DISTRIBUTION WORKS
1. Write about Classification of canals
• A canal is an artificial channel constructed on the ground (or) below
the ground level to carry water from a river for various purposes
such as Irrigation, Power & Navigation.
(a) According to Source of Supply
Perennial canal – Water available throughout the year (from dam/barrage).
Inundation canal – Takes water only during floods.
(b) According to Alignment
Ridge canal
Contour canal
Side slope canal
(c) According to Purpose
Irrigation canal-Canal carries water to the fields for irrigation purpose
only.
Navigation canal- Canal which is constructed for inland navigation
purpose.
Power canal- Cana which is constructed to carries water for generating of
electricity
Feeder canal-The canal which is constructed to feed another canal for the
purpose of irrigation or navigation when is short of water.
Link Canal-Canal which is constructed to connect two rivers.
(d) According to Lining
Lined canal
Unlined canal
(e) According to Financial Aspect
Productive Canals-A productive canal is a canal that supplies water to agricultural
land in such a way that the income from increased crop production is greater than
the cost of construction and maintenance of the canal.
Protective Canals-The canals which are planned to serve the needs of
public without expectation of any income from them.
(f) According to Discharge capacity
Main canal- Directly take-off from reservoir, high discharge capacity, supply
water to Branch canal and Major distributary
Branch canal-Discharge capacity is more than 5 cumecs, direct irrigation is not
possible
Major distributary- discharge capacity 0.5 to 5 cumecs, direct irrigation is not
possible
Minor distributary- discharge capacity is 0.5 cumecs
Field channels-small channels constructed and maintained by cultivators
themselves. Supply water directly to fields.
2. Explain different methods of alignment of canals with a neat sketch
According to Alignment canals are classified as
Ridge canal
Contour canal
Side slope canal
Ridge canal (or) Water shed canal:
Ridge canal is a canal constructed along the ridge line
Water flows on both sides of the canal because the land slopes away from
the ridge.
It requires minimum cross-drainage works, since River flow away from the
canal.
Irrigation is possible on both sides of the canal since it is aligned at the
highest elevation.
There is less risk of flooding from rivers.
Maintenance is easier compared to valley canals.
It is considered one of the best alignments in canal engineering.
Contour canal
Contour canal is a canal aligned parallel to the contour lines
It is generally constructed in hilly or sloping areas to avoid excessive
cutting and filling.
It requires more cross-drainage works compared to ridge canals.
Construction cost may increase due to longer length and bends.
It provides irrigation mainly on one side of the canal.
Contour canal crosses river
Side slope canal
Side slope canal is a canal constructed along the side of a hill
One side of the canal is usually in cutting (hill side) and the other side is
in filling (valley side).
It is suitable in hilly regions where ridge alignment is not possible.
The canal alignment generally follows the natural slope of the terrain.
Proper protection works are needed to prevent landslides or erosion from
the hill side.
Construction and maintenance are more difficult compared to ridge
canals.
Canal is aligned at right angle to the contour lines
It can irrigate area on one side only.
3. Explain with the help of sketches about typical cross sections of
canals
There are three types of typical cross sections:
1. Canal in full cutting
2. Canal in full banking (or) embankment (or) Filling
3. Canal in partial cutting and partial filling
1. Canal in full cutting:
When the full supply level (FSL) and the bed level of the canal is below the
natural surface level, then the section is said to be canal in cutting.
2. Canal in full banking (or) embankment (or) Filling
When the bed level of the canal is above the natural surface level, then the
canal is said to be in filling
3. Canal in partial cutting and partial filling:
When the full supply level (FSL) of the canal is above the natural surface level
and bed level of the canal is below the natural surface level then it is said to be
canal in partial cutting and partial filling.
4. Write a short note on berm with a neat sketch
The horizontal distance between the toe of the bank and top edge of canal
cutting is termed as berm.
Purpose of providing Berm:
To protect the bank from erosion
To provide a space for widening the canal section in future
The silt deposition on the berm makes an impervious lining to canal
If necessary, borrow pit can be excavated on the berm.
It is used as inspection of canal for proper functioning and to repair
works.
5. Define Balanced depth of cutting
In constructing a canal section, If the quantity of excavated earth can be
fully utilized for making the banks on both sides, then that canal section is known
as economical section. The depth of cutting for ideal condition is known as
balancing depth.
This condition only happens in canal section partially cutting and partially filling.
Excavated earth in cutting of canal= Making of bank on both sides.
6. What is canal lining. What is the need of canal lining, write advantages
and disadvantages of canal lining.
Canal Lining:
An impermeable layer is provided to sides and bed of the canal in order to prevent
seepage losses, this process is known as canal lining.
