Marketing Research: An Applied Orientation

Seventh Edition

Chapter 9
Measurement and Scaling:
Noncomparative Scaling
Techniques

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Chapter Outline (1 of 3)
1) Overview
2) Noncomparative Scaling Techniques
3) Continuous Rating Scale
4) Itemized Rating Scale
i. Likert Scale
ii. Semantic Differential Scale
iii. Stapel Scale
5) Noncomparative Itemized Rating Scale Decisions
i. Number of Scale Categories
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Chapter Outline (2 of 3)
ii. Balanced Vs. Unbalanced Scales
iii. Odd or Even Number of Categories
iv. Forced Vs. Non-forced Scales
v. Nature and Degree of Verbal Description
vi. Physical Form or Configuration
7) Multi-item Scales
8) Scale Evaluation
i. Measurement Accuracy
ii. Reliability
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 Chapter Outline (3 of 3)
iii. Validity
iv. Relationship between Reliability and Validity
v. Generalizability
9) Choosing a Scaling Technique
10) Mathematically Derived Scales

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Noncomparative Scaling Techniques
• Respondents evaluate only one object at a time, and for
this reason non-comparative scales are often referred to
as monadic scales.
• Non-comparative techniques consist of continuous and
itemized rating scales.

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Continuous Rating Scale (1 of 2)
Respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate
position on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion
variable to the other.
The form of the continuous scale may vary considerably.
How would you rate Wal-Mart as a department store?
Version 1
Probably the worst - - - - - - I - - - - - - - - - - - - - Probably the best
Version 2
Probably the worst - - - - - - I - - - - - - - - - - - - -Probably the best
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

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Continuous Rating Scale (2 of 2)
Version 3
Very bad Neither good nor bad Very good
Probably the worst - - - - - - - I - - - - - - - - - - - - -Probably the best
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

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Itemized Rating Scales
• The respondents are provided with a scale that has a
number or brief description associated with each category.
• The categories are ordered in terms of scale position, and
the respondents are required to select the specified
category that best describes the object being rated.
• The commonly used itemized rating scales are the Likert,
semantic differential, and Stapel scales.

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Likert Scale
The Likert scale requires the respondents to indicate a degree of
agreement or disagreement with each of a series of statements
about the stimulus objects.
Blank Strongly Disagree Neither agree Agree Strongly
disagree nor disagree agree
1. Wal-Mart sells high-quality merchandise. 1 2X 3 4 5
2. Wal-Mart has poor in-store service. 1 2X 3 4 5
3. I like to shop at Wal-Mart. 1 2 3X 4 5

• The analysis can be conducted on an item-by-item basis (profile

analysis), or a total (summated) score can be calculated.
• When arriving at a total score, the categories assigned to the
negative statements by the respondents should be scored by
reversing the scale.
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Semantic Differential Scale
The semantic differential is a seven-point rating scale with end points
associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning.
WAL-MART IS:
Powerful --:--:--:--:-X-:--:--: Weak
Unreliable --:--:--:--:--:-X-:--: Reliable
Modern --:--:--:--:--:--:-X-: Old-fashioned
The negative adjective or phrase sometimes appears at the left side of
the scale and sometimes at the right.
This controls the tendency of some respondents, particularly those with
very positive or very negative attitudes, to mark the right- or left-hand
sides without reading the labels.
Individual items on a semantic differential scale may be scored on either
a −3 to +3 or a 1 to 7 scale.
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A Semantic Differential Scale for Measuring Self-
Concepts, Person Concepts, and Product Concepts
1) Rugged :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Delicate
2) Excitable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Calm
3) Uncomfortable :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Comfortable
4) Dominating :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Submissive
5) Thrifty :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Indulgent
6) Pleasant :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unpleasant
7) Contemporary :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Obsolete
8) Organized :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Unorganized
9) Rational :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Emotional
10) Youthful :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Mature
11) Formal :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Informal
12) Orthodox :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Liberal
13) Complex :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Simple
14) Colorless :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Colorful
15) Modest :---:---:---:---:---:---:---: Vain

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Stapel Scale
The Stapel scale is a unipolar rating scale with ten
categories numbered from -5 to +5, without a neutral point
(zero). This scale is usually presented vertically.
Wal-Mart
+5 +5
+4 +4
+3 +3
+2 +2X
+1 +1
HIGH QUALITY POOR SERVICE
-1 -1
-2 -2
-3 -3
-4X -4
-5 -5

The data obtained by using a Stapel scale can be analyzed in the

same way as semantic differential data.
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Basic Noncomparative Scales
Table 9.1 Basic Noncomparative Scales
Scale Basic Characteristics Examples Advantages Disadvantages
Continuous rating Place a mark on a Reaction to TV Easy to construct Scoring can be
scale continuous line commercials cumbersome unless
computerized

