Part A

Unit – I:
Introduction: energy source, India’s production and reserves of
commercial energy sources, need for non-conventional energy sources, energy
alternatives, solar, thermal, photovoltaic, water power, wind, bio-mass, ocean
temperature difference, tidal and waves, geothermal, tar-sands and oil shale,
nuclear (brief description); advantages and disadvantages, comparison
(Qualitative and Quantitative)

1.0 Introduction:

Energy can neither be created nor be destroyed, but it can transfer from one
form to another form.

Energy is an important input for all sectors of any nation and its economy is
dependent on energy. The standard of living of any nation can be directly
related to its per capita energy consumption.

Energy crisis is due to two reasons.

 World‟s population is keeps on increasing.

 Standards of living of human beings are kept on changing.

If we take annual per capita income of various nations and plot them against
per head energy consumption, it will appear that per capita energy
consumption is a measure of per capita income or the per capita energy
consumption is a measure of prosperity of the nation.
For easy understanding the per capita energy consumption of the
selected nations is tabulated below

Sl No Country Per capita energy consumption

1 United States 317 million Btu
2 Russia 206 million Btu
3 Japan 171 million Btu
4 China 076 million Btu
5 India 019 million Btu
Per capita energy consumption for selected nations

NOTE:-BTU-British thermal units, A “British thermal unit” (Btu) are a measure of the heat content of fuels. It is the
quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 pound of liquid water by 1°F at the temperature that water has
its greatest density (approximately 39°F).
 By observing the table one can easily capita energy consumption is 16.68
times neighbor china is also 4 times greater.

BTU conversion factors

Energy Source Physical Units and Btu (Weighted Averages, 2011)

Electricity 1 kilowatthour = 3,412 Btu
(but 7,000 to 11,500 Btu of primary to generate the electricity in
fossil fuel fired power plants)
Natural Gas 1 cubic foot = 1,023 Btu
1 cubic foot = 0.01 therms
Motor Gasoline 1 gallon = 124,238 Btu
Diesel Fuel 1 gallon = 138,690 Btu
Heating Oil 1 gallon = 138,690 Btu
Propane 1 gallon = 91,333 Btu
Wood 1 cord = 20,000,000 Btu

1.1 Energy Source:

Difference between source and resource

Source Resource
Source is a place or thing that provides Something is valuable for us and
us what we are looking for. something that we consume to serve a
function.

Example: A teacher is a source of Example: resources are things that are

knowledge, while sun is a source of valuable to people or a nation for its
energy, A well is source of development, and that is why
underground water government all over the world are
looking for resources of energy that are
renewable or reusable

Energy resources: energy resources are the main sources of energy from
which the energy can be extracted and utilized for mankind. Energy is a
key input for economic growth. The growth of a nation is largely depends
upon availability of energy resources.
 New &
Hydro Thermal Nuclear Total
States/UT renewable ** Growth
31-03- 31-03- 31-03- 31-03- 31-03- 31-03- 31-03- 31-03- 31-03- 31-03-
2011 2012 2011 2012 2011 2012 2011 2012 2011 2012
NORTHERN REGION
Delhi 00.00 00.00 01.51 01.54 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.02 01.51 01.56 03.48
Haryana 00.88 00.88 03.44 03.85 00.00 00.00 00.11 00.12 04.43 04.86 09.64
Himachal Pradesh 00.97 02.07 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.38 00.53 01.35 02.60 92.95
Jammu & Kashmir 00.78 00.78 00.18 00.18 00.00 00.00 00.13 00.13 01.09 01.09 00.11
Punjab 02.23 02.23 02.66 02.66 00.00 00.00 00.33 00.35 05.21 05.24 00.47
Rajasthan 00.99 00.99 04.33 04.60 00.00 00.00 01.47 02.37 06.78 07.95 17.21
Uttar Pradesh 00.52 00.52 04.67 07.12 00.00 00.00 00.61 00.69 05.81 08.33 43.44
Uttrakhand 01.65 01.65 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.15 00.19 01.80 01.84 02.21
Central Sector 05.79 05.99 11.59 12.84 01.62 01.62 00.00 00.00 19.01 20.46 07.63
Sub total 13.82 15.12 28.38 32.79 01.62 01.62 03.17 04.39 46.99 53.93 14.76
WESTERN REGION
Chhatisgarh 00.12 00.12 03.66 03.89 00.00 00.00 00.25 00.27 04.03 04.29 06.36
D & N Haveli 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00
Daman & Diu 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00
Goa 00.00 00.00 00.05 00.05 00.00 00.00 00.03 00.03 00.08 00.08 00.00
Gujarat 00.77 00.77 10.34 14.73 00.00 00.00 02.00 03.50 13.11 19.00 44.92
Madhya Pradesh 01.70 01.70 02.81 02.81 00.00 00.00 00.27 00.48 04.78 04.99 04.39
Maharashtra 03.33 03.33 11.05 13.39 00.00 00.00 02.81 03.63 17.19 20.35 18.36
Central Sector 01.52 01.52 11.01 12.33 01.84 01.84 00.00 00.00 14.37 15.69 09.18
Sub total 07.45 07.45 38.92 47.20 01.84 01.84 05.36 07.91 53.56 64.39 20.22
SOUTHERN REGION
Andra Pradesh 03.70 03.73 07.73 08.38 00.00 00.00 00.77 00.89 12.19 13.00 06.62
Karnataka 03.60 03.60 03.91 05.01 00.00 00.00 02.62 03.18 10.13 11.80 16.44
Kerala 01.88 01.88 00.43 00.43 00.00 00.00 00.15 00.16 02.46 02.47 00.68
Lakshadweep 00.00 00.00 00.03 00.03 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.01 00.01 -07.00
Puducherry 00.00 00.00 00.03 00.03 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.03 00.03 -00.08
Central Sector 00.00 00.00 08.75 10.00 01.32 01.32 00.00 00.00 10.07 11.32 12.41
Sub total 11.30 11.34 25.52 28.52 01.32 01.32 09.34 11.57 47.48 52.75 11.09
EASTERN REGION
A & N Island 00.00 00.00 00.06 00.06 00.00 00.00 00.01 00.01 00.07 00.07 00.00
Bihar 00.00 00.00 00.53 00.53 00.00 00.00 00.07 00.08 00.60 00.61 02.01
Jharkhand 00.13 00.13 01.55 02.60 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 01.68 02.73 62.11
Odisha 02.06 02.06 01.62 02.22 00.00 00.00 00.08 00.10 03.76 04.38 16.42
Sikkim 00.00 00.00 00.01 00.01 00.00 00.00 00.05 00.05 00.05 00.06 09.60
West Bengal 00.98 00.98 06.25 06.48 00.00 00.00 00.16 00.16 07.37 07.62 03.40
Central Sector 00.71 00.71 09.02 10.27 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 09.73 10.98 12.85
Sub total 03.88 03.88 19.02 22.17 00.00 00.00 00.36 00.40 23.26 26.44 13.67
NORTH EAST REGION
Arunachal Pradesh 00.00 00.00 00.02 00.02 00.00 00.00 00.08 00.08 00.09 00.09 00.00
Assam 00.10 00.10 00.34 00.38 00.00 00.00 00.03 00.03 00.47 00.51 07.89
Manipur 00.00 00.00 00.05 00.05 00.00 00.00 00.01 00.01 00.05 00.05 00.00
Meghalaya 00.16 00.24 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.03 00.03 00.19 00.27 43.34
Mizoram 00.00 00.00 00.05 00.05 00.00 00.00 00.04 00.04 00.09 00.09 00.00
Nagaland 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.03 00.03 00.03 00.03 -06.52
Tripura 00.00 00.00 00.15 00.15 00.00 00.00 00.02 00.02 00.17 00.17 00.00
Central Sector 00.86 00.86 00.38 00.38 00.00 00.00 00.00 00.00 01.24 01.24 00.00
Sub total 01.12 01.20 00.99 01.02 00.00 00.00 00.22 00.22 02.33 02.45 05.03
Total states 28.68 29.90 72.08 85.88 00.00 00.00 18.42 24.49 119.21 140.24 17.67
Total central 08.89 09.09 40.75 45.82 04.78 04.47 00.00 00.00 54.41 59.68 09.69
Total all India 37.57 38.99 112.82 131.70 04.78 04.78 18.45 24.49 173.63 199.96 15.17
India’s production and reserves of commercial energy sources
**:- Renewable Energy Sources includes Small Hydro Projects, Wind Power, Biomass Power, Biomass Gasified,
Urban & Indus trial Waste and Solar Power.
* Growth rate of total installed electricity generating capacity of India Sub-totals /Totals may not tally due to
conversion to GW and rounding off.
Source: Central Electricity Authority
1.2.1 Indian Energy Scenario

In India, enormous demand for electricity has arisen due to the economic
growth during the past two decades. In India, the total power generation
capacity in 1947 was only 1360 MW. According to the five-year plans, the total
power generation capacity should be 425,000 MW by 2007 but actual installed
capacity is much lower. However with the liberalization of Indian economy, the
power sector has been made open to the private sector, and it is now expected
that the growth rate of power generation capacity will be faster than what is
estimated in the five-year plan. Generation capacity by different types of power
plants in India as planned is shown in Table 1.5. However, at present the total
installed generation capacity is about 182,689 MW. The breakdown of the same
as per sector and type of fuels is shown in Tables

Power plant Year 8th Plan 9th Plan 10th Plan total
(1991) (1997) (2001) (2007)
Thermal 45,000 28,000 32,000 58,000 16,3000
Hydro 18,443 8,680 26,000 23,000 76,123
Nuclear 1,500 1,320 2,880 5,700
Others 38,000 61,000 81,000 180,000
Total 64,943 76,000 121,880 162,000 424,823
Indian generation capacity (in MW) as planned

Sector
MW %
State sector 83,563.65 47.74
Central sector 56,572.63 30.96
Private sector 42,553.34 23.29

