Aircraft Instrument Systems

- Module – 5_Part - 1

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

 Classification Of Instruments

• Flight Instruments

• Engine Instruments

• Auxiliary Instruments

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

 Flight Instruments

• Those that help visualize the attitude, location and

speeds of the aircraft.

• Those which indicate the relationship to the air

through which we are flying

• Those which relate to our position in space

without considering the air.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

 Aircraft Pressure Measuring Instruments

A number of instruments inform the pilot of the aircraft’s condition and

flight situations through the measurement of pressure. Pressure-sensing
instruments can be found in the flight group and the engine group. They can
be either direct reading or remote sensing. These are some of the most
critical instruments on the aircraft and must accurately inform the pilot to
maintain safe operations. Pressure measurement involves some sort of
mechanism that can sense changes in pressure. A technique for calibration
and displaying the information is then added to inform the pilot. The type
of pressure needed to be measured often makes one sensing mechanism
more suited for use in a particular instance. The three fundamental pressure-
sensing mechanisms used in aircraft instrument systems are the Bourdon
tube, the diaphragm or bellows, and the solid-state sensing device.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

A Bourdon tube is illustrated in Figure 1. The open end of this coiled tube is fixed in place
and the other end is sealed and free to move. When a fluid that needs to be measured is
directed into the open end of the tube, the unfixed portion of the coiled tube tends to
straighten out.
The higher the pressure of the fluid, the more the tube straightens. When the pressure is
reduced, the tube recoils. A pointer is attached to this moving end of the tube, usually
through a linkage of small shafts and gears. By calibrating this motion of the straightening
tube, a face or dial of the instrument can be created. Thus, by observing the pointer
movement along the scale of the instrument face positioned behind it, pressure increases and
decreases are communicated to the pilot.
The Bourdon tube is the internal mechanism for many pressure gauges used on aircraft.
When high pressures need to be measured, the tube is designed to be stiff. Gauges used to
indicate lower pressures use a more flexible tube that uncoils and coils more readily. Most
Bourdon tubes are made from brass, bronze, or copper. Alloys of these metals can be made
to coil and uncoil the tube consistently numerous times.
Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE
Bourdon tube gauges are simple and reliable. Some of the instruments that use a
Bourdon tube mechanism include the engine oil pressure gauge, hydraulic pressure
gauge, oxygen tank pressure gauge, and deice boot pressure gauge. Since the
pressure of the vapor produced by a heated liquid or gas increases as temperature
increases, Bourdon tube mechanisms can also be used to measure temperature.
This is done by calibrating the pointer connecting linkage and relabeling the face of
the gauge with a temperature scale. Oil temperature gauges often employ Bourdon
tube mechanisms. [Figure 2]

Since the sensing and display of pressure or

temperature information using a Bourdon tube
mechanism usually occurs in a single
instrument housing, they are most often direct
reading gauges. But the Bourdon tube sensing
device can also be used remotely. Regardless, it
is necessary to direct the fluid to be measured
into the Bourdon tube.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

For example, a common direct-reading gauge measuring engine oil pressure and
indicating it to the pilot in the cockpit is mounted in the instrument panel. A small
length of tubing connects a pressurized oil port on the engine, runs though the
firewall, and into the back of the gauge. This setup is especially functional on light,
single-engine aircraft in which the engine is mounted just forward of the instrument
panel in the forward end of the fuselage. However, a remote sensing unit can be
more practical on twin-engine aircraft where the engines are a long distance from
the cockpit pressure display. Here, the Bourdon tube’s motion is converted to an
electrical signal and carried to the cockpit display via a wire. This is lighter and
more efficient, eliminating the possibility of leaking fluids into the passenger
compartment of the aircraft.
The diaphragm and bellows are two other basic sensing mechanisms employed in
aircraft instruments for pressure measurement. The diaphragm is a hollow, thin-
walled metal disk, usually corrugated. When pressure is introduced through an
opening on one side of the disk, the entire disk expands. By placing linkage in
contact against the other side of the disk, the movement of the pressurized
diaphragm can be transferred to a pointer that registers the movement against the
scale on the instrument face. [Figure 3]

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

 Diaphragms can also be sealed. The
diaphragm can be evacuated before
sealing, retaining absolutely nothing
inside. When this is done, the
diaphragm is called an aneroid.
Aneroids are used in many flight
instruments. A diaphragm can also be
filled with a gas to standard
Figure 3. A diaphragm used for atmospheric pressure and then sealed.
measuring pressure. An evacuated
sealed diaphragm is called an aneroid Each of these diaphragms has their
uses, which are described in the next
section. The common factor in all is
that the expansion and contraction of
the side wall of the diaphragm is the
movement that correlates to increasing
and decreasing pressure.
Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE
When a number of diaphragm chambers are connected together, the device is
called a bellows. This accordingly like assembly of diaphragms can be very useful
when measuring the difference in pressure between two gases, called differential
pressure. Just as with a single diaphragm, it is the movement of the side walls of
the bellows assembly that correlates with changes in pressure and to which a
pointer linkage and gearing is attached to inform the pilot. [Figure 4]

