BAMEE205 Engineering Innovation and Modelling

Module 2: Limits, Fits and Tolerances

Concept of datums in CAD modelling, manufacturing, and inspection –

Identification of Manufacturing and functional datums – Introduction to
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing (GD&T)

Dr Annamalai K
Professor, School of Mechanical Engineering
VIT University, Chennai
Datums in CAD Modelling
A datum is a reference feature in a CAD model used as a basis for defining
geometry, constraints, and relationships.

It represents perfect, theoretical planes, axes, or points.

Purpose:

• Establishes a reference coordinate system.

• Provides consistency for dimensions and constraints.

• Ensures design intent is captured.

Types of Datums in CAD
1. Datum Points – fixed locations in space.
2. Datum Axes – reference for rotation or cylindrical features.
3. Datum Planes – most common; serve as sketch planes or symmetry
planes.

1. Datum Coordinate System – defines X, Y, Z directions.

 Applications:
• Sketching and feature creation.
• Assembly constraints (align, mate, insert).
• Tolerance definition in GD&T.
• Exporting CAD for CAE and CAM.
Datums in Manufacturing
A datum in manufacturing is a physical reference feature (surface, edge, or
hole) on a part or fixture from which machining or assembly operations
are measured.
Importance:
Ensures all parts are produced consistently.
Provides a common reference across multiple operations.
Reduces accumulation of dimensional errors.

Datum Features in Manufacturing:

Primary Datum – first surface to contact fixture (establishes stability).
Secondary Datum – next surface, restricts additional degrees of freedom.
Tertiary Datum – final feature, fully constrains part position.
Datums in Inspection
A datum in inspection is a theoretical reference frame against which
measurements are taken to verify part conformance.
Provides a baseline for measurement in CMM (Coordinate Measuring
Machine).
Ensures inspection results are consistent and [Link]
ambiguity in tolerances.

Datum Reference Frame (DRF): Established using primary, secondary, and

tertiary datums. Creates a 3D coordinate system for measurement.

Example: Inspecting a hole’s location relative to a flat surface (primary),

an edge (secondary), and another edge (tertiary).
Tools:CMM machines, surface plates, optical comparators, jigs/fixtures.
Comparison of Datums in CAD, Manufacturing, and Inspection
 GD&T - Introduction
Tolerances of size are not always sufficient to provide the required control
of form. For example, in Fig. a the shaft has the same diameter
measurement in all possible positions but is not circular; in Fig. b, the
component has the same thickness throughout but is not flat and in Fig.c,
the component is circular in all cross-sections but is not straight. The form
of these components can be controlled by means of geometrical
tolerances.

Dr. K. Annamalai Design for Manufacturing

FORM VARIATION
It is a variation of the actual condition of a form feature (surface, line) from
geometrically ideal form.
POSITION VARIATION
It is a variation of the actual position of the form feature from the
geometrically ideal position, with reference to another form (datum)
feature.
GEOMETRICAL TOLERANCE
Geometrical tolerance is defined as the maximum permissible overall
variation of form or position of a feature.
Geometrical tolerances are used,
(i) to specify the required accuracy in controlling the form of a feature,
(ii) to ensure correct functional positioning of the feature,
(iii) to ensure the interchangeability of components
Dr. K. Annamalai Design for Manufacturing
 GD&T – Intro…..
Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) is an international
engineering language that is used on engineering drawings (blue prints) to
describe product in three dimensions.

GD&T uses a series of internationally recognized symbols rather than words

to describe the product.

These symbols are applied to the features of a part and provide a very
concise and clear definition of design intent.

GD&T is a very precise mathematical language that describes the form,

orientation and location of part features in zones of tolerance.

These zones of tolerance are then described relative to a Cartesian

coordinate system.

Dr. K. Annamalai Design for Manufacturing

 GD&T – Intro…..
 GD&T has increased in practice in last 25 years because of ISO 9000.

 ISO 9000 requires not only that something be required, but how it is to be
controlled. For example, how round does a round feature have to be?

 GD&T is a system that uses standard symbols to indicate tolerances that

are based on the feature’s geometry.

 Sometimes called feature based dimensioning & tolerancing or true

position dimensioning & tolerancing

 GD&T practices are specified in ANSI Y14.5M-1994.