Total 182,689.62
Total installed capacity as per sector in India

Fuel MW %
Total thermal 119,040.90 65.16
Coal 100,098.38 54.29
Gas 17,742.85 09.71
Oil 1,199.75 00.65
Hydro 38,706.40 21.18
Nuclear 4780.00 02.16
RES (Renewable Energy Sources) 20,162.24 11.03
Total 1,82,689.62 100.00
Total installed capacity as per the fuel type in India
Nuclear energy: About 2.39% of power generating capacity is nuclear based in
India. It corresponds to about 4780 MW of the installed capacity. Tarapore was
the first atomic power station with foreign technology and Kalpakkam atomic
power plant in Madras in 1983 was first indigenously commissioned plant. The
nuclear fuel such as uranium is found in Bihar, Rajasthan and Chennai.
Uranium reserve in India is estimated to be about 33,000 tons. Thorium is
another nuclear fuel and it is present in the monazite beach sand in Kerala
Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) at Trombay is the major centre for
research in atomic energy in India. The nuclear power plants are as follows:

Sl No Plant Location Installed capacity Under construction

01 Rawatbhata, Rajasthan 100+200+4*220=1800MW 2*700=1400MW
02 Narora, Uttar Pradesh 2*220=440MW
03 Kakrapur, Gujarat 2*220=440MW 2*700=1400MW
04 Tarapur, Maharashtra 2*160+2*540=1400MW
05 Kaiga, Karnataka 4*220=880MW
06 Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu 2*220=440MW 1*500=500MW
07 Kudankulam, Tamil Nadu 2*1000=2000MW
Nuclear Power Plants in India

Solar energy: Solar electrification in remote villages has begun. Salijipally in

Andhra Pradesh became the country's first village to be electrified using SPY
(Solar photovoltaic) system. The first two 100 KW partial grid interactive SPY
power projects at Kalyanpur in Aligarh district and Saraisadi in More district
have been commissioned. Work on solar power is being carried out by
a. IIT, Mumbai,
b. BHEL, Hyderabad,
c. NPL, New Delhi, and
d. NAL, Bangalore.

Fossil fuels: The amount of coal deposition in India is estimated to be about

85,000 million tons. The major portion, that is 60% of the coal, exists in the
eastern part of the country, which includes Jharkhand and West Bengal. The
low-grade coal called lignite is found in Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan.

Some of the thermal power plants in India are shown in Table

Sl Power Plant Location & Capacity
Operator State
No Name District (MW)
Mundra Thermal Mundra,
01 Adani Power Gujarat 4,620
Power Station Kutch (dist)
Vindhyachal Super
National Thermal Power Corporation Vindhya Nagar, Madhya
02 Thermal Power 3,760
(NTPC) Singrauli (dist) Pradesh
Station
Barh Super Thermal National Thermal Power Corporation
03 Barh, Patna (dist) Bihar 3,330
Power Station (NTPC)
National Thermal Power Corporation Jyothi Nagar, Andra
04 NTPC Ramagundam 2,600
(NTPC) Karimnagar (dist) Pradesh
Farakka Super
National Thermal Power Corporation Farakka, Murshidabad
05 Thermal Power West Bengal 2,100
(NTPC) (dist)
Station
National Thermal Power Corporation Vidyutnagar, Gautam Utter
06 NTPC Dadri 1,820
(NTPC) Budh Nagar (dist) Pradesh
Raichur Thermal Karnataka Power Corporation
07 Raichur (dist) Karnataka 1,720
Power Station Limited (KPCL)
 Kothagudem
Andhra Pradesh Power Generation Paloncha, Khammam Andra
08 Thermal Power 1,720
Corporation (APGENCO) (dist) Pradesh
Station
Tuticorin Thermal
09 Tamil Nadu Electricity Board (TNEB) Tuticorin (dist) Tamil Nadu 1,050
Power Station
Neyveli Thermal
10 Neyveli Lignite Corporation (NLC) Neyveli, Cuddalore (dist) Tamil Nadu 1,020
Power Station I
VijayNagar, Bellary
11 JSW Power Plant Jindal South West Karnataka 860
(dist)
Badarpur Thermal National Thermal Power Corporation
12 Badarpur, New Delhi Delhi 705
Power Station (NTPC)
Bellary Thermal Karnataka Power Corporation
13 Kudatini, Bellary (dist) Karnataka 500
Power station Limited (KPCL)
Udupi Thermal
14 Lanco Nandikoor, Udupi (dist) Karnataka 600
Power Plant
Few Thermal Power Stations installed in India

Wind energy: The total wind energy potential is estimated in India as

1,51,918 MW also India is the 5th Largest wind power generating nation
among the globe. Currently, total capacity of 20,149 MW has been
installed and 6.3% of total world share.

Table shows few installed wind mills in India, and state wise distribution

Total
Power Plant Producer Location State Capacity
in (MW)
Muppandal windfarm Muppandal Wind Kanyakumari Tamil Nadu 1500.0
Jaisalmer Wind Park Suzlon Energy Jaisalmer Rajasthan 1064.0
Brahmanvel windfarm Parakh Agro Insdusries Dhule Maharashtra 528.0
Dhalgaon Windfarm Grade Marine Exports Sangli Maharashtra 278.0
Vankusawade Windpark Suzlon Energy Satara Maharashtra 259.0
Acciona Tuppadahalli Tuppadahalli Energy India Private Limited Chitradurga Karnataka 56.1
Dangiri Wind Farm Oil India limited Jaiselmer Rajasthan 54.0
Cape Comorin Aban Loyd Chiles Offshore Ltd. Kanyakumari Tamil Nadu 33.0
Kayathar Subhash Subhash Ltd. Kayathar Tamil Nadu 30.0
Wind mills installed in India (more than 30MW plants)

Wind power Installed

capacity as on 31-03-
Sl No State 2014
01 Tamil Nadu 7162.18
02 Gujarat 3174.58
03 Maharashtra 3021.85
04 Rajasthan 2684.65
05 Karnataka 2135.50
06 Andra Pradesh 447.65
07 Madhya Pradesh 386.00
08 Kerala 35.10
09 Others 1101.49
Total 20149.00
State wise wind mill distribution in India

Hydel Energy: The total hydel energy potential is estimated in India as

1,48,701 MW, out of which 35,944.5 MW is under operation, 13,131.3 MW
is under construction, 49,075.8 MW is the capacity under construction
and operation. But still 96,244.2 MW is yet to be taken for construction.
Table shows few installed hydel power stations in India.
 Sl Power Plant Capacity
No Name (Dam) Operator State (MW)
01 Tehri Dam Tehri Hydro Development Corporation Limited (THDC) Uttarakand 2,400
MahaGenco (Maharashtra State Power Generation
02 Koyna Company Limited - MSPGCL) Maharashtra 1,960
03 Srisailam Dam Andhra Pradesh Power Generation Corporation (APPGC) Andra Pradesh 1,670
04 Sharavathi Karnataka Power Corporation Limited (KPCL) Karnataka 1,469
05 Bhakra Dam Bhakra Management Board Karamchari Sangh (BMBKS) Punjab 1,325
06 Kalinadi Karnataka Power Corporation Limited (KPCL) Karnataka 1,240
07 Chamera Dam National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) Hichamal Pradesh 1,071
Few Hydel Power Stations installed in India

1.2.2 Energy Resources

Energy resources are the main sources of energy from which the
energy can be extracted and utilized for mankind. Energy is a key input in
economic growth. The growth of a nation is largely depends upon the
energy resources.

1.2.3 Classification of Energy Resources

The energy resources can be classified on the basis of usability of

energy resources, traditional usage of energy resources, long-term
availability of energy resources, commercial application of resources and
origin of resources.

Primary and secondary energy resources

i. Primary resources: Resources available in the nature in the raw
form are called primary resources. Fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas),
uranium and hydro power are primary energy resources. These
energy resources cannot be used in raw form. Primary energy
resources have to be located, extracted, processed and converted
into a suitable form before use.
ii. Secondary resources: Secondary energy resources are obtained
from primary energy resources by processing. Processing helps in
transformation of primary resources into the secondary or usable
energy form so that it can be utilized by consumers. Electricity,
steam, hot water, petrol, diesel, LNG and CNG are secondary energy
resources.

Conventional and non-conventional energy resources

i. Conventional: Conventional energy resources are energy resources

which have been traditionally used from many years. These
resources are also widely used at present and likely to be depleted.
 [Link]-conventional: These are alternate energy resources to the
conventional energy resources which are being considered to be
used on large scale. The conventional energy resource are likely to
be depleted in about 50-60 years and non-conventional energy
resources should be fully developed by then to meet the energy
requirement.
The comparison of conventional and non-conventional energy resources
is given in Table

Conventional resources Non-Conventional resources

Traditional Non Traditional
These have been in use for many years These are not in routine use at present
These resources can be easily converted into These resources require some costly
mechanical energy
These are likely to be depleted, that is, these These are no depletable or may be
have limited availability
Coal, petrol, diesel, nuclear fuels, CNG and Available in vast quantities Solar, wind, tidal,
LPG are conventional energy resources geothermal and biogas are non-conventional
energy resources.
Comparison between conventional and non-conventional resources

Renewable and non-renewable energy resources

 Renewable: Resources which can be renewed by nature again and
again so that their supply is not adversely affected by the rate of their
consumption are called renewable resources.
 Non-renewable: Resources which are available in certain finite
quantity and cannot be replenished are called non-renewable.
The comparison of renewable and non-renewable energy resources is given in
Table
Renewable resources Non-renewable resources
These are inexhaustible resources These are exhaustible resources
These are non-traditional in use These are traditional in use
New methods are being developed to use Widely used as energy resources
these resources
Efforts are taken to make vast use of Efforts are taken to conserve these
these resources resources
Hydel, solar, wind, tidal and geothermal Fossil fuels, nuclear fuels and natural gases are
resources are renewable energy resources non-renewable energy resources

Commercial and non-commercial energy resources

i. Commercial energy resources: The secondary usable energy

resources such as electricity, CNG, LPG, petrol and diesel are
essential for commercial activities. The economy of a nation highly
 depends on its ability to process and transform the natural raw
energy sources into usable commercial energy sources.
ii. Non-commercial energy: The energy which can be derived directly
from nature so as to be used without passing through any
commercial outlet is known as the non- commercial energy. Wood,
animal dung cake and crop residues are non-commercial energy
sources.

