Chapter 2

Particle properties of waves

Dawit Gizachew(MSc)
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Hawassa University Institute of Technology

October 13, 2025

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Outline

1. Introduction

2. Electromagnetic Waves

3. Black Body Radiation

4. The Photoelectric Effect

5. The Compton Effect

6. Pair Production

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Introduction

Classical physics, which mirrors the “physical reality” of our sense impressions, treats
particles and waves as separate components of that reality. Traditionally, the mechanics
of particles and the optics of waves are independent disciplines.

However, in the microscopic world of atoms and molecules, electrons and nuclei, there are
neither particles nor waves in the classical sense.

As experimental physics advanced, remarkable puzzles emerged:

• Light, normally regarded as a wave, sometimes behaved like a stream of particles.
• Electrons, treated as particles, exhibited wave-like behavior.

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Chapter Objective

The contradictions between the wave and particle models led to the development of
Quantum Mechanics, which unifies both concepts.

Objective
To explore and understand the key experiments that demonstrate the particle nature of
waves.

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Electromagnetic Waves

Electromagnetic waves are oscillations of electric and magnetic fields that propagate
through space and carry energy.

• They are described by Maxwell’s equations.

• The speed of electromagnetic waves in vacuum is constant:

c = 3 × 108 m/s

• Light, radio waves, X-rays, and gamma rays are all electromagnetic in nature.

Classical view: Light is a continuous wave of energy. Quantum view: Light consists of
discrete packets of energy called photons.

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Maxwell’s Equations

James Clerk Maxwell unified electricity and magnetism into a single framework,
showing that time-varying electric and magnetic fields generate electromagnetic waves.

The Four Maxwell’s Equations:

• 1. Gauss’s Law for Electricity: ∇ · E = ερ
0
• 2. Gauss’s Law for Magnetism: ∇ · B = 0
• 3. Faraday’s Law of Induction: ∇ × E = − ∂B
∂t
• 4. Ampère–Maxwell Law: ∇ × B = µ0 J + µ0 ε0 ∂E
∂t

Implication: These equations predict self-sustaining electromagnetic waves that travel

through space at the speed of light.

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Black Body Radiation
A black body is an idealized object that absorbs all incident radiation and emits radiation
depending only on its temperature.

• Classical physics (Rayleigh-Jeans Law) predicted that energy radiated at short

wavelengths would become infinite — known as the ultraviolet catastrophe.
• Max Planck (1900) resolved this by proposing that energy is emitted or absorbed in
discrete packets called quanta.
• The energy of each quantum is given by:

E = hf

where h is Planck’s constant and f is the frequency of radiation.

Conclusion: The failure of classical theory and success of Planck’s hypothesis marked the
birth of Quantum Physics.
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The Photoelectric Effect

It is known that in metals, the valence electrons are “free” — they can move easily from
atom to atom but cannot leave the metal surface under normal conditions.

When the metal surface is irradiated with light, the photons can transfer their energy to
these free electrons. If this energy exceeds the metal’s work function (ϕ), the electrons
are ejected from the surface.

Definition
The emitted electrons are called photoelectrons.

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The Photoelectric Effect

• The kinetic energy of emitted electrons

depends on the frequency of light, not its
intensity.
• This phenomenon supports the particle
nature of light.

Figure: Experimental arrangement for observing

the photoelectric effect.

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Work Function and Energy Relation

To remove an electron from a solid, it is necessary to give it a minimum energy W0 ,

representing the potential energy barrier that the electron must overcome to leave the
solid.

This minimum energy is called the work function.

Energy balance:
EL = W 0 + Ek
• EL : total energy supplied by the incident light
• W0 : work function (minimum energy to release electron)
• Ek : kinetic energy of the emitted photoelectron

If the light energy exceeds W0 , the excess appears as the kinetic energy of the electron.

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Experimental Results of the Photoelectric Effect

1. Effect of Intensity: Classically, reducing light intensity should reduce electron

kinetic energy. However, experiments show that:
• Lower intensity → fewer electrons emitted
• Electron energy remains unchanged (Kinetic energy is independent of light intensity.)
2. Effect of Frequency: The maximum kinetic energy depends only on the frequency
of the incident light:
Emax = h(f − f0 )
where f0 is the threshold frequency below which no photoemission occurs.
3. Instantaneous Emission: Electrons are emitted almost instantly (≤ 3 × 10−9 s)
after illumination, regardless of light intensity.

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Expermental Results of the Photoelectric Effect

Figure: Variation of photoelectron energy with light frequency.

