Cell Structure

& Function

Aurang Zeb:
Nursing instructor, master of bioethics, MSN
 Objectives

At the end of the session the students will be able to:

• Define cell
• Describe structure and function of cell
• List the cell organelles
• Explain the process of cell division
 Cell

• “Cell is the basic structural and functional unit of life”.

• A cell is the smallest and basic unit that is capable of
performing life functions.
 Introduction

• Cells vary in size, shape, and functions.

• The shape of cells in the body vary based on their function.
• Humans contain about 100 trillion cells.
• Most plant and animal cells are between 1 and 100 µm and
therefore are visible only under the microscope.
 Cell history

• The cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.

• The word cell comes from the Latin cella, meaning "small
room".
• The descriptive term for cell was used by Robert Hooke
when he observed the cork cells through microscope.
 Cell theory

• The Cell Theory is one of the basic principles of biology. It

is formulated by a German scientists Theodor Schwann,
Matthias Schleiden, and Rudolph Virchow.

The Cell Theory states:

• All living organisms are composed of cells. They may be
unicellular or multicellular.

• The cell is the basic unit of life.

• Cells arise from pre-existing cells.

 Modern version of the Cell Theory

• The modern version of the Cell Theory includes the ideas

that:
• Energy flow occurs within cells.

• Heredity information (DNA) is passed on from cell to cell.

• All cells have the same basic chemical composition.

 Composite Cell

➢ Because cells vary in size, shape, content, and functions so

describing a “typical” cell is impossible.

➢ All of the structures described in the composite cell can

NOT be found in every cell regardless of function.

➢ The organelles are found in the cytoplasm of the cell.

 Cell structure

• A cell has three main parts

➢plasma membrane
➢Cytoplasm
➢Nucleus
Inside which there are a number of organelles floating in a
watery fluid called cytosol.
• Organelles are small structures with highly specialized
functions. (cell growth, maintenance and reproduction)
• Many of which are membrane bounded.
 Cell Organelles

1. Cell Membrane 9. Microfilaments and

2. Cytoplasm Mircotubules
3. Endoplasmic reticulum 10. Centrosomes
(ER) 11. Cilia and flagella
4. Ribosomes 12. Vesicles
5. Golgi Apparatus 13. Nucleus
6. Mitochondria 14. Nuclear envelope
7. Lysosomes 15. Nucleolus
8. Peroxisomes 16. Chromatin
 Cell Membrane

• Extremely thin and semi permeable membrane forms the

Cell‘s Outer surface.
• The cell membrane contains many kinds of proteins, each
with a special function.
 Structure:

• The basic framework of the cell membrane consists of a

(bilayer) double layer of phospholipid, with fatty acid tails
turned in.
 Plasma membrane

• Phospholipids molecules have a head which is electrically

charged and hydrophilic (water loving)
• And a tail which has no charge and hydrophobic (water
hating).
• The phospholipids bilayer is arranged like a sandwich with
the head and tail.
• Forming a central water repelling layer.
 Cell Membrane

• The Phosphate Head is HYDROPHILIC meaning

"WATER LOVING". Because of its hydrophilic nature,
the head of a Phospholipid will orient itself so that it is as
close as possible to water molecules.

• The Lipid Tails are HYDROPHOBIC meaning

"WATER-FEARING", the Hydrophobic tails will tend to
orient themselves away from water.
 Functions of Plasma membrane
• It allows some substances to enter and leave the cell but not
others (selective transport)
• Participates in signal transduction.
• It helps cells adhere to other cells.
• It forms a boundary around the cellular contents
• Branched carbohydrate molecules attached to the some
membrane protein molecules give immunological identity
to the cell.
• It plays a key role in communication among cells and
between the cell.
• Can act as specific receptors for hormones and other
chemical messenger.
 Cytoplasm

• Gel-like mixture
• It consist of all the cellular content between the plasma
membrane and the nucleus.
• Has two components ,cytosol (intracellular fluid portion)
and organelles
 Composition

• Cytosol (Intracellular Fluid): A gel-like substance

made of water, ions, enzymes, and organic molecules.
• Organelles: Various membrane-bound structures like
mitochondria, ribosomes, and the endoplasmic reticulum.
• Inclusions: Stored nutrients, pigments, and waste
products
 Functions
Provides Structural Support – Maintains cell shape and
holds organelles in place.