1.3 Need for non-conventional energy sources

There is a growing concern worldwide on the use of fossil fuels for

the following reasons:

 There is ever-increasing use of fossil fuels

 Depletion of fossil fuels is taking place at a rapid pace.
 There may be oil crisis as happened in 1973. Organization of Petrol
Exporting Countries (OPEC) put an embargo on oil production in 1973
And these countries started oil pricing control strategy, resulting in
severe energy crisis and steep rise in oil prices worldwide.

Owing to above reasons, more importance is being given to the development of

alternative sources of energy such as non-conventional, renewable and
environmental-friendly. The importance of non-conventional energy resources
is also increasingly felt due to the following reasons:
1. The demand of energy is rapidly increasing due to fast industrialization
and population growth. The conventional energy resources are
insufficient to meet such growing demand.
2. The conventional energy resources are non-renewable and these are
depleting fast.
3. The conventional energy resources (fossil fuels) on usage cause pollution,
thereby degrading the environment.
4. The projects to harness large hydro resources affect wildlife, cause
deforestation and affect nearby villagers due to submerging of a vast
area.
5. Fossil fuels are also used as raw materials in the chemical industry.
There is need to conserve fossil fuels for future generation.
It is important to explore and develop non-conventional energy resources to
reduce excessive dependence on conventional resources. The present trend is
to develop non-conventional resources to serve as supplement rather than
alternative for conventional sources for some more time to come.

1.4 Energy alternatives/types of energy resource

The sun is a continuous fusion reactor in which hydrogen combines, to form
helium and liberates large amounts of heat in the process. The sun rays
contain a large amount of energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation due
to the continuous nuclear fusion reaction taking place in the sun. The energy
is released at the rate of 3.7 x 1020 MW. This heat energy contained in the sun
rays can be utilized to generate electrical power. Out of which only 1017 Watts
hits the atmosphere, and where as solar power available at the earth surface is
1016 watts, but for civilization the total power required is 1013 Watts.
The amount of solar energy is expressed in „solar constant‟. The solar
constant the total energy that falls on a unit area exposed normally to the rays of
the sun, at the average sun-earth distance. The most accepted value of solar
Constant is 1.353 kW/m2. A number of scattering and absorption processes in the
atmosphere reduce the maximum heat flux reaching the earth‟s surface is around
1 kW/m2.
The sun rays are focused on solar collector to heat butane water to generate
butane gas in the butane boiler. The butane gas under high pressure from the
boiler is taken to butane turbine to perform mechanical work. A generator is
coupled to the turbine to generate electrical power as shown in Figure. The
potential of the power generation by solar energy can be in the order if 1.75 x
1011 MW. The mechanical devices which help to collect the solar radiations so
as to convert them into heat energy are called solar collectors.

Working of a solar power plant

Photovoltaic conversion is a direct electricity generation method in which

sunlight is converted into electricity using solar cells. The most common solar
cells are manufactured from a highly refined silicon material. A single solar cell
can produce electric power of 1 W at voltage of 0.5 V. Several solar cells can be
connected in series or parallel to produce power of required voltage and
current. Solar cells are an intermittent energy source and generally used with
batteries to store generated electricity, thereby providing a more economical
power generation system.
Advantages:
 It is renewable source of energy.
 Solar energy is available freely in nature. It does not pollute the
environment
 It can be directly converted into electrical energy by using photovoltaic
cells.
Disadvantages:
 It is available only during daytimes and clear days.
 Low efficiency.
 It requires very large area to entrap appreciable
solar energy for the generation of an economical
amount of electricity.

Impact on environment
 Solar thermal system may pose a health hazard because of careless
disposal of the heat transfer fluids used.

 Solar photovoltaic modules pose disposal problems owing to the
presence of arsenic and cadmium.

 The total system comprising solar power generator with accessories
contains several pollutants.
 Solar reflectors cause hazard to eyesight.
1.4.2. Thermal Energy:
Classification of fossil fuels

Thermal energy is the energy which is stored as the heat energy in the
fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are the fuels obtainable from the earth that have been
accumulated over thousands and thousands of years by the decaying of plants,
These fuels produce heat energy when they are burnt. Heat energy is mainly
used for transportation and electric power generation in thermal power plants.
The fossil fuels can be classified as shown.
Advantages
 Fuel cost is comparatively less.
 Initial cost is less compared to other types of power generating systems for
same power output.
  Space required is less compared to hydel plants.
Disadvantages

 It pollutes the atmosphere.

 Operating cost is high compared to hydel power plants

1.4.3. Water (hydro/hydel) Energy:

Hydel energy is the potential energy of water created due to the storage of water
at a higher level. A dam is built across the river to store water at a higher level.
When this stored water in dam at the higher level flows under pressure to the
lower level, it can run the turbine to generate electrical power. A hydroelectric
power plant is shown in Figure. It consists of

(i) Reservoir,
(ii) Penstock to carry water from reservoir to turbine,
(iii) Turbine to convert water energy into mechanical work,
(iv) Generator to convert mechanical work into electrical energy and
(v) Power transmission system.
Advantages

 Once a dam is constructed, electricity can be produced at a constant

rate.
 If electricity is not needed, the sluice gates can be shut, stopping
electricity generation. The water can be saved for use another time when
electricity demand is high.
 Dams are designed to last many decades and so can contribute to the
generation of electricity for many years / decades.
 The lake that forms behind the dam can be used for water sports and
leisure / pleasure activities. Often large dams become tourist attractions
in their own right.
 The lake's water can be used for irrigation purposes.
 The buildup of water in the lake means that energy can be stored until
needed, when the water is released to produce electricity.

Disadvantages
 Dams are extremely expensive to build and must be built to a very high
standard.
 The high cost of dam construction means that they must operate for
many decades to become profitable.
 The flooding of large areas of land means that the natural environment is
Destroyed.
 People living in villages and towns that are in the valley to be flooded,
must move out. This means that they lose their farms and businesses. In
some countries, people are forcibly removed so that hydro-power
schemes can go ahead.
 The building of large dams can cause serious geological damage. For
Example, the building of the Hoover Dam in the USA triggered a number of
earth quakes and has depressed the earth‟s surface at its location.
 Although modern planning and design of dams is good, in the past old
dams have been known to be breached (the dam gives under the weight
of water in the lake). This has led to deaths and flooding.
 Dams built blocking the progress of a river in one country usually means
that the water supply from the same river in the following country is out
of their control. This can lead to serious problems between neighboring
countries.
 Building a large dam alters the natural water table level. For example,
the building of the Aswan Dam in Egypt has altered the level of the water
table. This is slowly leading to damage of many of its ancient monuments
as salts and destructive minerals are deposited in the stone work from
„rising damp‟ caused by the changing water table level.
1.4.4. Wind Energy:

Wind is induced in atmosphere by uneven heating of earth‟s surface by

the sun. The wind energy is associated with the movement of large masses of
air from cold to hot regions. The motion results from uneven heating of
atmosphere by sun, thereby creating, temperature, density and pressure
differences. The wind energy can be used to run windmill, which in turn will
drive a generator to produce electric power or run water pumps. The energy
available in the wind is about 1.5 x 107 MW.

Windmill is a device which converts the kinetic energy of the moving mass of
air or wind into mechanical work. The windmills can be classified depending on
the orientation of axis of rotation as horizontal axis windmill as shown in
Figure 1.3 (a) and vertical axis windmills as shown in Figure 1.3 (b). The
windmills can also be classified based on the number of blades as single bladed
windmill, double bladed windmill, three bladed windmill and multi bladed
windmill as shown in Figure
Advantages
 The wind is free and with modern technology it can be captured
efficiently.
 Once the wind turbine is built the energy it produces does not cause
green house gases or other pollutants.
 Although wind turbines can be very tall each takes up only a small plot
of land. This means that the land below can still be used. This is
especially the case in agricultural areas as farming can still continue.
 Many people find wind farms an interesting feature of the landscape.
 Remote areas that are not connected to the electricity power grid can use
wind turbines to produce their own supply.
 Wind turbines have a role to play in both the developed and third world.
 Wind turbines are available in a range of sizes which means a vast range
of people and businesses can use them. Single households to small
towns and villages can make good use of range of wind turbines available
today.
 Horizontal axis wind mill and (b) vertical axis wind mill (c) single bladed rotor
(d) double bladed rotor (e) multi bladed rotor

Disadvantages

 The strength of the wind is not constant and it varies from zero to storm
force. This means that wind turbines do not produce the same amount of
electricity all the time. There will be times when they produce no
electricity at all.
 When wind turbines are being manufactured some pollution is produced.
Therefore wind power does produce some pollution.
 Large wind farms are needed to provide entire communities with enough
electricity. For example, the largest single turbine available today can
only provide enough electricity for 475 homes, when running at full
capacity. How many would be needed for a town of 100 000 people?
  Wind turbines are noisy. Each one can generate the same level of noise
as a family car travelling at 70 mph.

1.4.5. Biomass Energy:

Biomass: Green plants trap solar energy through the process of

„photosynthesis‟ and convert it into organic matter, known as biomass.

Wood, charcoal, agricultural wastes produce the bio energy after burning; cow
dung, garbage is aerobically decomposed to obtain the energy.

Dried animal dung or cattle dung cakes are used directly as fuels in rural areas
but it produces smoke and has low efficiency of burning.

Biogas: biogas is formed due to decomposition of organic waste matter. During

decomposition of organic matter, the gases such as carbon dioxide, hydrogen
and hydrogen sulphide are formed.

The organic waste is generally animal dung, plant waste, etc. these waste
products contain carbohydrates, proteins, which are broken down by bacteria
in absence of oxygen aerobic conditions.

Advantages
 Provides a non-polluting and renewable source of energy.
 Leads to improvement in the environment, and sanitation and hygiene.
 Provides a source for decentralized power generation.
 Household wastes and bio-wastes can be disposed of usefully and in a
healthy manner.
 Any biodegradable matter can be used as substrate.

Disadvantages
 The process is not very attractive economically (as compared to other bio-
fuels) on a large industrial scale.
 It is very difficult to enhance the efficiency of biogas systems.
 Biogas contains some gases as impurities, which are corrosive to the
 Metal parts of internal combustion engines.
 Not feasible to locate at all the locations.

