Week 3

Verb Usage

Introduction

In this section, you learn how to use verbs to indicate when an action occurred. First is the
explanation the different tenses and how they are used. The focus here is on regular verbs (the nice
cooperative ones) and irregular verbs (the ones that need bran cereal). There's even a special
section on lie/lay, the verb duo that reduces even linebackers and mothers-in-law to quivering
masses of jelly.

Discussion

USES OF VERBS

Verbs tell you what’s actually happening in the sentence, what the subject is doing or having done
to it. Of course, when you think about all the things that can happen, and all the things that subjects
are capable of doing, you can see the astonishing potential range of “actions”.

There are two specific uses for verbs. The first is to put a motionless noun into motion, or to change
its motion.

Annie went to the market.

Went gets Annie moving out the door and doing the shopping.

Annie went to the market, and then she stopped in at the bookstore.

First Annie does the shopping, and then she goes to do more interesting errands.

Mark lifted the rock.

We washed the car.

The girls played games all day.

These kinds of verbs are called action verbs. If you can do it, it’s an action verb.

The second use for a noun is to link the subject of the sentence to something which describes the
subject. If you can’t do it, it’s probably a linking verb.

I am tired.

It’s difficult to “am”, so this is likely a linking verb. It’s connecting the subject I to the state of being
tired.
 TENSES

Present

Present tense is used, in principle, to refer to circumstances that exist at the present time (or over a
period that includes the present time). However the same forms are quite often also used to refer to
future circumstances, as in "He's coming tomorrow" (hence this tense is sometimes referred to as
present-future or nonpast). It is also possible for the present tense to be used when referring to no
particular real time (as when telling a story), or when recounting past events (the historical present.
The

The present tense has two moods, indicative and subjunctive; when no mood is specified, it is often
the indicative that is meant. In a present indicative construction, the finite verb appears in its base
form, or in its -s form if its subject is third-person singular. (The verb be has the forms am, is, are,
while the modal verbs do not add -s for third-person singular.)

Past

Past tense forms express circumstances existing at some time in the past, although they also have
certain uses in referring to hypothetical. Certain uses of the past tense may be referred to as
subjunctives; however the only distinction in verb conjugation between the past indicative and past
subjunctive is the possible use of were in the subjunctive in place of was.

Future

English is sometimes described as having a future tense, although since future time is not
specifically expressed by verb inflection, some grammarians identify only two tenses (present or
present-future, and past). The English "future" usually refers to a periphrastic form involving the
auxiliary verb will (or sometimes shall when used with a first-person subject. There also exist other
ways of referring to future circumstances, including the going to construction, and the use of
present tense forms

Future-in-the-past

A "future-in-the-past" tense (or form) is sometimes referred to. This takes essentially the same
form as the conditional, that is, it is made using the auxiliary would (or sometimes should in the first
person).

This form has a future-in-the-past meaning in sentences such as She knew that she would win the
game. Here the sentence as a whole refers to some particular past time, but would win refers to a
time in the future relative to that past time.
 ASPECTS

Simple

"Simple" forms of verbs are those appearing in constructions not marked for either progressive or
perfect aspect (I go, I don't go, I went, I will go, etc., but not I'm going or I have gone).

Simple constructions normally denote a single action (perfective aspect), as in Brutus killed Caesar,
a repeated action (habitual aspect), as in I go to school, or a relatively permanent state, as in We live
in Dallas. They may also denote a temporary state (imperfective aspect), in the case of stative verbs
that do not use progressive forms (see below).

Progressive

The progressive or continuous aspect is used to denote a temporary action or state that began at a
previous time and continues into the present time (or other time of reference). It is expressed using
a form of the auxiliary verb to be (conjugated appropriately for tense etc.) together with the present
participle (-ing form) of the main verb: I am reading; Were you shouting?; He will be sitting over
there.

Perfect

The perfect aspect is used to denote the circumstance of an action's being complete at a certain
time. It is expressed using a form of the auxiliary verb have (appropriately conjugated for tense etc.)
together with the past participle of the main verb: She has eaten it; We had left; When will you
have finished?

Perfect forms can also be used to refer to states or habitual actions, even if not complete, if the focus
is on the time period before the point of reference (We had lived there for five years). If such a
circumstance is temporary, the perfect is often combined with progressive aspect (see the following
section).

The implications of the present perfect (that something occurred prior to the present moment) are
similar to those of the simple past, although the two forms are generally not used interchangeably –
the simple past is used when the time frame of reference is in the past, while the present perfect is
used when it extends to the present.