Site for Metabolic Activities – Most biochemical reactions

occur here, including glycolysis and protein synthesis.

Facilitates Transport – Allows movement of molecules,

ions, and organelles within the cell (cytoplasmic streaming).

Stores Raw Materials – Contains reserves of essential

nutrients and molecules.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum

• ER is a network of membrane in the form of flattened sac

Or tubules(cisternae).
• It extends from the nuclear envelope throughout the
cytoplasm.
 Endoplasmic Reticulum

Cell contain two Distinct forms of ER.

Rough ER:
Has ribosome on its outer layer and is attached to nuclear
envelope.
Function:
• Protein synthesis: Ribosomes on RER synthesize proteins
that are exported or integrated into membranes.
• Protein folding & modification: Helps in proper folding and
post-translational modifications.
• Transport of proteins: Sends proteins to the Golgi
apparatus for further processing.
Smooth ER
• No ribosomes
• it functions in the transport of LIPIDS
• Smooth ER synthesize fatty acids and steriods.
• inactivate drugs.
• Stores and release calcium ions in muscle cell.
• ER provides a tubular transport system inside the cell.
Funcions:
Lipid & steroid synthesis: Produces lipids, phospholipids, and steroids.
Detoxification: Breaks down toxins and drugs (especially in liver cells).
Calcium storage: Stores calcium ions (important for muscle
contractions).
 Ribosome

• Composed of two subunits containing ribosomal RNA and

proteins.
• May be free in cytosole or attached to rough ER.
• Function is protein synthesis.
 Structure

Made of two subunits:

Small subunit: Reads the messenger RNA (mRNA) sequence.
Large subunit: Joins amino acids together to form a protein.
• Prokaryotic ribosomes (70S) have a 50S large subunit and a
30S small subunit.
• Eukaryotic ribosomes (80S) have a 60S large subunit and a
40S small subunit.
 Functions
• Site of protein synthesis: Assembles amino acids into
polypeptide chains.

• Reads messenger RNA (mRNA) and translates genetic

information into proteins.

• Works with transfer RNA (tRNA) to ensure accurate

protein assembly.

• Plays a key role in cellular growth and function by

producing enzymes and structural proteins.
 Golgi Apparatus

• Composed of about 3-20 flattened, membranous sacs

(cistea).
• Cup like shape
• Stractually and functionally divided into entry face medial
sisternae,and exit face.
 Structure
Made up of cisternae (flattened membrane sacs).
Has two faces:
Cis face (receiving side) – Faces the endoplasmic
reticulum and receives newly synthesized proteins and
lipids.
Trans face (shipping side) – Releases modified proteins
and lipids into vesicles for transport.
 Functions
Modifies proteins and lipids by adding
carbohydrates, phosphates, or sulfates.
Sorts and packages molecules into vesicles
for delivery to different parts of the cell or
secretion.
Produces lysosomes (in animal cells).
Helps in the formation of the cell membrane
by modifying lipids.
Golgi apparatus
 Golgi Bodies

• also known as the Golgi apparatus or Golgi complex

• are membrane-bound organelles
• responsible for modifying, sorting, and packaging
proteins and lipids
• Transport proteins and lipids within or outside the cell.
 Mitochondria

• double-membrane organelles Is the POWERHOUSE of the

cell.
• It contain enzymes that catalyze reactions that release
energy in the form of ATP from glucose.
• Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) energy.
Mitochondria
 Structure

• Outer membrane – Smooth and permeable to small

molecules.
• Inner membrane – Folded into cristae to increase surface
area for ATP production.
• Matrix – Fluid-filled space containing enzymes,
mitochondrial DNA, and ribosomes.
 Mitochondria

• Produces ATP through aerobic respiration.

