Classification of Elements & Periodicity in
Properties
SYNOPSIS:
History of the periodic table
1. Dobereiner’s triads:
In the triad of elements, the atomic weight of middle element is the arithmetic mean of other two. e.g.
Ca, Sr, Ba and Cl, Br, I etc.
2. Newland’s law of octaves:
Elements are arranged in increasing order of their atomic weights, the properties of every eighth
element are similar to the first one.
3. Mendeleev’s periodic table:
Elements are arranged such that the properties of the elements are the periodic function of their
atomic weights. This table contains 9 groups and 12 series (or 6 periods).
4. MODERN PERIODIC LAW
“The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic
numbers”. Periodic function is due to repetition of similar outer electronic configurations after certain
regular intervals.
The present form of periodic table consists of 18 vertical columns called groups and 7 horizontal
rows called periods. Period number corresponds to the highest principal quantum number (n) of the
elements.
Blocks: The periodic table is divided into four main blocks (s, p , d and f) upon the subshell to which the
valence electron enters into.
(1) Elements of group 1 and 2 constitute s-Block.
(2) Elements of group 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18 constitute p-Block
(3) Elements of group 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 constitute d-Block
(4) The f-Block elements comprise two horizontal rows placed at the bottom of the periodic table
to avoid its unnecessary expansion.
Elements of s and p-blocks are called normal or representative elements, those of d-block are
called transition elements while the f-block elements are called inner transition elements.
Groups:
The 18 vertical columns are called groups. The elements belonging to a particular group is known as a
family and is usually named after the first number. Apart from this some of the groups are given typical
names as exemplified beneath,
(1) Elements of group 1 are called Alkali-Metals.
(2) Elements of group 2 are called Alkaline Earths.
(3) Elements of group 15 are called Pnictogens.
(4) Elements of group 16 are called Chalcogens.
(5) Elements of group 17 are called Halogens.
(6) Elements of group 18 are called Nobel Gases or Aerogens.
All the groups are named after the first member of each group.
Periods:
The horizontal rows are called periods. There are Seven Periods in the long from of the periodic table.
(1) 1st period ( 1H2 He) contain 2 elements. It is the shortest period
(2) 2nd period ( 3Li10 Ne) and 3rd period (11Na 18Ar) contains 8 elements each. These are short
periods.
(3) 4th period (19K 36Kr) and 5th period (37Rb 54Xe) contains 18 elements each. These are long
periods.
(4) 6th period ( 55 Cs 86 Ra) contains of 32 elements and is the longest period.
(5) 7th period starting with 87 Fr is incomplete and consists of 19 elements
(6) Periodic classification of elements :
(i) s-block elements :
a). The elements of the periodic table in which the last electron enters in s-subshell, are called s-block
elements.
b) It contains elements of group s1 and s2 and their general configuration is ns1ñs2 , where n
represents the outermost shell
c) The total number of s-block elements are 14
d) I A group elements are known as alkali metals whereas the elements of II A group are known as
alkaline earth metals.
e) Fr87 and Ra88 are radio active elements
f) H and He are gaseous elements and Cs and Fr liquid elements
ii)p-block elements :
a)The elements of the periodic table in which the last electron enters in p-subshell are called p-block
elements.
b)p-block contains elements groups 13, 14, 15, 16, 17 and 18 of the periodic table.
C) The general configuration of p-block elements are ns 2np 1-6 (where n = 2 to 6).
d) The total number of p-block elements in the periodic table is 30 (excluding He).
e) Most of these elements are non-metals, some are metalloids and few others are heavy elements
which exhibit metallic character
iii)d-block Elements :
a) The elements of the periodic table in which the last electron gets filled up the d-orbital called d-block
elements.
b)The general electronic configuration is (n-1)d 1-10 , ns 1-2 .
c) The d-block contains elements of group 3 to 12 of the periodic table. λ
In d-block elements, the electron get filled up in the d-orbital of penultimate shell, that is why, these
elements are known as Transition elements.
d) The total d-block elements in periodic table is 33.
d) Out of all the d-block elements mercury is the only liquid elements
iv)f-block Elements :
a) The elements of the periodic table in which the last electron gets filled up in the f orbital, called f-block
elements.
b)There are 28 f-block elements in the periodic table.
c)The elements from atomic number 58 to 71 are called lanthanides because they come after lanthanum
(57). The elements from atomic number from 90 to 103 are called Actinides because they come after
actinium (39).
d) All the actinium elements are radioactive.
e) The general electronic configuration of these elements is (n-2)f1-14(n-1)d 0-1 , ns 2 . λ All the elements
after atomic number 92 (i.e., U92) are transuranic elements
NOTATION FOR IUPAC NOMENCLATURE OF ELEMENTS:
Digit Name Abbreviation
0 Nil N
1 Un U
2 Bi B
3 Tri T
4 quad Q
5 pent P
6 Hex H
7 Sept S
8 Oct O
9 Enn E
Periodic properties:
The Screening Effect or Shielding Effect :
In a multielectron atom, the electrons of the valency shell are attracted towards the nucleus and also
these electrons are repelled by the electron present in the inner shells. On account of this, the actual
force of attraction between the nucleus and the valency electrons is somewhat decreased by the
repulsive forces acting in opposite direction. This decrease in the force of attraction exerted by the
nucleus on the valency electrons due to the presence of electrons in the inner shells, is called screening
effect or shielding effect.
A) The magnitude of the screening effect depends upon the number of inner electrons, i.e., higher the
number of inner electrons, greater shall be the value of screening effect.
B) The screening constant is represented by the symbol σ is determined by the Slater rule.