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Einstein’s Photoelectric Equation
Einstein proposed that light consists of discrete packets of energy called photons, each
carrying energy:
E = hf
where h = 6.63 × 10−34 J·s.

When a photon hits an electron:

hf = W0 + Emax

⇒ Emax = hf − W0

Interpretation of terms:
• hf — energy of the incident photon
• W0 = hf0 — work function of the metal
• Emax — maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons
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Quantum Interpretation of the Photoelectric Effect

The photoelectric effect cannot be explained by classical wave theory.

Einstein’s photon concept:

“The energy of a light ray spreading out from a point source is not continuously
distributed, but consists of a finite number of energy quanta localized at points in
space. These quanta move without dividing and can only be produced or absorbed
as complete units.”

• Reducing intensity → fewer photons → fewer emitted electrons.

• Each photon transfers its entire energy hf to a single electron.
• Explains why reducing light intensity decreases emission rate but not energy.

Conclusion: The photoelectric effect confirms that electromagnetic radiation behaves as

particles (photons) as well as waves.

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Example 1
Problem. An ultraviolet light of wavelength λ = 3500 Å falls on a potassium surface of
work function W0 = 2.0 eV. Calculate the maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons.

Constants and conversions:

h = 6.626 × 10−34 J·s, c = 3.00 × 108 m/s, 1 eV = 1.602 × 10−19 J
λ = 3500 Å = 3500 × 10−10 m = 3.5 × 10−7 m
Step 1 — photon frequency:
c 3.00 × 108
f == = 8.57142857 × 1014 Hz
λ 3.5 × 10−7
Step 2 — photon energy:
Eph = hf = (6.626 × 10−34 )(8.57142857 × 1014 ) = 5.6794887 × 10−19 J
Convert to eV:
5.6794887 × 10−19
Eph = = 3.5449 eV
1.602 × 10−19
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Example 1

Step 3 — maximum kinetic energy:

Emax = Eph − W0 = 3.5449 − 2.0 = 1.5449 eV

In joules:
Emax = 1.5449 × (1.602 × 10−19 ) = 2.4751 × 10−19 J

Answer: Emax = 1.5449 eV ≈ 2.475 × 10−19 J .

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Example 2
Problem. The work function of a metal is W0 = 2.0 eV. If light of wavelength
λ = 3600 Å is incident, find (a) the kinetic energy of the fastest emitted electrons and (b)
the stopping potential.

Constants and conversions:

λ = 3600 Å = 3600 × 10−10 m = 3.6 × 10−7 m
(use the same h, c, and e as before)
Step 1 — frequency:
c 3.00 × 108
=
f = = 8.33333333 × 1014 Hz
λ 3.6 × 10−7
Step 2 — photon energy:
Eph = hf = (6.626 × 10−34 )(8.33333333 × 1014 ) = 5.521725125 × 10−19 J
Convert to eV:
5.521725125 × 10−19
Eph = = 3.4464 eV
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Example 2

Step 3 — maximum kinetic energy:

Emax = Eph − W0 = 3.4464 − 2.0 = 1.4464 eV

In joules:
Emax = 1.4464 × (1.602 × 10−19 ) = 2.3174 × 10−19 J
Step 4 — stopping potential: Stopping potential Vs satisfies eVs = Emax . Thus
(numerically)
Vs = Emax (in eV) = 1.4464 V

Answer:
Emax = 1.4464 eV ≈ 2.317 × 10−19 J, Vs = 1.4464 V

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Problems

Exercise 1 Light of wavelength 400 nm is incident upon lithium (W0 = 2.9 eV).
Calculate:
1. The photon energy
2. The retarding potential
Answer: a) 3.1 eV b) 0.2 V

Exercise 2 How many photons/second are contained in a beam of electromagnetic

radiation of total power 100 W if the source is:
1. An AM radio station of 1200 kHz
2. 10 nm X-rays
3. 2 MeV gamma rays
Answer: a) 1.26 × 1029 photons/s b) 5.03 × 1018 photons/s c) 3.12 × 1014 photons/s

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X-ray Diffraction (XRD)
Definition: X-ray diffraction is a technique used to study the crystal structure of
materials by observing the pattern produced when X-rays interact with the periodic
arrangement of atoms in a crystal.
Key Points:
• When X-rays of wavelength comparable to atomic spacings are incident on a crystal,
they are scattered by the atoms.
• Constructive interference occurs at specific angles, satisfying Bragg’s Law:
nλ = 2d sin θ
where n = order of diffraction, λ = X-ray wavelength, d = interplanar spacing, θ =
diffraction angle.
• XRD provides information about:
• Crystal structure and lattice parameters
• Orientation and phase identification
• Defects and crystallite size
Applications: Material characterization in physics, chemistry, metallurgy, and
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The Compton Effect

In 1923, Compton studied monochromatic X-rays scattered by carbon atoms and

observed:
• The scattered beam contains two wavelengths:
• The same as the incident beam (unmodified beam)
• A slightly longer wavelength (modified beam)
• The change in wavelength is due to energy loss of the incident X-rays.
• This inelastic scattering is called the Compton Effect.
• Classical electromagnetism cannot explain the modified wave — confirming
Einstein’s photon concept.