1.4.6. Ocean Temperature Difference:

The various types of energy resources which ocean can provide are as
follows:
 The tides of the ocean can be used to generate electricity.
 The wind produces large waves in the ocean having high kinetic energy
which can be converted into electric power.
  The temperature gradient from the surface of ocean to the great depth
inside the ocean can be used to provide thermal energy to generate
electricity.

The water at the ocean surface is around 25°C, while it is about 5°C at a
depth of 100-200 m. Hence, these are a temperature gradient of about 20°C
between these two levels and this can be used for generation of electricity by
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC). A low boiling point liquid such as
ammonia, propane or Freon can be vaporized into high pressure vapor using
the heat of warm water available at the ocean surface into a boiler as shown in
Figure The liquid vapor is then used to run a turbine coupled with a generator
to produce electricity. After expansion in the turbine, the liquid vapor is
condensed into liquid in the condenser using cold water from the deep ocean at
a temperature of about 5°C. The condensed liquid is pumped back to the boiler
so as to be heated by warm water from the ocean surface. This cycle is
repeated.

Advantages
 Power generation is continuous throughout the year.
 Energy is available from nature at no cost.

Disadvantages
 It has a small temperature gradient which gives a small thermodynamic
efficiency.
 Capital cost is high due to necessity of heat exchanger, boiler and
condenser

OTEC power plant.

1.4.7. Tidal and waves energy:

Ocean waves and tides contain a large amount of both potential and
kinetic energy which can be utilized for power generation. A tide is the
periodical rise and fall of sea water caused principally by the interaction of the
gravitational fields of the sun and the moon. The highest level of tidal water is
called flood or high tide and the lowest level is called low or ebb tide. The level
difference between the high and the low tide is called tidal range. The up and
down movement of the tide is used for filling and emptying the tidal basin of
the plant. The typical tidal plant is shown in Figure (a) and (b). The tidal basin
is filled up during high tide and it is emptied out during low tide. The flowing in
and flowing out water between sea and tidal basin is used to run a turbine and
generate electricity.

Advantages
 It is free from pollution.
 It is superior to hydel energy as it does not depend on water cycle.
Tidal basin can also be used for fish farming.
 It is best suited to meet the peak power demands.

(a) Low tide tidal power plant, (b) High tide tidal power plant
Disadvantages
 It is initial investment is comparatively high.
 Limited locations are available for the construction of tidal power plant.
 Intermittent power generation due to variation in tidal cycle.

The ocean waves are caused by wind, which in turn is caused by uneven
heating and subsequent cooling of earth‟s crust and rotation of the earth.

The most of the sea surface in the form of wind waves forms a source of
energy. Floating propellers are placed in shallow waters, near the shores, and
due to motion of the waves the propellers also get the motion and this kinetic
energy can be used to drive turbines.

The harnessing of wave energy requires the development of special power

conversion devices.

Advantages
 The wave energy is a cheap and inexhaustible source of energy.
 Wave-power devices, unlike solar or wind devices, do not use up large
land masses.
 A staggered array of power devices can produce electricity, protect
coastlines from the destructive action of waves, minimize erosion and
even help create artificial harbors.
 It is pollution free.
Disadvantages
 Wave lacks dependability.
 There is a scarcity of accessible sites of large wave activity.
 Economic factors like capital investment, cost of maintenance, repair and
replacement hinder the development.
Tide Waves
Waves are the energy that moves across
Definition Tides is the rise and fall of the sea level
the surface of water
Gravitational pull from the moon and
Cause Wind
sun
Intensity of tides change depending on Intensity of waves also changes
Intensity location and the position of the earth. depending on wind strength and other
Can go as high as 55 feet factors, can go as high as 90ft in air
Occurs daily, may be twice in a day in
Frequency Occurs regularly across bodies of water
coastal areas
Capillary waves or ripples, seas, and
Types Spring tides and neap tides
swells
Difference between tide and wave

1.4.8. Geothermal energy:

The word geothermal is a Greek word meaning the heat of the earth.
The temperature at earth's core is on the order of 4000°C. The internal heat
energy available at a considerable depth below the surface of the earth is
called geothermal energy. It is the heat source in the form of molten rock
within the earth which is called magma and it has the temperature of about
3000°C.

A geothermal power plant is shown in Figure The water is made to flow down
through a porous layer to magma heat source where the water is converted into
steam by the heat available at magma. The steam comes out through the vents
of the earth surface. This steam is used to vaporize certain low boiling
refrigerant. This high pressure refrigerant steam is used to run the turbine.
The turbine runs a generator to produce electric power.
 Advantages
 Energy is continuously available. It is more reliable.
 It has a good potential to meet the power requirement.
 Capital cost is low in comparison to nuclear and thermal power plants.

Geothermal power plant

Disadvantages
 Components of the plants are liable to be corroded.
 Gaseous effluent creates nuisance at the site for the workers.
 Gaseous effluent also creates thermal pollution to the environment.
 Ground water is likely to be polluted from gaseous effluents.

1.4.9. Oil Shale and Tar Sands:
The term oil shale generally refers to any sedimentary rock that contains
solid bituminous materials (called kerogen) that are released as petroleum-like
liquids when the rock is heated in the chemical process of pyrolysis. Oil shale
was formed millions of years ago by deposition of silt and organic debris on
lake beds and sea bottoms. Over long periods of time, heat and pressure
transformed the materials into oil shale in a process similar to the process that
forms oil; however, the heat and pressure were not as great. Oil shale generally
Contains enough oil that it will burn without any additional processing, and it
is known as “the rock that burns”.

Oil shale can be mined and processed to generate oil similar to oil
pumped from conventional oil wells; however, extracting oil from oil shale is
more complex than conventional oil recovery and currently is more expensive.
The oil substances in oil shale are solid and cannot be pumped directly out of
the ground. The oil shale must first be mined and then heated to a high
Temperature (a process called retorting); the resultant liquid must then be
separated and collected. An alternative but currently experimental process
referred to as in situ retorting involves heating the oil shale while it is still
underground, and then pumping the resulting liquid to the surface.

Tar sands (also referred to as oil sands) are a combination of clay, sand,
water, and bitumen, a heavy black viscous oil. Tar sands can be mined and
processed to extract the oil-rich bitumen, which is then refined into oil. The
bitumen in tar sands cannot be pumped from the ground in its natural state;
instead tar sand deposits are mined, usually using strip mining or open pit
techniques, or the oil is extracted by underground heating with additional
upgrading.

Tar sands are mined and processed to generate oil similar to oil pumped
from conventional oil wells, but extracting oil from tar sands is more complex
than conventional oil recovery. Oil sands recovery processes include extraction
and separation systems to separate the bitumen from the clay, sand, and water
that make up the tar sands. Bitumen also requires additional upgrading before
it can be refined. Because it is so viscous (thick), it also requires dilution with
lighter hydrocarbons to make it transportable by pipelines.

Advantages
Oil Shale
 Potential to produce a superior liquid-fuel product.
 Low sulfur content and therefore less air pollution.
 Abundant availability in countries such as USA
that have the highest need for oil.
Tar Sands

 Large reserves available, and in countries such as Canada which are

close to the countries that are major users of oil, for eg., USA.
Disadvantages

Oil Shale
 Costs of fuel production from oil shale have not yet been fully evaluated.
 Disposal of the used shale could create ecological problems. Some
studies have revealed soil and groundwater contamination to various
degrees by chemicals or pollutants from the oil shale tailings.
Tar Sands
 Production cannot be ramped up as quickly as conventional oil
production, owing to the operational processes used in deriving oil from
the sands.
 Extracting oil from tar sands entails high production costs and low net
useful energy yields.
 Production of oil from tar sands has high negative environmental impacts
1.4.10. Nuclear Energy:
The nuclear energy is released when atoms of certain unstable material split in the
process of fission. A small mass of nuclear fuel such as uranium can release an
enormous amount of heat energy when it undergoes fission process. One kilogram
of uranium-235 can give heat energy on fission process which is equal to the heat
which can be obtained by burning 4000 tons of high-grade petroleum. The
uranium can be made to undergo fission process inside a nuclear reactor. The
nuclear fission is a chain reaction as shown in Figure

Fission process in the nuclear cell

1.5 Energy Parameters

The consumption of energy as well as the growth of energy requirement

has to be monitored by every nation. To conserve energy resources, it is
necessary for every nation to adopt measures to maximize economic
development with minimum energy consumption. The energy parameters are
measured using the yardstick of gross domestic product (GDP). The GDP is the
value of all finished goods and services produced in a given period.
1.5.1 Energy Elasticity:

It is defined as the growth in energy requirement per GDP

𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑡 ℎ 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
Energy elasticity= 𝐺𝐷𝑃
The energy should contribute in increasing the GDP. The lower is the
value of energy elasticity the more is the growth of GDP. The value of energy
elasticity for the developed countries ranges from 0.8 to 1.0. The value of
energy elasticity for India is about 1.2. Hence, in our country, there is scope for
improvement in the efficiency of energy consumption as well as energy saving
in industry.

1.5.2 Energy Intensity:

The energy intensity is defined as the ratio of energy consumption and GDP

𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Energy intensity= 𝐺𝐷𝑃
The energy ratio is a measure of the efficiency in utilizing energy in
developing national economy. High value of energy intensity indicates that
higher amounts of energy resources are used in converting these resources to
national GDP or economy. Lower energy intensity indicates that a lower price
or cost is made in converting energy resources into national GDP. Factors
affecting energy intensity are as follows:
 Energy efficiency of the appliances and buildings by proper design and
provision of insulation.
 Fuel economy of vehicles.
 Frequency of travel and larger geographical distances, resulting in
greater travelling and energy consumption.
 Economical means and pattern of transportation.
 Availability of mass transit system and its capacity and
utilization. Efforts to conserve energy.
 Weather with mild temperature not requiring heating or cooling.