By using nonfinite forms of the auxiliary have, perfect aspect can also be marked on infinitives (as in
should have left and expect to have finished working), and on participles and gerunds (as in having
seen the doctor

Note that while all of the constructions referred to here are commonly referred to as perfect (based
on their grammatical form), some of them, particularly nonpresent and nonfinite instances, might
not be considered truly expressive of the perfect [Link] applies particularly when the perfect
infinitive is used together with modal verbs: for example, he could not have been a genius might be
considered (based on its meaning) to be a past tense of he cannot/could not be a genius; such forms
are considered true perfect forms by some linguists but not others.

Perfect progressive

The perfect and progressive (continuous) aspects can be combined, usually in referring to the
completed portion of a continuing action or temporary state: I have been working for eight hours.
Here a form of the verb have (denoting the perfect) is used together with been (the past participle of
be, denoting the progressive) and the present participle of the main verb.

In the case of the stative verbs, which do not use progressive aspect (see the above section on the
progressive), the plain perfect form is normally used in place of the perfect progressive: I've been
here for half an hour (not *I've been being here...).

MOODS

Indicative

Indicative mood, in English, refers to finite verb forms that are not marked as subjunctive and are
not imperatives or conditionals. They are the verbs typically found in the main clauses of
declarative sentences and questions formed from them, as well as in most dependent clauses
(except for those that use the subjunctive). The information that a form is indicative is often
omitted when referring to it: the simple present indicative is usually referred to as just the simple
present, etc. (unless some contrast of moods, such as between indicative and subjunctive, is
pertinent to the topic).

Subjunctive

Certain types of clause, mostly dependent clauses, use a verb form identified with the subjunctive
mood. The present subjunctive takes a form identical to the bare infinitive, as in It is necessary that
he be restrained. There is also a past subjunctive, distinct from the indicative only in the possible
use of were in place of was in certain situations: If I were you, ...

Imperative

An independent clause in the imperative mood uses the base form of the verb, usually with no
subject (although the subject you can be added for emphasis). Negation uses do-support (i.e. do not
or don't). For example:

Now eat your dinner.

You go and stand over there!

Don't ever say that word again.

Sentences of this type are used to give an instruction or order. When they are used to make
requests, the word please (or other linguistic device) is often added for politeness:

Please pass the salt.

First person imperatives (cohortatives) can be formed with let us (usually contracted to let's), as in
"Let's go". Third person imperatives (jussives) are sometimes formed similarly, with let, as in "Let
him be released".

Conditional

The status of the conditional mood in English is similar to that of the future tense: it may be
considered to exist provided the category of mood is not required to be marked morphologically.
The English conditional is expressed periphrastically with verb forms governed by the auxiliary
verb would (or sometimes should with a first-person singular subject; see shall and will). The modal
verb could is also sometimes used as a conditional (of can).

In certain uses, the conditional construction with would/should may also be described as "future-in-
the-past".

ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE

The active voice (where the verb's subject is understood to denote the doer, or agent, of the
denoted action) is the unmarked voice in English. To form the passive voice (where the subject
denotes the undergoer, or patient, of the action), a periphrastic construction is used. In the
canonical form of the passive, a form of the auxiliary verb be (or sometimes get) is used, together
with the past participle of the lexical verb.

Passive voice can be expressed in combination together with tenses, aspects and moods, by means
of appropriate marking of the auxiliary (which for this purpose is not a stative verb, i.e. it has
progressive forms available). For example:

This room is tidied regularly. (simple present passive)

It had already been accepted. (past perfect passive)

Dinner is being cooked right now. (present progressive passive)

The uses of these various passive forms are analogous to those of the corresponding tense–aspect–
mood combinations in the active voice.

The passive forms of certain of the combinations involving the progressive aspect are quite rare;
these include the present perfect progressive (it has been being written), past perfect progressive (it
had been being written), future progressive (it will be being written), future perfect progressive (it
will have been being written), conditional progressive (it would be being written) and conditional
perfect progressive (it would have been being written). Because of the awkwardness of these
constructions, they may be paraphrased, for example using the expression in the process of (it has
been in the process of being written, it will be in the process of being written, and similar)..

NEGATION AND QUESTIONS

Negation of verbs usually takes place with the addition of the particle not (or its shortened form n't)
to an auxiliary or copular verb, with do-support being used if there is otherwise no auxiliary.
However if a sentence already contains a negative word (never, nothing, etc.), then there is not
usually any additional not.

Questions (interrogative constructions) are generally formed using subject–auxiliary inversion,

again using do-support if there is otherwise no auxiliary. In negative questions, it is possible to
invert with just the auxiliary (should we not help?) or with the contracted negation (shouldn't we
help?).

USES OF VERB COMBINATION TYPES

Simple past

The simple past or past simple, sometimes also called the preterite, consists of the bare past tense of
the verb (ending in -ed for regular verbs, and formed in various ways for irregular ones.

The simple past is used for a single event in the past, for past habitual action, or for a past state:

He took the money and ran.

I visited them every day for a year.

I knew how to fight even as a child.

