Chapter : Nuclear Chemistry
Nuclear chemistry is a branch of chemistry which deals with the study of nuclear reactions.
Nuclear reactions: reactions in which nucleus of an atom undergo change.
Radioactivity: is the phenomenon of spontaneous emission of certain invisible radiations by
elements like Uranium. Such substance which emits radiations are called radioactive element
and radiations emitted by this element are called radioactive rays or radiations. It was
discovered by Becquerel and the term was coined by Marie Curie.
Brief History
Henri Becquerel (1896): The journey began with the French physicist Henri Becquerel, who
discovered radioactivity accidentally while studying phosphorescence in uranium salts. He
noted that these salts emitted rays that could fog photographic plates even without exposure
to light. This discovery led him to hypothesize that the rays came from the uranium atoms.
Marie and Pierre Curie (1898): Building on Becquerel’s work, Marie Curie and her husband
Pierre conducted extensive research on radioactivity. They isolated two radioactive elements
from uranium ore: polonium (named after Poland, Mari's homeland) and radium. Their
groundbreaking work earned Marie Curie the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1903 alongside
Becquerel and Pierre. Later, in 1911, she received a second Nobel Prize in Chemistry for her
discoveries.
Ernest Rutherford (1899): Around the same time, Ernest Rutherford began his research on
radioactivity, differentiating types of radiation. He identified alpha and beta particles and
proposed the concept of radioactive decay. The Rutherford model of the atom shifted the
scientific consensus on atomic structure, leading to further research in nuclear physics.
Types of Radioactivity
1. Natural radioactivity: If the radioactive substance emits radiations by itself without
the help of external agencies then, such phenomenon is called natural radioactivity.
2. Artificial or induced radioactivity: If the radioactive substance does not emit radiation
by itself but starts emitting on exposure to radiation by natural radioactive substance
then such phenomenon is called artificial or induced radioactivity.
Types of radiations or particles or radioactive rays
1. Alpha (α ) particle: It is positively charged particle with mass number 4 and atomic
number 2. Represented by [α 42] / ¿ ¿]
2. Beta ( β ¿ particle: It is negatively charged particle with mass number 0 and charge
0 0
equal to charge of an electron. Represented by [ β−1 ] /[ e−1 ]
3. Gamma (γ ¿ particle: It is neutral particle with no charge and mass. Represented by [γ 00
]
Structure of atom
Nucleus: Proton + neutron
Proton: Positively charged with unit mass ( H 11).
TNP/GHSS/2025 Page 1
Neutron: Neutral particle and has unit mass with no charge (n10).
Positron: is positively charged particle which is emitted when a proton changes to neutron.
1 1 0
1H 0n + 1e (Positron)
1+0=1 0+1=1
Electron: emitted when neutron changes to positron
1 1 0
0 n 1 H + −1e
1+0=1 -1+0= -1
Isotopes are the atoms of same element that has same atomic numbers but different mass
numbers. Eg. Cl 35 37 12 14
17& Cl 17, C 6 & Cl 6
Isobars are the atoms of different elements that has different atomic number but same mass
number. Eg. Ar 40 40 54 54
18& CO 20, Cr 24& Fe26
Isosters are molecules having same number atoms and same number of valence electron. Eg.
CO2 and N2O ; H2O and Na2O
−¿ ¿ −¿ ¿
Isoelectronic are those atoms and ions having same number of electron. Eg. N 3 ,O3 , Mg2+,
Al3+
Isodiaphers are atoms having same difference of neutrons
Nuclear isomers are different atoms which have same atomic and mass number but they have
different radioactive properties like halflife, binding energy. Eg. Ua and U2
Properties α -rays β -rays γ -rays
Charge +2 -1 0
Penetrating power Minimum 100 times more than Maximum
penetrating power an α -rays
Ionizing power Maximum 1 Very poor
the of α -rays
100
Nature of product Atomic number of Atomic number of Both atomic number
product is less by 2 product is more by 1 and mass number
units; mass number units; mass number remains same but
by 4 units. remains same. energy of nuclide
decreases.