1.5.3 Energy policy in India:

The Government of India has formulated an energy policy to ensure

adequate energy supply at minimum cost, self-sufficiency in energy supplies
and protection of environment from an adverse impact of utilizing energy
resources in any unjust manner. The policy has the following features:

 Accelerated exploitation of domestic conventional energy resources such

as fossil fuels, hydro and nuclear energy.
 Intensification of exploration to achieve, indigenous production of oils
and gases.
 Management of demand of oil and other forms of energy.
Energy conservation and its management.
 Optimum utilization of existing capacity in the country.
 Development and exploitation of renewable source of energy to meet
energy requirement of rural communities.
 Intensification of resources and development activities in new and
renewable energy resources.
  Organization of training for personal engaged at various levels in the
energy sector.

1.6 Environmental aspects of energy

1.6.1 Pollution:

What are the pollutants produced during energy conversion? What do you
understand by indoor and outdoor pollution? What are the remedial actions?

During every energy conversion process, some energy is released into the
atmosphere in the form of heat. Some pollutants in the form of gases are also
produced during conversion and these gases are also emitted into the
surroundings. Both heat and gases can cause degradation of the environment.
The emitted gases are as follows:
 Carbon dioxide (C02), Excess emission of CO2 in the atmosphere causes
global warming.
 Carbon monoxide (CO). It severely impairs the oxygen-dependent tissues
in the human body.
 Sulphur oxide (SO).It causes respiratory diseases, acid rains and
corrosion of metals and building stones.
 Nitrogen oxide (NO). It can cause respiratory and cardiovascular
diseases, deprive body tissues of oxygen and form acid in lungs.

pollution can be of following types:

 Indoor pollution. Indoor pollution occurs by the use of conventional

chullahs in rural areas. Nearly 5 lakh children and women die every year
from diseases caused by indoor air pollution. Indoor pollution can be
avoided by the use of improved house hold stove.

 Outdoor pollution. This is mainly caused by the use of fossil fuels (coal
and oil) in industry and transports.

The remedial actions are as follows

 Lesser use of fossil fuels and use of more gasified coal.

 Alternative fuels such as hydrogen which are non-polluting should be
used.
 Vehicles running on electricity or battery to be used instead of IC
engines.
1.6.2 Greenhouse Effects:

A greenhouse made of transparent glass sheets behaves differently to

incoming shortwave radiation and outgoing long wave radiation. It allows the
entry of sunlight but prevents the exit of heat (reflected infrared radiation). The
greenhouse can maintain a controlled and warm environment inside for growth
of plants. The earth has an envelope of carbon dioxide (C02) which behaves
similar to greenhouse. The envelope allows heat from sun to enter but prevent
heat to escape from earth by stopping reflected infrared radiation. This
phenomenon of greenhouse effect by CO2 envelope helps' the earth to maintain
the surface temperature to 15°C (hospitable to life), otherwise the earth would
become a frozen planet. Normal concentration of CO2 is about 0.03% and any
increase in the concentration of CO2 will upset the temperature balance,
resulting in further warming of the globe. The carbon dioxide emission is more
from developed countries, accounting for 82% of total greenhouse gas emission
of the world.

1.7 Energy Chain

The primary energy sources in the raw form cannot be used directly. It is
impossible to drive a vehicle or electric motor using coal, petroleum or
uranium. The energy available in primary energy sources is called raw energy.
The primary energy sources have to be transformed into useful forms of energy
resources which are then called secondary energy resources fuels.

The sequence of energy transmission from primary to secondary energy

is called energy chain or energy route as shown in Figure 1.8. Mechanical
energy, electrical energy and thermal energy can be obtained from primary and
secondary energy resources.
Secondary
Primary Processing energy Transmission
energy resources Consumer
source or fuels
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Part A
Unit – II:

Solar Radiation: Extra-Terrestrial radiation, spectral distribution of

extra terrestrial radiation, solar constant, solar radiation at the
earth’s surface, beam, diffuse and global radiation, solar radiation
data.
Measurement of Solar Radiation: Pyrometer, shading ring
pyrheliometer, sunshine recorder, schematic diagrams and principle
of working.
Solar Radiation Geometry: Flux on a plane surface, latitude,
declination angle, surface azimuth angle, hour angle, zenith angle,
and solar altitude angle, expression for angle between the incident
beam and the normal to a plane surface (No derivation) local
apparent time. Apparent motion of sun, day length, numerical
examples.
Solar Energy – General Aspects:

Sun and Earth Sun

 It is a sphere of very hot gases and its largest members of the solar
system.
 The diameter of the sun is 1.39 x 106 km
 The distance between the sun and earth is 1.496 x 108 km, it subtends
an angle of only 32 minutes (0.53) at the earth’s surface.
 Sun completes one rotation in four weeks when observed from the earth.
But the equator of the sun takes 27 days and Polar Regions takes about
30 days for each rotation.
 The effective black body of the sun is 5773 K.
 The heat generation is mainly due to various kinds of fusion reactions
but most of the energy is released in which hydrogen (i.e. four protons)
combine to form helium, the fusion reaction is as follows.
4( H1)→ H4+26.3 MeV
1 2 e
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This energy is produced in the interior of the solar sphere and

transmitted out by the radiation into the system.

s T4
Net energy radiated is given by the equation, E  s

Where s = Emissivity of the surface,  = Stefan’s Boltzmann constant and

Tc = Effective black body surface temperature of the sun.

Earth

 It is almost round in shape and has diameter if 1.27 x 104 km.

 Its real shape is a sphere flattened at the poles and bulged in the plan
normal to the poles.
 The earth’s inner core is solid mass made of iron and nickel and the next
outer core is melted state or iron and nickel. The outer most portions are
made of rocks.
 The existence of the blue green algae indicates beginning of
photosynthesis at least 3 x 109 years ago. As a result of photosynthesis,
the level of O2 and O3 increased. In the atmosphere which block the ultra
violet (UV) solar radiation coming from the sun. Half of the earth is lit by
the sun at a time. It reflects one-third of the sunlight that falls on it is
known as earth’s albedo.
 The length of days and nights keep changing because the earth is
spinning about its axis which is inclined at an angle of 23.5.

Figure 2.1 Sun and Earth in the solar system.

The amount of solar energy available on the earth’s surface is 3.7 x 1020
MW, Out of which only 10 17 Watts hits the atmosphere, and where as solar
power available at the earth surface is 1016 watts, but for civilization the total
power required is 1013 Watts. The atmospheric constituents affect the solar
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radiation by two processes called absorption and scattering. The energy

radiated by the sun as electromagnetic waves of which 99 percent have wave
lengths in the range of 0.2 to 0.4 m. Solar energy reaching the top of the
earth’s atmosphere consists of about 8% UV radiation (short wave length, less
than 0.39 m), 46% percent visible light (0.39 m to 0.78 m) and remaining
46% infrared radiation (long wave length, more than 0.78 m).

Figure 2.2 (a) Elliptical orbit of Earth’s revaluation (b) Inclination of Earth’s axis

The earth revolves around the sun in an elliptical orbit as shown in

Figure 2.2 (a). The earth is closest to the sun on 21st March and 23rd
September. The earth is farthest from the sun on 21 st June and 22nd
December. Therefore the intensity of solar radiation outside the earth’s
atmosphere reduces with distance and is dependent on the distance between
earth and the sun. In fact, the intensity of solar radiation reaching outside the
earth’s atmosphere varies with the square of the distance between the centers
of the earth and the sun. This is the reason why earth received 7% more
radiation on 21st March and 23rd September compared to 21st June and 22nd
December. The intensity of solar radiation keeps on attenuating as earth
propagates away from the surface of the sun, but the content of wavelengths in
the radiation spectrum does not change.

The earth is tilted about 23.45 with respect to the earth’s orbit around
the sun as shown in Figure 2.2 (b). Owing to this tilting of earth’s axis, the
northern hemisphere of the earth points towards the sun in the month of June
and its points away from the sun in the month of December. However, earth’s
axis remains perpendicular to the imaginary line drawn from the earth to the
sun during the months of September and March. The sun earth’s distance
varies during earth’s rotation around the sun, there by varying the solar energy
reaching its surface during revolution, which brings about sensational
NON CONVENTION ENERGY SOURCES [10ME754]

changes. The northern hemisphere has summer when the earth is tilting
forwards the sun and winter when the earth is tilting away from the sun. In the
months of September and March, both the hemispheres are at the same
distance from the sun and receive equal sun shine. During the summer, the
sun is higher in the sky, while the sun is lower in the sky during winter for the
northern hemisphere.

Solar Radiation:

Extraterrestrial solar radiation: The intensity of sun’s radiation outside

the earth’s atmosphere is called ‘extraterrestrial’ radiation.

Extraterrestrial radiation is a measure of solar radiation that would be

received in the absence of atmosphere.

Terrestrial radiation: The radiation received in the earth’s atmosphere is

called ‘terrestrial radiation’ and is nearly 70% of extraterrestrial radiation.
[When radiation passes through the earth’s atmosphere, it is subjected to the mechanism of atmospheric
absorption and scattering depending on atmospheric conditions. Earth’s atmosphere contains various constituents,
suspended dust and solid particles, such as air molecules, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ozone,
water vapor and dust. Therefore solar radiation or intensity of radiation is depleted during its passage through the
atmosphere. The solar radiation that reaches the earth’s surface after passing the earth’s atmosphere is called
terrestrial radiation. The propagation of solar radiation through the earth’s atmosphere is shown in Figure 2.3]

Figure 2.3 Solar Radiation

Spectral distribution of extraterrestrial radiation: light rays radiated from

the sun are in the form of electromagnetic waves in infrared, visible
ultraviolet frequency bands. The frequency spectrum of solar light is a
graph of wave length against power density, shown in Figure 2.4
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The solar spectrum has

three basic levels:

1. “Infrared band” with wave

lengths too long for response by
human eye frequency range:
40x01014 to 7.5 x 1010 Hz, wave
lengths between 0.75 m & 1.95
m with an energy of 618 W/m2. It
constitutes 46% of solar radiation.
2. “Visible band” The solar
Figure 2.4 Spectral Distribution of Extraterrestrial radiation contains 46% visible
Solar Radiation
light (band) with a frequency
range: 6 x 1016 to 7.69 x 1014 Hz,
with the wave length between 0.39 m & 0.78 m, with an energy of 640
W/m2.
“Ultraviolet band” The solar radiation contains only 8% of UV light with a
Frequency range of 6 x 1016 to 7.5 x 1010 Hz, with the wave length between
0.005 m & 0.39 m, with energy of 95 W/m2.
[Note: 1m = 10-6 m, ( - Micro)]

Irradiance: It is the rate at which the radiant energy is incidenting on a unit

surface area. It is the measure of power density of sunlight falling per unit area
and time. It is measured in W/m2. Heat energy is measured in Joules and
while Watt or Joules per second is a measure of Power.