Figure 4. A bellows unit in a

differential pressure gauge compares
two different pressure values. End
movement of the bellows away from
the side with the highest pressure
input occurs when the pressures in
the bellows are not equal. The
indicator linkage is calibrated to
display the difference
Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE
• Diaphragms, aneroids, and bellows pressure sensing devices are often located
inside the single instrument housing that contains the pointer and instrument
dial read by the pilot on the instrument panel. Thus, many instruments that
make use of these sensitive and reliable mechanisms are direct reading gauges.
But, many remote sensing instrument systems also make use of the diaphragm
and bellows.
• In this case, the sensing device containing the pressure sensitive diaphragm or
bellows is located remotely on the engine or airframe.
• It is part of a transducer that converts the pressure into an electrical signal. The
transducer, or transmitter, sends the signal to the gauge in the cockpit, or to a
computer, for processing and subsequent display of the sensed condition.
• Examples of instruments that use a diaphragm or bellows in a direct reading or
remote sensing gauge are the altimeter, vertical speed indicator, cabin
differential pressure gauge (in pressurized aircraft), and manifold pressure
gauge.R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE
Swethana
Solid-state microtechnology pressure sensors are used in modern aircraft to
determine the critical pressures needed for safe operation. Many of these have
digital output ready for processing by electronic flight instrument computers and
other on board computers. Some sensors send microelectric signals that are
converted to digital format for use by computers. As with the analog sensors
described above, the key to the function of solid-state sensors is their consistent
property changes as pressure changes.
The solid-state sensors used in most aviation applications exhibit varying electrical
output or resistance changes when pressure changes occur. Crystalline
piezoelectric, piezoresistor, and semiconductor chip sensors are most common. In
the typical sensor, tiny wires are embedded in the crystal or pressure-sensitive
semiconductor chip. When pressure deflects the crystal(s), a small amount of
electricity is created or, in the case of a semiconductor chip and some crystals, the
resistance changes. Since the current and resistance changes vary directly with the
amount of deflection, outputs can be calibrated and used to display pressure values.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

Nearly all of the pressure information needed for engine, airframe, and flight
instruments can be captured and/or calculated through the use of solid-state
pressure sensors in combination with temperature sensors. But continued use
of aneroid devices for comparisons involving absolute pressure is notable.
Solid-state pressure-sensing systems are remote sensing systems. The sensors
are mounted on the aircraft at convenient and effective locations.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

 Pitot-static System

• Dynamic Air Pressure - Pressure caused by moving air.

• Ambient Static Air Pressure - Pressure of non-moving

air just outside the aircraft.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

 Pitot-static System

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

 Pitot Head

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

 Pitot Head

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

 Flush Static Port

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE
Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE
 Airspeed Indicator

• Differential
pressure gauge
that measures
the difference
between
dynamic and
ambient static
air pressure.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

 Airspeed Indicator

• Indicated airspeed

• The speed of an aircraft as shown on the airspeed indicator.

• True airspeed

• The speed at which an aircraft is moving relative to the

surrounding air.

• Calibrated airspeed

• Indicated airspeed of an aircraft, corrected for installation

and instrument errors.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

 Altimeter

• A barometer that
measures the absolute
pressure of the air.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

 Altimeter

• Indicated Altitude
• The altitude shown by an altimeter set to current
altimeter setting.

• Pressure Altitude
• Height above the standard pressure level of 29.92
[Link].

• Density Altitude
• Pressure altitude corrected for nonstandard
temperature variations.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

 Altimeter

• True Altitude
• The actual height of an abject above mean sea
level.

• Absolute Altitude
• Actual height above the surface of the earth,
either land or water.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

 Vertical Speed Indicator

• The rate of climb

indicator

• Serves only as a
backup for the
altimeter and
airspeed
indicator as a
pitch indicating
instrument.

• Helps the pilot

establish a rate
of climb or
descent.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

 Blockage Of The Pitot-Static System

• Pitot Tube
• Affects only the airspeed indicator, but a clogged
static system affects all three pitot-static
instruments.

• If the pitot tube is blocked and its drain hole

remains open, the airspeed reading will drop to
zero.

• If both pitot tube and the drain hole clog, the

airspeed indicator will react like an altimeter.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

 Blockage Of The Pitot-Static System

• Static port
• The indicated airspeed increases as the airplane
descends and decreases when it climbs.

• The altimeter: air pressure in the system will not

change and neither will your indicated altitude.

