbine.
• A pump or turbine efficiency of 100
percent indicates perfect conversion
between the Wsh and the 𝑬𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 of the
fluid, and this value can be
approached (but never attained) as the
frictional effects are minimized.
• A pump is usually packaged together with its motor, and a turbine with its
generator. The motor efficiency ηmotor and the generator efficiency ηgenerator.
• Therefore, the combined or overall efficiency of pump-motor ηpump-motor and
turbine-generator ηturbine-gen combinations.
• For example, the overall efficiency of turbine-generator
ηturbine-gen is the product of the turbine efficiency ηtutbine and
the generator efficiency ηgenerator.
• It represents the fraction of the mechanical power of the fluid
converted to electrical power.
• Most processes encountered in practice
involve only certain forms of energy,
and it is more convenient to work with
the simplified versions of the energy
balance.
• For systems that involve only
mechanical energy 𝑬𝒎𝒆𝒄𝒉 and its
transfer as shaft work Wsh , the
conservation of energy principle can be
expressed conveniently in steady flow
as:
𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑖𝑛 = 𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑜𝑢𝑡 + 𝐸𝑚𝑒𝑐ℎ,𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠
Example 5-3
The water in a large lake is to be used to
generate electricity by the installation of a
hydraulic turbine–generator. The
elevation difference between the free
surfaces upstream and downstream of the
dam is 50 m (Fig). Water is to be supplied
at a rate of 5000 kg/s. If the electric
power generated is measured to be 1862
kW and the generator efficiency is 95
percent, determine (a) the overall
efficiency of the turbine–generator, (b)
the mechanical efficiency of the turbine,
and (c) the shaft power supplied by the
turbine to the generator.