Dr. K. Annamalai Design for Manufacturing

Dr. K. Annamalai Design for Manufacturing
Dr. K. Annamalai Design for Manufacturing
Dr. K. Annamalai Design for Manufacturing
 TERMINOLOGY REVIEW
Maximum Material Condition (MMC): The condition where a size feature
contains the maximum amount of material within the stated limits of size. i.e.,
largest shaft and smallest hole.

Least Material Condition (LMC): The condition where a size feature contains
the least amount of material within the stated limits of size. i.e., smallest shaft
and largest hole.

Tolerance: Difference between MMC and LMC limits of a single dimension.

Basic Dimension: Nominal dimension from which tolerances are derived.

Dr. K. Annamalai Design for Manufacturing

 S

Dr. K. Annamalai Design for Manufacturing

 Geometric Dimensioning & Tolerancing

Dr. K. Annamalai Design for Manufacturing

 Geometric Feature Control Frame

Dr. K. Annamalai Design for Manufacturing

 Geometric Feature Control Frame
• Uses feature control frames to indicate
tolerance

Reads as: The position of the feature must be within a .003 diametrical
tolerance zone at maximum material condition relative to datums A,
B, and C.
Dr. K. Annamalai Design for Manufacturing
 GD&T for Form features
1. Straightness
Feature control frame
2. Flatness

3. Circularity

4. Clyndericity

No Reference 0r Datum
 GD&T - Form Feature – [Link]
 GD&T Symbol –
 Datum or Reference – No Datum
GD&T Tolerance Zone:

Straightness can apply to either a flat feature such

as the surface of a block, or it can apply to the
surface of a cylinder along the axial direction. It is
Two Parallel Lines on either side of
defined as the variance of the surface within a a surface line where the surface
specified line on that surface. must lie.
Example: Straightness
Ensuring straightness without GD&T

Controlling the surface of the tube in the weld area with GD&T straightness callout.
 Form Feature – [Link] - Axis
Axis Straightness with MMC

This tolerance callout specifies how

straight the axis of a part is (usually a
cylinder). By definition, axis straightness is
actually a 3D tolerance that constrains the
center axis of the part preventing it from
bending or twisting too far.
 [Link] GD&T Symbol –

 Datum or Reference – No Datum

MMC or LMC applicable: Yes – New in 2009

The flatness tolerance references two parallel Two Sets of Parallel Planes where
planes (parallel to the surface that it is called out
the entire referenced surface must
on) that define a zone where the entire reference
surface must lie. Flatness tolerance is always less lie.
than the dimensional tolerance associated with it.
Gauging / Measurement:

Flatness is can be measured using a height gauge run across the surface of the
part if only the reference feature is held parallel. You are trying making sure
that any point along the surface does not go above or below the tolerance zone.
Modern CMM’s are best for measuring the part as they can create virtual planes
that the true surface profile can be compared to. This is a 3D measurement so
points must be measured across the length and width of the part to ensure the
entire surface is in tolerance.
 Example

Flatness Example: Table without

GD&T
Table using the GD&T
flatness Symbol
 Circularity GD&T Symbol –

Relative to Datum: No
MMC or LMC applicable: No GD&T Tolerance Zone:

Drawing Callout:

Circularity is measured by constraining a

The circularity symbol is used to describe how
close an object should be to a true circle. part, rotating it around the central axis
Sometimes called roundness, circularity is a 2- while a height gauge records the variation
Dimensional tolerance that controls the overall of the surface. The height gauge must have
form of a circle ensuring it is not too oblong, total variation less than the tolerance
square, or out of round.
amount.
 Cylindricity GD&T Symbol –

Relative to Datum: No
GD&T Tolerance Zone:
MMC or LMC applicable: No

Drawing Callout:

Cylindricity is measured by constraining a

part on its axis, and rotating it around
The Cylindricity symbol is used to describe how while a height gauge records the variation
close an object conforms to a true cylinder. of the surface in several locations along
Cylindricity is a 3-Dimensional tolerance that the length. The height gauge must have
controls the overall form of a cylindrical feature to
ensure that it is round enough and straight enough
total variation less than the tolerance
along its axis. amount.
 When used
Circularity is a very common Cylindricity is a fairly common callout
measurement and is used in all for shafts, pins and any critical
forms of manufacturing. cylindrical element.
Any time a part needs to be When a part needs to be both round
perfectly round such as a rotating and straight along its axis, such as a
shaft, or a bearing, circularity is sliding shaft, or a dynamic locating pin,
usually called out. cylindricity is usually called out.
You will see this GD&T symbol very You will see this GD&T symbol very
often on mechanical engineering often in automotive drawings and
drawings. mechanical systems.
 GD&T for Orientation and Profile Features
1. Perpendicularity
Reference 0r Datum Required