Irradiation: It is a solar energy per unit surface area which is striking a body
over a specified time. Hence it is integration of solar illumination or irradiance
over specified time (usually an hour or kilowatt a day). It is measured in
kilowatt-hour or kilowatt day per square meter. For example, if irradiance is
20 kW/m2 for 5 hours, irradiance is 20 x 5 = 100 kW-hr/m2.

Beam/Direct Radiation (Ib): Solar radiation received on the surface of the

earth without change in direction is known as beam/direct radiation.

Diffuse/Sky Radiation (Id): The solar radiation received from the sun after
its direction has been changed by reflection and scattering by
atmosphere is known as diffuse/sky radiation.
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Total/Global Radiation (IT/Ig): The sum of beam and diffuse radiation

intercepted at the surface of earth per unit area of location is known as
total/global radiation, it is also known as ‘insolation’.

Air mass (m): Air mass is the ratio of the path length through the
atmosphere which the solar beam actually traverses up to earth’s surface
to the vertical path length through the atmosphere. As shown in Figure 2.5

𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝐴𝐶

Mathematicaly Air mass(m)= 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 =𝐴𝐵

 Air mass(m)=cosec  or sec  z

Figure 2.5 Concept of Air mass

Solar Constant (Isc): It is defined as the energy received from the sun per unit time on a
unit surface area perpendicular to the direction of propagation of solar radiation at the
top of earth’s atmosphere when the earth is at its mean distance from the sun. The
value of solar constant is taken as 1.353 kW/m2. (The standard value of solar constant
based on the experimental measurements is 1.376 kW/m2 with accuracy of ±1.5%)
Solar Radiation at the earth’s surface:

Solar radiation received at the earth’s surface is an attenuated form

because it is subjected to the mechanisms of absorption and scattering as it
passes through the atmosphere (Figure 2.3). Absorption occurs primarily
because of the presence of ozone and water vapor in the atmosphere, and to a
lesser extent due to other gases (like CO, CO2, NO2, O2, CH4, O3) Particulate
Matter and dust particles. It results in increase in internal energy of the
atmosphere. On the other hand, scattering occurs due to all gaseous molecules
as well as particulate matter in the atmosphere. The scattered radiation is
redistributed in all directions, some going back into the space and some
reaching the earth’s surface.

The atmosphere at any location on the earth’s surface is often classified

into two broad types an atmosphere without clouds and atmosphere with
 NON CONVENTION ENERGY SOURCES [10ME754]

clouds. In the former case, the sky is cloudless everywhere, while in the later,
the sky is partly or fully covered by clouds. The mechanisms of absorption and
scattering are similar in both types of atmosphere. However it is obvious that less
attenuation takes place in a cloudless sky. Consequently maximum radiation is
received on the earth’s surface under the conditions of cloudless sky.

In general the intensity of diffuse radiation coming from various

directions in the sky is not uniform. The diffuse radiation is therefore said to be
anisotropic in nature. However in many situations, the intensity from all
directions tends to be reasonably uniform. It is then modeled as being perfectly
uniform as is said to be isotropic in nature.

Extensive studies have been made on mechanisms of absorption and

scattering, and on the determination of attenuation coefficients for various
substances. Nevertheless, it is in general not possible to predict, to a
reasonable degree of accuracy, the variation with time of the beam and diffuse
radiation with might be expected at a specified location on the earth’s surface.

Depletion of Solar radiation:

The earth’s atmosphere contains various gaseous constituents,

suspended dust and other minute solid and liquid particulate matter. These
are air molecules, ozone, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide,
water vapor, dust, and water droplets. Therefore solar radiation is depleted
during its passage through the atmosphere. Different molecules to different
things as explained below

 Absorption: Selective absorption of various wavelengths occurs by different

molecules. The absorbed radiation increases the energy of the absorbing
molecules, thus raising their temperatures.
(a) Nitrogen, molecular oxygen and other atmospheric gases absorb the X-
rays and extreme ultraviolet radiations.
(b) Ozone absorbs a significant amount of ultraviolet radiation in the range
( < 0.38 m).
(c) Water vapor (H2O) and carbon dioxide absorb almost completely the
infrared radiation in the range ( > 2.3 m) and deplete to some extent
the near infrared radiation below this range.
(d) Dust particles and air molecules also absorb a part of solar radiant
energy, irrespective of wavelength.

 Scattering: Scattering by dust particles and air molecules (or gaseous

particles of different sizes) involves redistribution of incident energy. A part
of the scattered radiation is lost (reflected back) to space and the remaining
NON CONVENTION ENERGY SOURCES [10ME754]

is directed downwards to the earth’s surface from different directions as

diffuse radiation. It is the scattered sunlight that makes the sky blue.
Without the atmosphere and its ability to scatter sunlight, the sky would
appear black as it does on the moon.

Solar Radiation Data

Most radiation data is measured for horizontal surfaces. A typical daily

record of the global and diffuse radiation flux measured on a clear day is
shown in Figure 2.6. It is seen that a fairly, smooth variation with the
maximum occurring around noon is obtained on a clear day. In contrast, an
irregular variation with many peaks and valleys may be obtained on a cloudy
day. We will use the symbols Ig and Id to represent the instantaneous values of
the global and diffuse flux plotted in Figure 2.6 and express these quantities in
W/m2. Since solar radiation fluxes do not normally change rapidly with time,
we will use the same symbols Ig and Id to represent hourly values also. These
quantities expressed in kW-h/m2-h or kJ/m2-h. The shaded area below the
graphs represent global and diffuse flux incident over a whole day. We will use
the symbols Hg and Hd to represent these qualities and express them in kW-
h/m2-day of kJ/m2-day.

Solar radiation flux is some times reported in langleys per hour per day
(1 langley = 1 cal/cm2 = 1.163 x 10-2 kWh/m2). The ‘langley’ has been adopted
in honor of Samuel Langley who made the first measurement of the spectral
distribution of the sun.

A solar designer primarily interested in average values for a location. The

averaging is usually done over all days of a month and indicated by a bar over
the symbol. Tabulations showing the hourly variation of global and diffuse
radiation (Ig �nd Id ) , the amount received per day (H ̅g �nd H̅d ) and sunshine
hours per day (S̅)
are available for
many locations in
India. The table
2.1 to 2.4 shows
the data for two
locations of India
i.e. New Delhi and
Mumbai. Figure 2.6 Daily Variation of Global and Diffuse radiation data measured
on a horizontal surface (a) Clear sky (b) cloudy sky
 NON CONVENTION ENERGY SOURCES [10ME754]

Location: New Delhi (2835’ N, 7712’ E)

Ig̅ ̅g
H S̅
kWh/m2
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 -day h
J 0.000 0.004 0.096 0.271 0.433 0.556 0.618 0.615 0.552 0.430 0.268 0.099 0.005 0.000 3.987 7.6
F 0.000 0.020 0.163 0.364 0.540 0.670 0.727 0.728 0.659 0.534 0.358 0.165 0.021 0.000 5.001 9.0
M 0.001 0.066 0.260 0.475 0.655 0.781 0.845 0.844 0.769 0.635 0.458 0.249 0.064 0.001 6.138 8.2
A 0.010 0.130 0.339 0.554 0.727 0.848 0.910 0.903 0.833 0.699 0.523 0.318 0.122 0.010 6.935 8.6
M 0.030 0.177 0.383 0.581 0.746 0.865 0.925 0.920 0.844 0.719 0.547 0.352 0.158 0.027 7.287 8.0
J 0.036 0.164 0.339 0.510 0.657 0.757 0.809 0.813 0.750 0.639 0.483 0.318 0.159 0.036 6.544 5.9
J 0.026 0.130 0.275 0.425 0.549 0.640 0.672 0.671 0.606 0.518 0.412 0.273 0.141 0.032 5.334 5.8
A 0.012 0.101 0.243 0.392 0.512 0.607 0.640 0.659 0.595 0.510 0.392 0.255 0.107 0.013 5.053 5.6
S 0.003 0.079 0.248 0.431 0.587 0.698 0.757 0.747 0.689 0.571 0.417 0.244 0.074 0.003 5.602 7.0
O 0.000 0.036 0.202 0.406 0.581 0.701 0.764 0.758 0.692 0.569 0.391 0.191 0.033 0.000 5.355 8.8
N 0.000 0.009 0.128 0.319 0.495 0.620 0.685 0.680 0.613 0.490 0.315 0.125 0.010 0.000 4.523 9.2
D 0.000 0.003 0.085 0.259 0.425 0.543 0.605 0.605 0.538 0.418 0.255 0.086 0.003 0.000 3.843 8.0
̅ �, and sunshine hours ̅�
Table 2.1 Monthly average hourly global radiation ̅I�, daily global radiation H
N.B. Time indicated is LAT. Value of Ig given for a particular time corresponds to the radiation (in kWh/m 2-h) incident
on a horizontal surface during the one hour preceding the time. Multiply by 3600 to obtain an hourly value (in kJ/m 2-h)

Location: New Delhi (2835’ N, 7712’ E)