• VSI continually indicates Zero.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

Machmeter
With the advent of high speed of aircraft , the force experienced by the aircraft structure
due to air resistance depend on how close the aircraft speed approaches the speed of
sound . In the other words, the airspeed limit on aircraft is caused not only by structural
strength but by the onset of compressibility and shock waves as the aircraft approaches
the speed of sound, many aircraft are mach limited.
A machmeter is a compound flight instrument , which accepts two variables and uses
them to compute the required ratio. The first variable is the airspeed . Therefore, a
mechanism based on the conventional airspeed indicator is adopted to measure this in
terms of pressure difference . The second variable is the altitude, which is measured by
means of aneroid capsule sensitive to the static pressure. Deflections of the capsules of
both the mechanisms are transmitted to a pointer. The machmeter indicates the mach
number in terms of pressure ratio.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

Accelerometer
An accelerometer is an electromechanical device that will measure acceleration forces.
These forces may be static, like the constant force of gravity pulling at your feet, or
they could be dynamic – caused by changes of the speed and the direction of the
movement (acceleration – deceleration, turns).
Uses of Accelerometer
It is used mainly on Navigation or Guidance Systems called Inertial Navigation
System (INS), or Inertial Reference System (IRS), or Inertial Reference Unit (IRU) or
Air Data Inertial Reference Unit (ADIRU). These systems use Accelerometers
Gyroscopes and electronic circuitry to provide accurate Guidance, Navigation,
Position calculation, Speed measurement and Attitude determination, factors
absolutely necessary for the auto pilot operation on sea and air vehicles. On airplanes
the Flight Data Recorder use Accelerometers to measure and record acceleration
forces on the three axis of the vehicle, and on cars the accelerometers are used to
deploy the air bags at the right time.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

  Looking at the schematic diagram
above, we can see the proof mass in
orange colour placed between the
magnets. Around the proof mass there is
a torque coil. The suspension metal
blade of the proof mass in yellow
colour, comprise together with two
plates above and below it, two
capacitors of the same value when the
proof mass is null.
 Acceleration along the input axis moves
the proof mass. Capacitive pickoff
converts the position change into an
electrical error signal to the servo
amplifier. The servo amplifier nulls out
the error signal by returning the proof
mass to the zero-position using the
torque coil.
 The current in the torque coil needed to
null the error signal is the analog output
signal representing acceleration. The
analog output signal is integrated once
to give velocity and integrated a second
time to give distance.
Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE
• Airspeed is the speed of an aircraft relative to the air. Among the
common conventions for qualifying airspeed are indicated airspeed
("IAS"), calibrated airspeed ("CAS"), equivalent airspeed ("EAS"),
true airspeed ("TAS"), and density airspeed.
• Indicated airspeed is simply what is read off of an airspeed gauge
connected to a pitot static system, calibrated airspeed is indicated
airspeed adjusted for pitot system position and installation error, and
equivalent airspeed is calibrated airspeed adjusted for compressibility
effects.
• True airspeed is equivalent airspeed adjusted for air density, and is
also the speed of the aircraft through the air in which it is flying.
Calibrated airspeed is typically within a few knots of indicated
airspeed, while equivalent airspeed decreases slightly from CAS as
aircraft altitude increases or at high speeds.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

• With EAS constant, true airspeed increases as aircraft altitude
increases. This is because air density decreases with higher
altitude, but an aircraft's wing requires the same amount of air
particles (i.e., mass of air) flowing around it to produce the same
amount of lift for a given angle of attack; thus, a wing must move
faster through thinner air than thicker air to obtain the same
amount of lift.
• The measurement and indication of airspeed is ordinarily
accomplished on board an aircraft by an airspeed indicator ("ASI")
connected to a pitot-static system. The pitot-static system
comprises one or more pitot probes (or tubes) facing the on-
coming air flow to measure pitot pressure (also called stagnation,
total or ram pressure) and one or more static ports to measure the
static pressure in the air flow. These two pressures are compared
by the ASI to give an IAS reading.

Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE

Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)
Equivalent airspeed (EAS) is defined as the speed at sea level, under ISA
conditions, that would produce the same incompressible dynamic
pressure that is produced at the true airspeed and the altitude at which the
vehicle is flying.
Equivalent airspeed can be defined in terms of true airspeed, as above,
but it is also defined in terms of calibrated airspeed (CAS) corrected for
adiabatic compressible flow at the altitude of flight. At sea level under
ISA conditions, equivalent airspeed and calibrated airspeed are the same.
At any other altitude, equivalent airspeed will be less than calibrated
airspeed. Below speeds of about 200 knots CAS and at altitudes below
10,000', the difference between CAS and EAS is negligible. However, at
higher speeds and altitudes CAS must be corrected for compressibility
error to determine EAS.
The significance of equivalent airspeed is that, at Mach numbers below
the onset of wave drag, all of the aerodynamic forces and moments on an
aircraft are proportional to the square of the equivalent airspeed.
Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE
True Airspeed(TAS)
The true airspeed (TAS; also KTAS, for knots true airspeed) of an
aircraft is the speed of the aircraft relative to the airmass in which it is
flying. The true airspeed and heading of an aircraft constitute its velocity
relative to the atmosphere.
AS is the true measure of aircraft performance in cruise, thus it is the
speed listed in aircraft specifications, manuals, performance
comparisons, pilot reports, and every situation when cruise or endurance
performance needs to be measured. It is the speed normally listed on the
flight plan, also used in flight planning, before considering the effects of
wind.
Since indicated airspeed is a better indicator of power used and lift
available, true airspeed is not used for controlling the aircraft during
taxiing, takeoff, climb, descent, approach or landing; for these purposes
the Indicated airspeed – IAS or KIAS (knots indicated airspeed) – is
used.
Swethana R, Assistant Professor, Dept of Aeronautical Engg, EWCE