Effective Nuclear Charge : Due to screening effect, the valence electron experiences less attraction
towards nucleus. This brings decrease in the nuclear charge (Z) actually present on the nucleus. The
reduced nuclear charge is termed as effective nuclear charge and is represented by Z*.
Z *=(Z − σ) where, Z = atomic number σ = screening constant
It is observed that magnitude of effective nuclear charge increases in a period when we move from left
to right but in a subgroup of normal element the magnitude of effective nuclear charge remain almost
same.
1. Atomic radius:
Crystal or metallic radius: It is one-half of the internuclear distance between the two nearest atoms in
the metallic lattice. It is generally used for metals
This internuclear distance between the two atoms is called bond length.
I) The size of atoms decrease from left to right across a period in the periodic table. For example, on
moving from lithium to beryllium one extrapositive charge is added to the nucleus, and an extra orbital
electron is also added. Increasing the nuclear charge results in all the orbital electrons being pulled closer
to the nucleus.
II) On decreasing a group in the periodic table, the sizes of atoms increase due to the effect of extra shells
of electron being added
van der Waals radius: It is one-half of the internuclear distance between the two adjacent identical
atoms belonging to two neighboring molecules of an element.
Covalent radius: It is one-half of the distance between the centers of the nuclei of two similar atoms
joined by a single covalent bond. This is generally used for non-metals.
The atomic radii of noble gases or inert gases are, in fact, van der Waals radii since they do not
form molecules.
van der Waals radius > metallic radius > covalent radius (for an atom)
2. IONIC RADIUS
Cation is smaller and anion is larger than the parent atom of the element. In case of isoelectronic
ions, the size decreases with increase in the nuclear charge.
Note: In case of isoelectronic ions (ions having same number of electrons but different nuclear charge);
the greater the nuclear charge, the greater is the attraction for electrons and smaller is ionic radius.
Hence size of such ions decreases.
A positive ion is always smaller than the corresponding atom and the more electrons which are
removed that is, the greater the charge on the ion, the smaller the ion becomes
For example- Na = 1.54 Å, Na + = 0.95 Å Mg = 1.36 Å, Mg +2 = 0.65 Å Fe = 1.17 Å, Fe +2 = 0.780 Å
(high spin), Fe +3 = 0.645 Å (high spin) λ When a negative ion is formed , one or more electrons
added to an atom, the effective nuclear charge is reduced and hence the electron cloud expand. So,
Negative ions are bigger than the corresponding atom.
For example- F = 0.72°, F ñ = 1.36 Å Cl = 0.99 Å, Clñ = 1.81
Isoelectric Series :
A series of atoms, ions and molecules in which each species contains same number of electrons but
different nuclear charge is called isoelectronic series. In an isoelectronic series atomic size decrease
with the increase of charge
3. Ionisation Potential or Ionisation Energy (IE)
It may be defined as “the energy required to remove an electron from the outermost orbit of an
isolated gaseous atom in its ground state.”
The successive ionisation enthalpies vary in the following order: IE3 > IE2 >
IE1 Note: 1. Completely or half-filled orbital has higher I.E. because of
higher stability.
1 1
2. I.E α α effective nuclear charge α
size of atom screening effect
Exception : (1) In second period, I.E of Be is greater than that of B due to stability of fully filled orbitals
and I.E of N is greater than O due to stability of half filled
(2) In third period, I.E of Mg is greater than that of B due to stability of fully filled orbitals and I.E of
P is greater than of S due to stability of half filled
1. The increasing order of Ist I.E of the second period elements is - Li < B < Be < C < O < N < F < Ne
2. The increasing order of Ist I.E of the third period elements is - Na < Al < Mg < Si < S < P < Cl <Ar
4. Electron gain enthalpy or electron affinity:
Electron gain enthalpy is defined as “the amount of energy released when an electron is added
to the outermost orbit of an isolated gaseous atom”
1 1
E.G.E α α effective nuclear charge α
size of atom screening effect
5. Electronegativity
The tendency of an atom in a compound to attract a pair of bonded electrons towards itself
is known
as electronegativity of the atom
Importance of electronegativity: The following predictions can be made from value of
electronegativity,
(i) Nature of the bond between two atoms can be predicated from the electronegativity
difference of the two atoms.
(a) The difference XA XB 0, i.e., XA XB the bond is purely covalent.
(b) The difference XA XB is small, i.e, XA XB, the bond is polar covalent.
(c) The difference XA XB is 1.7, the bond 50% covalent and 50% ionic.
The difference XA XB is very high; the bond is more ionic and less covalent.
Diagonal Relationship.
Certain elements of 2nd period show similarity with their diagonal elements in the 3rd period as
shown below:
Group 1 Group 2 Group 13 Group
14
2nd period Li Be B C
3rd period Na Mg Al Si
Thus, Li resembles Mg, Be resembles Al and B resembles Si, This is called diagonal relationship and
is due to the reason that these pairs of elements have almost identical ionic radii and polarizing
power (i.e. charge/size ratio). Element of second period are known as bridge elements.
Variation of periodic properties in periodic table:
Down the group Periodic properties Along the period
Increases 1. Atomic radius Decreases
Decreases 2. Ionization energy Increases
Decreases 3. Electron gain enthalpy Increases
Decreases 4. Electronegativity Increases
Decreases 5. Effective nuclear charge Increases
Increases 6. Metallic nature Decreases
Decreases 7. Non-metallic nature Increases
Increases 8. Electro positivity Decreases
Decreases 9. Acidic nature of oxides Increases
Increases 10. Basic nature of oxides Decreases
Decreases 11. Oxidizing nature of elements Increases
Increases 12. Reducing nature of elements Decreases