• Regulates cell metabolism by breaking down glucose and
fatty acids.
• Plays a role in cell signaling, apoptosis (programmed cell
death), and calcium storage.
• Contains its own DNA and ribosomes, allowing it to
replicate independently.
 Lysosome

Lysosomes are membrane-bound organelles

containing digestive enzymes that break down waste, cellular
debris, and foreign substances in the cell.
They are often referred to as the "suicide bags" of the cell due
to their role in autolysis.
 Structure

• Spherical, single-membrane organelles.

• Contain hydrolytic enzymes (proteases, lipases, nucleases,
etc.)
• Acidic interior (pH ~5) to facilitate digestion.
 Functions

• Break down waste materials, old cell parts, and foreign

invaders (e.g., bacteria).
• Help in autophagy (self-digestion of damaged organelles).
• Play a role in apoptosis (programmed cell death).
• Aid in macromolecule digestion (proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates, and nucleic acids).
 DIFFERENCE
Microfilaments Microtubules
• Thin, threadlike filaments • Hollow tubes (25 nm)
(7 nm) • Made of α-tubulin and β-
• Made of actin tubulin dimers
• Cell movement, shape • Organelle transport, cell
maintenance, division shape, cell division
• Beneath the plasma • Throughout the
membrane cytoplasm, organized by
• Helps in amoeboid the centrosome
movement • Forms spindle fibers
during cell division
 Microfilaments and microtubules

• Thin, threadlike processes within the cytoplasm that

function in various kinds of cell movement and that serve as
the cytoskeleton of the cell.
Microfilaments, made of the protein actin(7 nm in diameter),
cause various cellular movements.
• Found beneath the plasma membrane.
Mictotubules, made of the globular protein tubulin.
Composed of α-tubulin and β-tubulin dimers (25 nm in
diameter).
Organized by the centrosome in animal cells.
 Microfilament Functions
Provide mechanical support to maintain cell shape.

Enable cell movement (e.g., muscle contraction, cell

crawling).

Assist in cytokinesis (division of the cytoplasm during cell

division).

Facilitate intracellular transport of organelles and vesicles.

 Microtubule Functions
Form the cytoskeleton, providing shape and support.
Serve as tracks for organelle and vesicle movement
(e.g., transport by motor proteins like kinesin and dynein).
Play a crucial role in cell division by forming the mitotic
spindle.
Make up cilia and flagella, enabling cell movement.
 Centrosome

• The centrosome is an organelle found near the nucleus of

animal cells.
• Function in cell division.
 Structure
• Composed of two centrioles arranged at
right angles.
• Surrounded by pericentriolar material
(PCM), which contains proteins that help
in microtubule formation.
 Functions
• Organizes microtubules to maintain cell
shape and structure.
• Plays a crucial role in mitosis and meiosis
by forming the mitotic spindle.
• Helps in chromosome movement during
cell division.
• Involved in the formation of cilia and
flagella.
 Cilia and flagella

• They are motile extensions from the cell.

• Cilia is short and move “to-and-fro”.
• Cilia function is to move fluids.
• Flagella are longer and move in an undulating wavelike
motion.
• What is the only flagellated cell in the body?
• SPERM
 Vesicles

• Or vacuoles are formed by part of the cell membrane.

• Enclosed by a phospholipid bilayer membrane.
• They contain some liquid or solid material formerly outside
the cell.
• Golgi and ER also form vesicles.
 Types and Functions:
• Transport Vesicles – Move proteins and molecules
between organelles (e.g., from the ER to the Golgi
apparatus)
• Secretory Vesicles – Store and release substances
outside the cell (e.g., hormones, neurotransmitters).
• Lysosomes – Contain digestive enzymes to break down
waste and cellular debris.
• Endosomes – Help in sorting and transporting materials
Peroxisomes – Break down fatty acids and detoxify
harmful substances.
 Nucleus

• It is an oval shaped organelle.