Luminesence on Zn Produce high Lesser than α -rays Very less
Screen fluorescence fluorescence
Mode of Decay/ Radioactive disintegration
The nucleus of radioactive elements are unstable and undergo spontaneous emission ofα , β , γ
particles to form stable nuclei.
TNP/GHSS/2025 Page 2
The emission of α , β , γ particles from nucleus of radioactive elements is called radioactive
disintegration or decay.
Types of Decay or Disintegration
A. Alpha Particle (α 42 ¿ ( H 42 ): When a radioactive element emits on α -particle, the
n
element formed will have mass less by 4 units and atomic number less by 2 units.
p
ratio increases. The daughter element lies 2 group to the left in the periodic table. Eg.
238 4 234
U 92 α 2 + Th90
0 0
B. Beta Particle ( β−1 ) ( e−1 ): When a radioactive element emits β - aprticle, the new
element formed will have the same mass number but atomic number increases by 1
n
unit. . ratio decreases. The daughter element lies 1 group to the right in the
p
periodic table. Eg. U 238 0 238
92 β−1 + Np 93
C. Gamma decay( γ 00): γ - particle is emitted when a radioactive element in an excited
state after the emission of α and β - particles to stabilize the charge. There is no
change in mass number and atomic number of element.
Group Displacement law (Soddy and Fajan)
It states that when a radioactive element emits α -particle, the new element formed has mass
number less by 4 units and atomic number less by 2 units. Thus, the new element formed is
displaced 2 places of group to the left of the original element in the periodic table.
Similarly, when the β -particle is emitted, the new element formed has same mass number but
its atomic number increases by one unit and it is displaced one group to the right of the
original element in the periodic table.
4 0
α2 β−1
234 238 238
Y 90 U 92 X 93
Determination of number of α and β - particles during decay of radioactive substance
Q1. How many α and β - particles are emitted when U 238 206
92 Pb 82 .
Q2. How many α and β - particles are emitted when atom of
218 206
i. Po84 Pb82
273 209
ii. U 93 Bi83
Q3. When a radioactive element X 232 208
90 loses x α -paricles and y β - particles it produces Y 82 .
[Link] a radioactive element of group 16 undergoes a α - particle emission followed be a β -
particle again followed by α - particle, in which group of the periodic table will it be
found? Give the law governing it.
Stability of Nucleus or serge chart
Neutron-proton ratio (n/p ratio)
TNP/GHSS/2025 Page 3
Determine the stability of nucleus of an [Link] from atomic number 1-20 have
almost equal number of neutron and protons. Their n/p ratio is equal to 1 or almost equal to 1.
They are said to be more stable. [mass no. – atomis
no.=Nutron no.]
Example: 20Ca40
N=40-20=20 and P=20; n/p=20/20=1
With the increase in atomic number, the number of protons in the nucleus increases
and are closely packed. This results increase in their repulsive force. In order to
reduce repulsive force more number of neutrons is required. Therefore, n/p ratio
increases with increase with increase in atomic number until the ratio is almost equal
to 1.5.
The n/p ratio which ranges from 1-1.5 is said to be more stable. Bismuth (Bi) is said to
be largest stable element.
Belt of stability (zone/band)
It is a region in which n/p ratio of element is between 1 to 1.5 and are said to be stable. The
nucleus of element which lies above zone of stability have high n/p ratio. In order to be
stable and reach the zone of stability, the number of proton should be increased or number of
neutron should be decreased. Thus n/p ratio will decrease.
The nuclei of element which lies below band of stability have low n/p ratio (less than 1 or
1. ). It has more number of protons. To reach the stability zone the number of proton should
decrease or number of neutron must increase. This can be achieved by emitting α-particles.
Nuclear reaction: Transmutation
Transmutation is the process by which one atomic number changes to other.
A. Natural transmutation: process of conversion of one atomic nucleus to another
naturally.
For example: 92 Ur238 90Th 224+ 2α4
B. Artificial transmutation: process of conversion of one atomic nucleus into another by
artificial means (induced).The stable nuclei can be converted into another nuclei or
TNP/GHSS/2025 Page 4
elements by inducing or bombarding with high speed sub-atomic particles which are
produced by radioactive elements.