Itemized Rating Blank Blank Blank Blank

Scales

Likert scale Degree of agreement on Measurement of Easy to construct, More time

a 1 (strongly disagree) to attitudes administer, and consuming
5 (strongly agree) scale understand

Semantic Seven-point scale with Brand, product, and Versatile Controversy as to

differential bipolar labels company images whether the data are
interval

Stapel scale Unipolar ten-point scale, Measurement of Easy to construct; Confusing and
25 to 15, without a attitudes and images administered over difficult to apply
neutral point (zero) telephone

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Summary of Itemized Scale Decisions
Table 9.2 Summary of Itemized Rating Scale Decisions
1. Number of categories Although there is no single, optimal number, traditional
guidelines suggest that there should be between five and nine
categories.
2. Balanced versus unbalanced In general, the scale should be balanced to obtain objective
data.
3. Odd or even number of categories If a neutral or indifferent scale response is possible from at
least some of the respondents, an odd number of categories
should be used.
4. Forced versus nonforced In situations where the respondents are expected to have no
opinion, the accuracy of data may be improved by a nonforced
scale.
5. Verbal description An argument can be made for labeling all or many scale
categories. The category descriptions should be located as
close to the response categories as possible.

6. Physical form A number of options should be tried and the best one selected.

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Balanced and Unbalanced Scales
Figure 9.1 Balanced and Unbalanced Scales

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Rating Scale Configurations
Figure 9.2 Rating
Scale Configurations

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Some Unique Rating Scale Configurations
Figure 9.3 Some
Unique Rating Chart
Configurations

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Some Commonly Used Scales in Marketing
Table 9.3 Some Commonly Used Scales in Marketing

Construct Blank Blank Scale Descriptors Blank Blank

Attitude Very bad Bad Neither bad nor good Good Very good

Importance Not at all Not important Neutral Important Very important

important
Satisfaction Very Dissatisfied Neither dissatisfied Satisfied Very satisfied
dissatisfied nor satisfied
Purchase Definitely will Probably will Might or might not Probably Definitely will
Intent not buy not buy buy will buy buy
Purchase Never Rarely Sometimes Often Very often
Frequency

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Development of a Multi-Item Scale
Figure 9.4 Development
of a Multi-Item Scale

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Scale Evaluation
Figure 9.5 Evaluation of a Multi-Item Scale

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Measurement Accuracy
The true score model provides a framework for
understanding the accuracy of measurement.
XO = X T + X S + X R
where
XO = the observed score or measurement
XT = the true score of the characteristic
XS = systematic error
XR = random error

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Potential Sources of Error in Measurement
Figure 9.6 Potential Sources of Error in Measurement

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Reliability (1 of 2)
• Reliability can be defined as the extent to which
measures are free from random error, XR. If XR = 0, the
measure is perfectly reliable.
• In test-retest reliability, respondents are administered
identical sets of scale items at two different times and the
degree of similarity between the two measurements is
determined.
• In alternative-forms reliability, two equivalent forms of
the scale are constructed and the same respondents are
measured at two different times, with a different form being
used each time.

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Reliability (2 of 2)
• Internal consistency reliability determines the extent to
which different parts of a summated scale are consistent in
what they indicate about the characteristic being
measured.
• The coefficient alpha, or Cronbach's alpha, is the
average of all possible split-half coefficients resulting from
different ways of splitting the scale items. This coefficient
varies from 0 to 1, and a value of 0.6 or less generally
indicates unsatisfactory internal consistency reliability.

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Validity (1 of 2)
• The validity of a scale may be defined as the extent to
which differences in observed scale scores reflect true
differences among objects on the characteristic being
measured, rather than systematic or random error. Perfect
validity requires that there be no measurement error
(XO = XT, XR = 0, XS = 0).
• Content validity is a subjective but systematic evaluation
of how well the content of a scale represents the
measurement task at hand.
• Criterion validity reflects whether a scale performs as
expected in relation to other variables selected (criterion
variables) as meaningful criteria.
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Validity (2 of 2)
• Construct validity addresses the question of what construct or
characteristic the scale is, in fact, measuring. Construct validity
includes convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity.
• Convergent validity is the extent to which the scale correlates
positively with other measures of the same construct.
• Discriminant validity is the extent to which a measure does not
correlate with other constructs from which it is supposed to
differ.

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Relationship Between Reliability and
Validity
• If a measure is perfectly valid, it is also perfectly reliable. In
this case XO = XT, XR = 0, and XS = 0.
• If a measure is unreliable, it cannot be perfectly valid,
since at a minimum XO = XT + XR.
• Furthermore, systematic error may also be present, i.e.,
XS ≠ 0. Thus, unreliability implies invalidity.
• If a measure is perfectly reliable, it may or may not be
perfectly valid, because systematic error may still be
present (XO = XT + XS).
• Reliability is a necessary, but not sufficient, condition for
validity.
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