• Every cell in the body has a nucleus except mature RBC.
• it is the largest organelle.

• It has a tiny pores through which some substances can pass

between the nucleus and cytoplasm.
 Nucleus, nuclear envelope

• Is bounded by a double-layered nuclear membrane (nuclear

envelope) containing relatively large nuclear pores that
allow the passage of certain substances.
 Nucleolus

• Inside the nucleus are one or more spherical bodies called

nucleoli.
• Single is nucleolus.
• That function in producing ribosomes.
• Nucleoli are quit prominent in cell that synthesize large
amounts of protein.
 Chromosomes and Genes
‘Chroma’ color ‘soma’ bodies
• Inside the nucleus the chromatin material condense to form
chromosome.
• Human cell contain 46 chromosome arrange in pair in the
nucleus of each cell.
• Each chromosome is a long molecule of DNA that is coil
together with several proteins. the complex of DNA, protein
and some RNA is called chromatin.
GENES:
• Gene is the segment of DNA
• each chromosome carries many genes
• The site on chromosome on which a particular gene is
located is called locus
• Genome all gene possessed by one individual.
 Nucleus structure and functions

• Each nucleus is simply a cluster of protein ,DNA and RNA.

• Nucleoli are the sites of synthesis of RNA.
• Within the nucleus are most of the cell's hereditary units,
called genes. which control cellular structure and direct
cellular activities.
• Genes are arranged with chromosomes.
 Nucleus structure and functions

• Human body cells have 46 chromosomes.23 inherited from

each parents.
• Each chromosome is a long molecule of DNA, that is coiled
together with several protein.
• Nucleoli produce ribosomes, and chromosomes consist of
gene, that control cellular structure and functions.
 What Cells Do?

• Cells are the basic units of all living things.

• Cells make up bones, muscles, skin, and blood.
• As the organism grows, the cells must reproduce.
• Cell reproduction is called mitosis
 Cell division

• The process by which cells reproduce themselves

• Two type of cell division

a) Somatic cell division division

b) Reproductive cell division
 Somatic cell division

• A somatic cell is any cell of the body except germ cell i.e.
Gamete (sparm or oocyte)
• In sometic cell division a cell undergoes a nuclear dicision
called mytosis
 Reproductive cell division

• A reproductive cell division is the machanism that produce

gametes
• This process consist of a special two steps division called
meiosis, in which the number of cromosoms in the nucleus
is reduced by half.
 Mitosis
• The process of cell division which results in the production
of two daughter cells from a single parent cell.
• The daughter cells are identical to one another and to the
original parent cell.
• Occurs in somatic cells
 Mitotic phase

Mitotic phase

Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase

 Interphase

A cell spends most of its time in interphase (no division is

happening).
In the center is the nucleus which holds the DNA
 Prophase

• Early phase.
• Chromatin fibers condense into paired chromatids.
• Nucleolus and nuclear envelope disappear.
• Each centrosome moves to an opposite pole of the cell.
• chromosomes are captured by spindle
 Metaphase

• Second phase.
• Tension applied by the spindle fibers aligns all
chromosomes at metaphase plate
 Anaphase

• In anaphase centromere split

• Identical set of chromosomes move to opposite pole of
cell.
• They appear V shape.
 Telophase

• Begins after chromosomal movement stop.

• Nuclear envelopes and nucleoli reappear
• Mitotic spindle disappear.
• Chromosomes resume chromatin form.
Cytokinesis
• Division of cell cytoplasm and organelles into two identical
cell
• The final stage of mitosis.
 Mitotic Cell Division

Functions:
• Growth
• Maintenance
• Repair of body tissues.
• Forms the basis of Asexual Reproduction
 Meiosis

• Meiosis is a reductive cell division.