Example: 7N14 + 2α4 (projectile) 8O17+ 1H1 (ejected particle)
The particle which is bombarded in the nucleus of a stable element ( target nucleus) during
artificial transmutation is called projectile and other particle which is produced after the
reaction is called ejected particle.
Types of nuclear reaction
On the basis of type of projectile and ejected particle; (2α4, 0n1, 1H1, 1H2, 1H3,γ)
1. Alpha induced reaction
a. (α,p) type reaction
Example: i) 7N14+2α4 8 O17+ 1H1
ii) 11Na23+2α4 Mg26+1H1
12
b. (α,n) type reaction
Example:13 Al27+2α4 P30
15
C. (α , D ) type reaction ( H 21)
2
H 1 deuteron is an isotope of hydrogen which has mass number 2 and is heavier
than hydrogen atom.
40 4 42 2
Ca20 + α 2 Sc21 + H 1
D. (α , γ ) type reaction
40 4 44 0
Ca20 + α 2 Ti22 + γ 0
Proton induced reaction
A. ( P , α ) type reaction C. ( P , D) type reaction
40 1 37 4 12 1 11 2
Ca20 + H 1 K 19 + α 2 C 6 + H 1 C 6 + H 1
B. ( P , n) type rnx D. ( P , γ ) type reaction
23 1 23 1 12 1 13 0
Na11 + H 1 Mg 12 + n 0 C 6 + H 1 N 7 + γ 0
Deuteron induced reaction
A. ( D , α ) type reaction
12 2 10
C 6 + H 1 B5 + α 2
4
D. ( D , γ ) type reaction
12 2 14 0
B. ( D , n) type rnx C 6 + H 1 N 7 + γ 0
40 2 41
Ca20 + H 1 SC21 + n 0
1
E. ( D , T ) type reaction
7 2 6 3
C. ( D , P ) type reaction Li 3 + H 1 Li 3 + H 1
14 2 15 1
N 7 + H 1 N 7 + H 1
TNP/GHSS/2025 Page 5
Neutron induced reaction
A. (n , α ) type reaction 40 1 39
Ca20 + n 0 K 19 + H 1
2
40 1 37 4
Ca20 + n 0 Ar 18 + α 2 D. (n , γ ) type reaction
14 1 15 0
B. (n , p) type rnx N 7 + n 0 N 7 + γ 0
23 1 23 1
Na11 + n 0 Ne10 + H 1 E. (n , n) type reaction
107 1 107 1
C. (n , D ) type reaction Ag47 + n 0 Ag47 + n 0
Radioisotopes and its application
New elements produced by artificial transmutation are usually radioactive. These
radioactive elements have different atomic masses from their normal stable isotopes.
The artificially produced isotopes are called radio isotopes.
They are usually used in medicine, agriculture and industries.
Radio isotopes of Iodine (I131)
Used for the treatment of goiter (hyperthyroidism).
Radio isotopes of Phosphorous (P32)
Used for the treatment of blood disorder (leukemia).
Radio isotopes of Cobalt (Co60)
Used to detect and destroy cells which causes cancer.
Radio isotopes of Iodine (C14)
Used in radio carbon dating to find the age of archeological objects (fossils or artifacts).
The impact of nuclear material on health, environment, and international politics
Healthwise, exposure to high levels of radiation can cause severe illnesses, including cancer,
acute radiation syndrome, and genetic mutations.
Occupational hazards in industries dealing with radioactive materials have prompted stringent
regulations and safety protocols.
In the environment, radioactive waste management remains a critical concern, as improper
disposal can lead to soil and water contamination, affecting ecosystems and public health.
On the geopolitical stage, the discovery and harnessing of nuclear materials have
significantly influenced international relations and security dynamics. The development of
nuclear weapons during World War II, particularly with the Manhattan Project, shifted
military power balances and led to the Cold War era's nuclear arms race. Nations with nuclear
capabilities often possess significant leverage in diplomatic negotiations, and international
treaties, such as the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), aim to
regulate nuclear armament and promote disarmament.
TNP/GHSS/2025 Page 6