Id̅ ̅
H d
kWh/m2
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 -day
J 0.000 0.003 0.051 0.103 0.140 0.160 0.174 0.172 0.162 0.137 0.100 0.051 0.003 0.000 1.240
F 0.000 0.013 0.076 0.126 0.159 0.183 0.191 0.190 0.180 0.160 0.125 0.075 0.013 0.000 1.474
M 0.001 0.043 0.113 0.159 0.189 0.210 0.222 0.226 0.215 0.197 0.163 0.113 0.041 0.001 1.861
A 0.009 0.083 0.153 0.202 0.236 0.262 0.274 0.279 0.274 0.250 0.212 0.156 0.079 0.008 2.473
M 0.027 0.114 0.190 0.244 0.279 0.303 0.315 0.318 0.308 0.286 0.247 0.189 0.107 0.022 2.922
J 0.033 0.124 0.215 0.286 0.342 0.382 0.399 0.299 0.377 0.340 0.279 0.203 0.114 0.028 3.540
J 0.023 0.096 0.178 0.257 0.316 0.358 0.372 0.365 0.333 0.291 0.241 0.174 0.101 0.023 3.135
A 0.009 0.074 0.153 0.224 0.277 0.317 0.334 0.331 0.302 0.265 0.210 0.149 0.075 0.010 2.727
S 0.002 0.053 0.123 0.178 0.222 0.256 0.269 0.263 0.248 0.217 0.167 0.118 0.048 0.002 2.152
O 0.000 0.026 0.087 0.128 0.154 0.169 0.179 0.177 0.169 0.154 0.126 0.083 0.021 0.001 1.465
N 0.000 0.007 0.057 0.099 0.122 0.137 0.145 0.146 0.142 0.124 0.099 0.055 0.006 0.000 1.141
D 0.000 0.002 0.045 0.092 0.123 0.144 0.155 0.156 0.147 0.125 0.092 0.043 0.002 0.000 1.117
Table 2.2 Monthly average hourly diffuse radiation ̅I�, daily global radiation H
̅�

N.B. Time indicated is LAT. Value of Ig given for a particular time corresponds to the radiation (in kWh/m 2-h) incident
on a horizontal surface during the one hour preceding the time. Multiply by 3600 to obtain an hourly value (in kJ/m2-h)

Location: Mumbai (1907’ N, 7251’ E)

Ig̅ ̅g
H S̅
kWh/m2
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 -day h
J 0.000 0.018 0.154 0.358 0.528 0.660 0.735 0.746 0.685 0.560 0.383 0.175 0.022 0.000 5.031 9.3
F 0.000 0.032 0.198 0.407 0.599 0.737 0.823 0.835 0.769 0.644 0.456 0.230 0.042 0.000 5.755 9.7
M 0.001 0.062 0.252 0.465 0.654 0.801 0.888 0.901 0.832 0.704 0.513 0.281 0.072 0.001 6.448 9.5
A 0.004 0.095 0.288 0.492 0.695 0.845 0.937 0.955 0.893 0.759 0.563 0.333 0.113 0.005 6.991 9.6
M 0.012 0.124 0.294 0.489 0.710 0.864 0.952 0.962 0.899 0.768 0.578 0.360 0.150 0.017 7.262 9.3
J 0.011 0.093 0.217 0.364 0.508 0.605 0.666 0.678 0.638 0.548 0.412 0.253 0.108 0.015 5.177 5.6
J 0.007 0.069 0.168 0.286 0.399 0.498 0.541 0.555 0.515 0.433 0.325 0.199 0.082 0.009 4.061 2.4
A 0.003 0.057 0.162 0.290 0.407 0.478 0.554 0.540 0.493 0.410 0.293 0.176 0.066 0.005 3.976 2.4
S 0.001 0.051 0.184 0.329 0.466 0.576 0.650 0.693 0.669 0.571 0.401 0.222 0.068 0.002 4.878 5.2
O 0.000 0.038 0.195 0.382 0.550 0.663 0.749 0.773 0.733 0.616 0.429 0.222 0.050 0.001 5.443 8.2
N 0.000 0.022 0.166 0.367 0.547 0.669 0.731 0.741 0.741 0.545 0.371 0.174 0.024 0.000 5.074 8.9
D 0.000 0.013 0.142 0.342 0.517 0.647 0.717 0.719 0.719 0.524 0.353 0.155 0.017 0.000 4.794 8.9
̅ �, and sunshine hours ̅�
Table 2.3 Monthly average hourly global radiation ̅I�, daily global radiation H
N.B. Time indicated is LAT. Value of Ig given for a particular time corresponds to the radiation (in kWh/m 2-h) incident
on a horizontal surface during the one hour preceding the time. Multiply by 3600 to obtain an hourly value (in kJ/m 2-h)
NON CONVENTION ENERGY SOURCES [10ME754]

Location: New Delhi (2835’ N, 7712’ E)

Id̅ ̅d
H
kWh/m2
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 -day
J 0.000 0.010 0.064 0.104 0.133 0.155 0.164 0.161 0.150 0.133 0.107 0.070 0.012 0.000 1.279
F 0.000 0.020 0.083 0.127 0.161 0.178 0.184 0.177 0.161 0.143 0.121 0.083 0.023 0.000 1.467
M 0.001 0.041 0.109 0.162 0.192 0.209 0.207 0.202 0.189 0.172 0.146 0.104 0.040 0.000 1.776
A 0.002 0.067 0.145 0.203 0.237 0.254 0.252 0.242 0.222 0.201 0.174 0.130 0.062 0.002 2.187
M 0.009 0.087 0.172 0.234 0.268 0.280 0.281 0.273 0.259 0.236 0.199 0.153 0.086 0.011 2.508
J 0.010 0.076 0.164 0.243 0.304 0.339 0.367 0.359 0.336 0.301 0.244 0.166 0.079 0.011 2.969
J 0.008 0.059 0.147 0.234 0.309 0.373 0.396 0.404 0.368 0.316 0.244 0.160 0.067 0.008 3.065
A 0.001 0.048 0.145 0.249 0.333 0.377 0.432 0.414 0.380 0.327 0.233 0.143 0.060 0.002 3.156
S 0.001 0.045 0.144 0.227 0.288 0.345 0.366 0.359 0.339 0.296 0.224 0.139 0.049 0.001 2.860
O 0.000 0.025 0.115 0.167 0.207 0.232 0.244 0.249 0.220 0.190 0.147 0.096 0.031 0.000 1.982
N 0.000 0.012 0.067 0.101 0.124 0.142 0.148 0.144 0.142 0.128 0.103 0.065 0.012 0.000 1.193
D 0.000 0.009 0.061 0.092 0.113 0.129 0.137 0.139 0.133 0.119 0.098 0.061 0.010 0.000 1.106
Table 2.4 Monthly average hourly diffuse radiation ̅I�, daily global radiation H
̅�

N.B. Time indicated is LAT. Value of Ig given for a particular time corresponds to the radiation (in kWh/m 2-h) incident
on a horizontal surface during the one hour preceding the time. Multiply by 3600 to obtain an hourly value (in kJ/m 2-h)

Instruments for measuring Solar Radiation and Sunshine

The instruments used for measurement will now be described. The solar
radiation flux is usually measured with the help of pyranometer or
pyrheliometer.

Pyranometer:

A pyranometer is an
instrument which measures either
global or diffuse radiation falling
on a horizontal surface. A sketch of
one type of pyranometer as
installed for the measurement of
global radiation is shown in Figure
2.7. Basically pyranometer
consists of a black surface which
heats up when exposed to solar
radiation. Its temperature
increases until the rate of heat
Figure 2.7 Pyranometer for measuring global
gain by solar radiation is equal to Radiation
the rate of heat loss by conduction,
convection and re-radiation. The (1) Black surface, (2) Glass domes, (3) Guard plate,
(4) Leveling screws, (5) Mounting plate, (6) Bolts,
hot junctions of a thermopile are (7) Platform
attached to the black surface, while
the cold junctions are located under a guard plate so that they do not receive
radiation directly. As a result emf is generated, recorded or integrated over a
period of time and is a measure of global radiation.
NON CONVENTION ENERGY SOURCES [10ME754]

The pyranometer shown in Figure 2.7 is used commonly in India. It has a

hot junction arranged in the form of horizontal disc of diameter 25 mm and
coated with a special black lacquer having a very high absorptivity in the solar
wavelength region. The disc is placed on the large diameter guard plate which
may be horizontal or slopping. Two concentrating hemispheres, 30 mm and 50
mm in diameter respectively, made of optical glass having excellent
transmission characteristics, are used to protect the disc surface from the
weather. An accuracy of about ±2% can be obtained with the instrument.

Shading Ring Pyranometer:

The pyranometer can also be

used for the measurement of
diffuse radiation. This is done by
mounting it at the centre of a
semicircular shading ring. The
shading ring is fixed in such a way
that its plane is parallel to the
plane of the path of the sun’s daily
movement across the sky and its
shades the thermopile element and
two glass domes of the
pyranometer at all times from
Direct sunshine. Consequently, the Figure 2.8 shading ring for measurement of diffuse
radiation
pyranometer measures only the
Diffuse radiation received from the sky.

The construction of one type of shading ring is as shown in Figure 2.8.

ABCD is a horizontal rectangular frame 35 cm X 80 cm with its long sides in
east-west direction. To the side AB and CD of the frame are provided two angle-
iron arms, EF and GH, 70 cm long with slots along their length, carrying
sliders, SS on which is mounted the semicircular shading ring R. The arms are
pivoted about a horizontal axis which passes through the centre of the
rectangular frame and can be adjusted at an angle to the horizontal equal to
the latitude of the station. The movement of the ring up and down the arms
allows for changes in the sun’s declination. The shading ring is of aluminum,
50 mm broad and is bent to a radius of 450 mm. the inner surface of the ring
is painted dull black. To the bottom of the frame ABCD is fixed a thick metal
plate P with a circular slot so that the frame, when fixed on a masonry platform
with nuts and bolts, can be adjusted in its proper position by rotation about
NON CONVENTION ENERGY SOURCES [10ME754]

vertical axis. To the top of the frame is fitted another thick metal plate p’ on
which the pyranometer is mounted.

Pyrheliometer:

A pyrheliometer is an
instrument which measures
beam radiation falling on a
surface normal to the sun’s
rays. In contrast to a
pyranometer, the black
absorber plate (with the hot
junctions of thermopile
attached to it) is located at the
base of a collimating tube as
shown in Figure 2.9. The tube
is aligned with the direction of
the sun’s rays with the help of
two-axis tracking mechanism
and the alignment indicator.
Thus the black plate receives
only beam radiation & a small Figure 2.9 Pyrheliometer for measuring beam radiation
amount of diffuse radiation
(1) Tube blackened on inside surface, (2) Baffle,
falling with in acceptance angle (3) Alignment indicator, (4) Black absorber plate,
of the instrument. (5) Thermopile junctions, (6) two-axis tracking mechanism

Sunshine recorder:

The duration of bright

sunshine in a day is measured by
means of a sunshine recorder as
shown in Figure 2.10. The sun’s
rays are focused by a glass sphere
to a point on a card strip held in a
grove in a spherical bowl mounted
concentrically with the sphere.
Whenever there is a bright
sunshine, the image formed is
intense enough to burn a spot on
the card strip. Through the day as
Figure 2.10 Sunshine recorder
the sun moves across the sky, the
NON CONVENTION ENERGY SOURCES [10ME754]

image moves along the strip. Thus, a burnt trace whose length is proportional
to the duration of sunshine is obtained on the
strip.