• It involves two divisions to produce four non-identical
daughter cells
• Each containing half the number of chromosomes of the
parent cell.
• Takes place in reproductive cells
 MEIOSIS

• Meiosis occur in two successive stage.

Interphase
• The parent cell goes through a stage of preparation
• The chromosomes of the diploid starting cell replicate.
• Two sister chromatids are attached at their centromeres.
 Meiosis I

• It begins once chromosomal replication complete.

• Consist of four phases.
• Prophase I
• Metaphase I
• Anaphase I
• Telophase I
 Prophase I

• Each chromosome is made up of two identical chromatids,

known as sister chromatids.
• The pair of chromosomes is called homologous
chromosomes.
• Four chromatids are collectively called a tetrad.
• Homologous chromosomes make synapsis.
• Crossing over (exchange of sections)takes place.
 Metaphase I

• The tetrads get aligned at the center of the cell, at the

equatorial plane.
• The centromeres locate at the opposite poles.
• Anaphase 1:
• The homologous chromosomes separate
• The chromosomes migrate to the opposite poles of the
cell.
The sister chromatids remain together.
 Telophase I

• The chromosomes continue to migrate towards the poles.

• Condensation of the chromosomes and cytokinesis (division
into two cells) takes place.
• A nuclear envelope starts forming two daughter cells with a
haploid number chromosome.
 Meiosis II

• Gamete formation
• Takes place in the same manner as mitosis.
• The two daughter cells produced in meiosis I
undergo further division and produce four
daughter cells.
 Prophase II

• The nuclear membrane disappear.

• The chromosomes start moving towards the equatorial
plane.
• The chromosomes still have the chromatids attached by the
centromere.
 Metaphase II

• The chromosomes are aligned at the equatorial plane prior

to separation.
• The centromeres are oriented towards the opposite poles.
 Anaphase II

• The sister chromatids held at the centromere are separated

by the spindle fibers.
• Chromatid pairs begin to move towards the poles.
 Telophase II
• Four nuclei (two each in a daughter cell) are formed by the
process of cytokinesis.
• Each of the four nuclei develops a nuclear envelope.
• Four daughter cells or gametes are formed.
 Movements through cell membranes

• Passive mechanisms do • Active mechanisms

not require energy. require cell energy.
1. Diffusion
2. Facilitated diffusion 1. Active transport
3. Osmosis
4. Filtration
 Passive (diffusion)

• Diffusion is the process by which molecules or ions scatter

or spread spontaneously from high concentration to low
concentration.
• Oxygen and carbon dioxide can diffuse readily through the
cell membrane.
• Equilibrium is reached.
• Substances that are not able to pass through the lipid bilayer
need the help of membrane proteins to get across, this is
called facilitated diffusion.
• Carrier molecules “revolving doors” are used to carry large
molecules (glucose) across the membrane.
• Osmosis is the diffusion of water.
• Solutions with a higher osmotic pressure than body fluids
are called hypertonic.
• Solutions with a osmotic pressure equal to body fluids are
called isotonic.
• Solutions with a lower osmotic pressure than body fluids
are called hypotonic.
 Active

• Active transport is a process that moves particles through

membranes from a region of low concentration to high
concentration.
• Equilibrium is never reached.
 Cell Death

• Apoptosis is a form of cell death that is actually a normal

part of development, sculpting organs from overgrown
tissues.
 References:

• Peterson, R. L., Massicotte, H. B., & Melville, L. H. (2004).

Mycorrhizas: anatomy and cell biology. CABI.
• Jenkins, G., & Tortora, G. J. (2011). Anatomy and physiology. Wiley-
Blackwell.
• Saladin, K. S. (1998). Anatomy & physiology. WCB/McGraw-Hill.
• Tortora, G. J., & Derrickson, B. H. (2008). Principles of anatomy and
physiology. John Wiley & Sons.
• Rizzo, D. C. (2015). Fundamentals of anatomy and physiology. Cengage
Learning.