2. Angularity

3. Parallelism

4. Profile of Line

Feature control frame

5. Profile of Surface
 Perpendicularity GD&T Symbol
Datum or Reference – Required GD&T Tolerance Zone:
0.3 A
0.3 Wide Tolerance
Zone

A A

Perpendicularity is the condition of

the planar feature surface at a right The tolerance zone in this example
is defined by two parallel planes
angle to the datum reference
oriented perpendicular to the datum
plane, within the specified reference plane.
tolerance zone.
 Perpendicularity
(Feature Axis to Datum Surface)
0.3 Circular
Tolerance Zone
0.3 Circular
0.3 Diameter Tolerance Zone
Tolerance Zone
0.3 C

C
The tolerance zone in this example
Perpendicularity is the condition of the is defined by a cylinder equal to
feature axis at a right angle to the datum the length of the feature, oriented
reference plane, within the specified perpendicular to the datum
tolerance zone. reference plane.
Perpendicularity - example
 Angularity
(Feature Surface to Datum Surface)

Angularity is the condition of the

planar feature surface at a The tolerance zone in this
specified angle (other than 90 example is defined by two
degrees) to the datum reference parallel planes oriented at the
plane, within the specified specified angle to the datum
reference plane.
tolerance zone.
Angularity – with and without GDT
 Parallelism
(Feature Surface to Datum Surface)

The tolerance zone in

Parallelism is the condition of the this example is defined
planar feature surface equidistant at by two parallel planes
all points from the datum reference oriented parallel to the
plane, within the specified tolerance datum reference plane.
zone.
parallelism- example
Gauging and Measurement
 Profile of a Line

Profile of a line describes a tolerance zone

around any line in any feature, usually of a
curved shape. If it is called out on a surface, 2-Dimensional tolerance zone
like a radius on a part – profile of a line existing of two parallel curves that
would specify how much that cross-section
follow the contour of the true
could vary from a true curved radius.
surface profile.
Profile of a Surface

Profile of a surface describes a 3-Dimensional

tolerance zone around a surface, usually which is
an advanced curve or shape. If it is called out on a 3-Dimensional tolerance zone
curved surface, like a fillet on a welded part, the
entire surface where the radius is has to fall within existing of 2 parallel surface
the tolerance zone. Profile controls all the points curves that follow the contour of
along the surface within a tolerance range that
directly mimics the designed profile.
the surface profile across the
entire length of the surface.
Profile of line Profile of Surface
 GD&T for Runout and Location
1. Runout
Reference 0r Datum Required

2. Total Runout

3. Position

4. Concentricity

Feature control frame

5. Symmetry
Runout

Runout is the total

Runout is how much one given reference feature or
features vary with respect to another datum when the
variation that the reference
part is rotated 360° around the datum axis. It is surface can have when the
essentially a control of a circular feature, and how part is rotated around the
much variation it has with the rotational axis. Runout datum’s true axis.
can be called out on any feature that is rotated about
an axis. It is essentially how much “wobble” occurs in
the one part feature when referenced to another.
Gauging / Measurement
Total Runout

Total Runout is how much one entire feature or surface varies with respect to a datum
when the part is rotated 360° around the datum axis. Total runout controls both the
amount of variation in the surface as the part is rotated, but the amount of variation in
the axial dimension. Both radial variation and axial variation are measured and held
within the tolerance. Total Runout is usually called on a part that is rotated about an
axis where the entire surface is critical to be in spec.
True Position
Tolerancing Methods
True Position –Location of Hole Example
 Concentricity

Concentricity, sometimes called coaxially, is a

tolerance that controls the central axis of the
referenced feature, to a datum axis. The axes for the
datum and referenced feature are derived from the
median points of the part or feature. Concentricity is
a very complex feature because it relies on
measurements from a derived axis as opposed to
tangible surface or feature.
Symmetry

GD&T Symmetry is a 3-Dimensional

tolerance that is used to ensure that
Parallel Planes on equal sides of a
two features on a part are uniform
across a datum plane. central datum plane. The median
points of the symmetrical surfaces
must all lie within this zone.
Symmetry – Example