Solar Radiation Geometry

Latitude (Angle of Latitude), (Ø): The

latitude of a location on the earth’s surface
is the angle made by the radial line joining
the specified location to the centre of the
earth with the projection of this line on the
equatorial plane as shown in the Figure
2.11. The latitude is positive for northern
hemisphere and negative for southern
Figure 2.11 Latitude
hemisphere.

Declination angle, (): It is the angle made by the line joining the centers
of the sun and earth with the equatorial plane as shown in Figure 2.12.
The angle of declination varies when earth revolves around the sun. It
has a maximum value of 23.45 when the earth achieves a position in its
orbit corresponding to 21st June and has a minimum value of -23.45
when the earth is in orbital position corresponding to 21st December. The
angle of declination is taken positive when it is measured above the
equatorial plane in the northern hemisphere. The angle of declination is
given by the equation
360
 = 23.45 X sin [ (284+n)]
365
Where ‘n’ is the number of days from January 1.

Figure 2.12 Declination angle

NON CONVENTION ENERGY SOURCES [10ME754]

Hour angle, ( ): The hour angle at any instant is the angle through which
the earth has to turn to bring the meridian of the observer directly in line
with sun ray’s. It is an angular measure of time. It is the angle in degree
traced by the sun in one hour with reference to the twelve noon of the
location. The convection of measuring it is that noon-based calculated
local apparent time (LAT) is positive in afternoon and negative in
forenoon as shown in
Figure 2.13. The earth
completes one rotation
(360) in 24 hours. Hence
one hour corresponds to
15 of earth’s rotation. As
at solar noon the sun rays
in line with local meridian
or longitude, the hour
angle at that instant is Figure 2.13 Hour angle

zero. The hour angle is

given by the equation

 = [Solar time-12] * 15

Inclination or Altitude angle, (): The angle between the sun’s ray and its
projection on a horizontal surface is known as the inclination angle, as
shown in the Figure 2.14

Zenith angle, (Z): It is an angle between sun’s ray and the perpendicular
to the horizontal plane as shown in Figure 2.14

Solar Azimuth angle, (s): It is the angle on a horizontal plane, between

the line due south and the projection of the sun’s ray on the horizontal
plane. It is taken as positive when measured from south towards west.

Surface Azimuth angle, ( ): It is the angle in the horizontal plane, between
the line due south and the horizontal projection of the normal to the
inclined plane surface (flat plate collector) as shown in Figure 2.14. It is
taken as positive when measured from south towards west.

Slope or Tilt angle, (): It is the angle between the inclined plane surface
(flat plate collector) and the horizontal plane as shown in Figure 2.14. It
is taken to be positive for the surface sloping towards south.
NON CONVENTION ENERGY SOURCES [10ME754]

Angle of incidence, (): The angle of incidence for any surface is defined as
the angle formed between the direction of the sun ray and the line
normal to the surface as shown in Figure 2.14.

Figure 2.14 Solar radiation geometry

General equation for cos 

cos  = [sin Ø (sin  cos  + cos  cos  cos  sin )

+ cos Ø (cos  cos  cos  - sin  cos  sin )
+ cos  sin  sin  sin ]
Where,
 : Angle of incidence
Ø : Angle of latitude
 : Angle of declination
 : Surface azimuth angle
 : Tilt angle
NON CONVENTION ENERGY SOURCES [10ME754]


NON CONVENTION ENERGY SOURCES [10ME754]

Latitude and longitude

Latitude: On a globe of the earth, line of latitude is circle of different sizes. The
largest one is at the circle of equator (circle at equator with centre at earth’s
centre) whose latitude is taken as zero. The circles at the poles have latitude of
90 North and 90 South (or -90) where these circles shrink to a point, there
are 180 circles of which 90 in each hemisphere specify the latitude of various
points on earth’s surface as shown in Figure 2.15 (a). Each degree of latitude is
about 111 km apart. Latitude lines run horizontally and these lines are
parallel.

Longitude: On the globe, vertical lines of constant longitude (meridians) extend

from pole to pole similar to the segment boundaries on a peeled orange. Every
meridian has to cross the equator and equator is a circle, like any circle, it has
360 of divisions. Hence, the longitude of a point is marked a value of that
division where its meridian meets the equator circle. The meridian passing
through the Royal Astronomical observatory at Greenwich, UK has been chosen
as zero latitude. The meridian passing through this location is called prime
meridian. This prime meridian or longitude is considered zero longitude and
there are 180 longitude lines or degree as cast (+180) and 180 at west (-180)
of Greenwich. The longitude lines meet at poles and these have wide separation
at equator about (111 km). The longitudinal lines are shown in Figure 2.15 (b).
Solar noon is the time when the sun is at the longitude of place.

Apparent motion of the sun

To an observer on the earth, on any given day, the sun rises in the east,
moves in a tilted plane in the angle of [90 - ∅] with the horizontal, and finally
sets in the west. Thus, the apparent plane in which the sun moves intersects
the horizontal plane in a line positioning east-west. However because of the
declination angle this E-W line of intersection does not coincide with E-W
passing through the observer O. for a location in the northern hemisphere, this
line is to the south in winter (declination negative, 21st December with an angle
of -23.45) to the north in summer (declination positive, 21st June with an
NON CONVENTION ENERGY SOURCES [10ME754]

angle of 23.45) and coincides with the E–W line passing through the observer
on two equinox days i.e. 21st March & 21 September (declination is zero).

Figure 2.15 Apparent motion of the sun

Local Apparent Time (LAT)

The time used for calculating the hour angle  is the local apparent time.
This can be obtained from the standard time observed on a clock by applying
two corrections. The first correction arises because of the difference between
the longitude of a location and the
meridian on which the standard
time is based. The correction has
magnitude of 4 minutes for every
degree difference in longitude. The
second correction called the
equation of time correction due to
fact that earth’s orbit and rate of
rotation are subjected to small
variations. This correction is based
in experimental observations and Figure 2.16 Equation of time correction
is plotted in Figure 2.15.

Thus, LAT = standard time ± 4 (standard time longitude – longitude of

location) + (equation of time correction)

The equation of time correction (in minutes) can also be calculated from
following empirical relation
NON CONVENTION ENERGY SOURCES [10ME754]

E = 229.18 (0.000075+0.001868 cos B – 0.032077 sin B – 0.014165 cos 2B –

0.04089 sin 2B)

Sunrise, sunset & Day length

Horizontal surface: The hour angle corresponding to sunrise or sunset (s) on a

horizontal surface is given by
-
cos s = - tan Ø tan , ∴ s = cos (- tan Ø tan ) in degree

If an above equation yields a positive value then it is sunrise, if it yields

negative value then it is sunset, then corresponding day length is given by the
equation
2
L =  = cos- (- tan Ø tan ) in hours
d s
15
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Inclined surface facing due south:

Estimation of average solar radiation

Angstrom’s equation for average global radiation:

The expression for the average radiation on a horizontal surface in terms

of constants a and b and observed values of average length of solar days, as
suggested by angstrom is given by

Where Hg = Monthly average of daily global radiation on a horizontal surface at

the location in (kJ/m2 day)

Hc = Monthly average of the daily global radiation on the same

horizontal surface at the same location but on clear sky day
(kJ/m2 day)

a, b = Constants determined from various cities in the world by

measurements

La = Average length of solar day for a particular month calculated or

observed (in hours)

Lm = Length of the longest solar day in the month (in hours)

Modified Angstrom’s equation

The modified Angstrom’s equation is written by replacing Hc by Ho in the

above equation.
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Where Ho = Monthly average of the daily extraterrestrial radiation, which would

fall on a horizontal surface at the location under consideration (in
kJ/m2 day)

The expression for Ho is given by

Where,

n = Number of days in the year

Isc = Solar Constant
Ø = Angle of latitude for location
 = Angle of declination of equatorial plane
 = hour angle for local apparent time

The integral ∫ dt in above equation is in terms of hours. It can be changed to an

angle of ∫ d�in radians.

Now,
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Inserting the value of dt in the Ho equation and integrating between sun

rise (-s) to (+s) for a total day light period we get

By solving the integral we get

The value of Ho can be calculated for a clear sky day on a flat surface location.

Hence the value of Hg (daily global radiation-monthly average) for a

horizontal surface at the location is then calculated by using the values of Ho,
a,b in the modified Angstrom’s equation
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Ho can be obtained from charts or can be calculated by following

empirical relation

Sl No City a b Mean percentage error

01 Ahmedabad 0.28 0.48 3.0
02 Bangalore 0.18 0.64 3.9
03 Bhavangar 0.28 0.47 2.8
04 Chennai 0.30 0.44 3.5
05 Goa 0.30 0.48 2.1
06 Jodhpur 0.33 0.46 2.0
07 Kodaikanal 0.32 0.55 2.9
08 Kolkata 0.28 0.42 1.3
09 Mangalore 0.27 0.43 4.2
10 Minicoy 0.26 0.39 1.4
11 Nagpur 0.27 0.50 1.6
12 New Delhi 0.25 0.57 3.0
13 Pune 0.31 0.43 1.9
14 Shilong 0.22 0.57 3.0
15 Srinagar 0.35 0.40 4.7
16 Thiruvananthapuraam 0.37 0.39 2.5
17 Vishakhapatanam 0.28 0.47 1.2
Table 2.5 constants for a and b for Indian cities

Example 2.1: Determine the sunset hour angle and day length at allocation of
latitude of 32 on March 30.

Given data, Ø = 32, day of the year = March 30.

Solution,

The total number of days up to March 30 is i.e. n = 31 + 28 + 30 = 89

Jan Feb Mar

The declination angle is given by the equation,

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