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The Compton Effect

Consider the collision between a photon and an electron shown in the figure below.

Figure: Photon–electron collision illustrating the Compton effect.

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Compton Scattering: Conservation of Energy and Momentum

Conservation of energy:

hc hc
+ m0 c 2 = ′ + mc 2
λ λ  
h 1 1
⇒ m = m0 + −
c λ λ′

Conservation of momentum in x- and y-directions:

h h
+ 0 = ′ cos ϕ + mv cos θ
λ λ
h
0 = ′ sin ϕ − mv sin θ
λ

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Compton Scattering: Conservation of Energy and Momentum

Then,

 2  2
2 2 h h h
(mv cos θ) + (mv sin θ) = sin ϕ + − cos ϕ
λ′ λ λ′
h2 h2 2h2
⇒ m2 v 2 = 2 + ′2 − cos ϕ
λ λ λλ′
but

m0
m= p ⇒ m2 v 2 = (m2 − m02 )c 2
1 − v 2 /c 2

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Compton Scattering: Derivation of Wavelength Shift

h2 h2 2h2
(m2 − m02 )c 2 = + − cos ϕ
λ2 λ′2 λλ′

2
h2
  
2 1 1 2m0 h 1 1
m = m02 + 2 − ′ + − ′
c λ λ c λ λ
 2  
2 1 1 1 1
∴ (m − m02 )c 2 =h 2
− ′ + 2m0 hc − ′
λ λ λ λ

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Compton Scattering: Derivation of Wavelength Shift

2
h2 h2 2h2
  
1 1 1 1
+ − cos ϕ = h2 − ′ + 2m0 hc − ′
λ2 λ′2 λλ′ λ λ λ λ

h
λ′ − λ = (1 − cos ϕ)
m0 c
The change in wavelength ∆λ as a function of the scattering angle ϕ:
 ◦
ϕ
∆λ = 0.02426(1 − cos ϕ)◦ Å = 0.04852 sin2 Å
2

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Example
Problem: X-rays of wavelength λ = 0.7080 Å are scattered from a carbon block through
an angle of 90◦ .
Calculate:
1. The modified wavelength, λ′
2. The percentage change in wavelength, ∆λ
λ × 100%
Solution: The Compton wavelength shift is given by:
h
∆λ = λ′ − λ = (1 − cos θ)
me c
• h/(me c) = 0.00243 nm = 0.0243 Å
• Scattering angle θ = 90◦ ⇒ (1 − cos θ) = 1
Answer:
λ′ = λ + ∆λ = 0.7080 + 0.0243 = 0.7323 Å
∆λ 0.0243
Percentage change: × 100 = × 100 ≈ 3.43%
λ 0.7080
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Exercises on Compton Scattering

Exercise
Show that the recoil kinetic energy of an electron and its recoil angle θ in Compton
scattering is:

∆λ/λ
Ek (electron) = hf
1 + ∆λ/λ
 
hf 1
cot θ = 1 + 2
tan ϕ
m0 c 2

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Exercises on Compton Scattering

Exercise
Show that the maximum kinetic energy of the recoil electron in Compton scattering is
given by:

2hf
hf
m0 c 2
Emax (electron) =
2hf
1+
m0 c 2
At what angles ϕ and θ does this occur?

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Pair Production
Definition: Pair production is a phenomenon in which a high-energy photon is converted
into a particle-antiparticle pair, typically an electron and a positron, when interacting with
the electric field of a nucleus.

Key Points:
• Requires a photon with energy greater than the combined rest mass of the particles:

Eγ ≥ 2me c 2 ≈ 1.022 MeV

• Occurs near a nucleus or another particle to conserve momentum.
• The photon disappears, producing:
• An electron (e − )
• A positron (e + )
• The excess energy of the photon appears as the kinetic energy of the particles.

Applications: Used in high-energy physics, gamma-ray astronomy, and medical physics,

such as Positron Emission Tomography(PET scans).
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