Need for Canal Lining:
To minimize the seepage losses in canal
To increase the discharge in canal section by increasing the velocity
To prevent erosion of bed and side due to high velocities
To reduce maintenance of canal
To prevent the water logging
To control the growth of weeds.
Advantages of canal lining:
To Control Seepage losses
To Control water logging
To provide smooth surface and hence the velocity of flow is increased
Due to increase in velocity of flow the evaporation loss also reduced
To Increase command area
To Increase pressure head for Power Generation
To increase the stability of canal section
To Reduce maintenance cost of canals
To Prevent bank erosion and breaches
To Prevent the weed growth in canals
For Economical distribution of water
Disadvantages:
1. Initial cost is high
ii. Skilled labour, Machinery & equipment is required
iii. More time is required
iv. Supervision is required
[Link] is internal silting method in canals
1. Internal silting method is a maintenance method in which silt is allowed
to deposit inside the canal banks to make them stronger.
2. In this method, water carrying fine sediment is allowed to flow slowly so
that silt settles naturally inside weak portions of the canal.
3. It helps in strengthening canal embankments and improving stability.
4. This method is useful for reducing seepage losses, because deposited silt
makes the canal section more impervious.
5. It is a simple and low-cost maintenance technique compared to major
repair works.
6. Regular observation is required to avoid excess silting which may reduce
canal capacity.
8 Explain the need(importance) of Cross drainage works
1. Maintain Uninterrupted Canal Flow
When a canal crosses a River, the river water may disturb or enter the
canal.
Cross-drainage works allow the canal to continue carrying irrigation
water smoothly without obstruction.
2. Safe Disposal of River Water
Rivers carry floodwater during rains.
These structures help the drainage pass safely across or below the canal,
preventing waterlogging and flooding.
3. Prevent Damage to Canal Banks and Structures
Without proper arrangements, heavy drainage flow can erode canal
banks or breach the canal.
Cross-drainage works protect the canal from erosion and structural
failure.
4. Avoid Mixing of Canal and river Water
Canal water is meant for irrigation; River water may contain silt or
pollutants.
Proper structures keep the two flows separate when required.
5. Maintain Hydraulic Efficiency
They control water levels, velocities, and head losses at crossings.
This ensures efficient conveyance of irrigation water.
6. Improve Overall Irrigation Network Safety
Essential in areas with uneven terrain where many rivers intersect canals.
Helps in systematic water management and long-term stability of the
irrigation system.
9. Explain with neat sketch Aqueduct, Siphon Aqueduct, super
passage & leveling cross, inlet and outlet
WRITE THE ANSWER AS EXPLAIN IN THE CLASS AND ALSO ASKED
EVERY ONE SHOULD DRAW.
Inlet & Outlet:
Purpose: Inlet and outlet structures are provided to admit (inlet) and discharge
(outlet) river water safely where small natural drains meet a canal.
Regulation of Flow: They help control and regulate the entry and exit of excess
river water into natural channels without disturbing canal flow.
Protection of Canal Banks: Properly designed inlet and outlet structures prevent
erosion, scouring, and damage to canal embankments.
Used for Small Discharges: These works are generally suitable for small
drainage crossings where constructing major structures like aqueducts is not
economical.
Prevention of Waterlogging: By allowing surplus water to enter or leave the
canal system safely, they help avoid flooding and waterlogging in nearby fields.
10. Explain Lacey’s silt theory and Kennedy silt theory
Kennedy’s Theory:
1. It states that the silt carried by the flowing water is kept
in suspension by the vertical component of eddies
which are generated from the bed of the channel.
2. Assumed channel is Alluvial channel
3. This theory gives no equation for bed slope
4. It will not give the importance to bed width to depth
ratio
5. It is used to find the mean velocity of flow
Vc=0.55*D0.64
Where Vc is Critical velocity and D= depth of water
flow
6. This theory is based on the trial & error method
7. Silt charge & Silt grade are not considered
8. Suitable for Old, small & medium Canals
Lacey’s Theory:
1. It states that the silt carried by the flowing water is kept
in suspension by the vertical component of eddies
which are generated from the bed as well as sides of the
channel.
2. Assumed channel is Alluvial channel
3. This theory gives equation for bed slope
4. It will give the importance to bed width to depth ratio
5. In this theory, a factor known as silt factor ‘f’
introduced
f=1.76*sqrt(d)
Where d= size of silt particle in mm
6. This theory does not involve the trial & error method
7. Silt charge & Silt grade are considered
8. Suitable for New and large canals
9. Lacey assumes the channel is regime channel, i.e a) the
channel flows uniformly in unlimited incoherent
alluvium of the same character which is transported by
the channel b) The silt grade and silt charge remains
constant c) The discharge remains constant