However for action that was ongoing at the time referred to, the past progressive is generally used
instead.

The simple past is often close in meaning to the present perfect. The simple past is used when the
event is conceived as occurring at a particular time in the past, or during a period that ended in the
past (i.e. it does not last up until the present time). This time frame may be explicitly stated, or
implicit in the context (for example the past tense is often used when describing a sequence of past
events).

I was born in 1980.

We turned the oven off two minutes ago.

She placed the letter on the table, sighed, and left the house.
Various compound constructions exist for denoting past habitual action. The sentence When I was
young, I played football every Saturday might alternatively be phrased using used to (... I used to play
...) or using would (... I would play...).

The past simple is also used without past reference in some instances: in condition clauses and
some other dependent clauses referring to hypothetical circumstances.

Past progressive

The past progressive or past continuous construction combines progressive aspect with past tense,
and is formed using the past tense of be (was or were) with the present participle of the main verb.
It indicates an action that was ongoing at the past time being considered:

At three o'clock yesterday, I was working in the garden.

For stative verbs that do not use the progressive aspect, the simple past is used instead (At three
o'clock yesterday we were in the garden).

The past progressive is often used to denote an action that was interrupted by an event,[5][6] or for
two actions taking place in parallel:

While I was washing the dishes, I heard a loud noise.

While you were washing the dishes, Sue was walking the dog.

(Interrupted actions in the past can also sometimes be denoted using the past perfect progressive,
as described below.)

The past progressive can also be used to refer to past action that occurred over a range of time and
is viewed as an ongoing situation:

I was working in the garden all day yesterday.

That could also be expressed using the simple past, as I worked..., which implies that the action is
viewed as a unitary event (although the effective meaning is not very different)..

Past perfect

The past perfect, sometimes called the pluperfect, combines past tense with perfect aspect; it is
formed by combining had (the past tense of the auxiliary have) with the past participle of the main

verb. It is used when referring to an event that took place prior to the time frame being considered.
This time frame may be stated explicitly, as a stated time or the time of another past action:
 We had finished the job by 2 o'clock.

He had already left when we arrived.

The time frame may also be understood implicitly from the previous or later context:

I was eating ... I had invited Jim to the meal but he was unable to attend. (i.e. I invited him
before I started eating)

I had lost my way. (i.e. this happened prior to the time of the past events I am describing or
am about to describe)

Compare He had left when we arrived (where his leaving preceded our arrival), with the form with
the simple past, He left when we arrived (where his leaving was concurrent with or shortly after our
arrival).

Note that unlike the present perfect, the past perfect can readily be used with an adverb specifying
a past time frame for the occurrence. For example, while it is incorrect to say *I have done it last
Friday (the use of last Friday, specifying the past time, would require the simple past rather than the
present perfect), there is no such objection to a sentence like "I had done it the previous Friday".

The past perfect can also be used for states or repeated occurrences pertaining over a period up to
a time in the past, particularly in stating "for how long" or since when". However, if the state is
temporary and the verb can be used in the progressive aspect, the past perfect progressive would
normally be used instead. Some examples with the plain past perfect:

I had lived in that house for 10 years.

The children had been in their room since lunchtime.

Past perfect progressive

The past perfect progressive or past perfect continuous (also known as the pluperfect progressive or
pluperfect continuous) combines perfect progressive aspect with past tense. It is formed by
combining had (the past tense of auxiliary have), been (the past participle of be), and the present
participle of the main verb.

Uses of the past perfect progressive are analogous to those of the present perfect progressive,
except that the point of reference is in the past. For example:

I was tired because I had been running.

By yesterday morning they had already been working for twelve hours.

Among the witnesses was John Smith, who had been staying at the hotel since July 10.
This form is sometimes used for actions in the past that were interrupted by some event (compare
the use of the past progressive as given above). For example:

I had been working on my novel when she entered the room to talk to me.

This implies that I stopped working when she came in (or had already stopped a short time before);
the plain past progressive (I was working...) would not necessarily carry this implication.

If the verb in question does not use the progressive aspect, then the plain past perfect is used
instead.

The past perfect progressive may also have additional specific uses similar to those of the plain past
perfect.

Simple present

The simple present or present simple is a form that combines present tense with "simple" (neither
perfect nor progressive) aspect. In the indicative mood it consists of the base form of the verb, or
the -s form when the subject is third-person singular (the verb be uses the forms am, is, are).
However with non-auxiliary verbs it also has a periphrastic form consisting of do (or third-person
singular does) with the bare infinitive of the main verb — this form is used in questions (and other
clauses requiring inversion) and negations, and sometimes for emphasis.

The principal uses of the simple present are given below.

To refer to an action or event that takes place habitually. Such uses are often accompanied by
frequency adverbs and adverbial phrases such as always, often, from time to time and never.
Examples:

I always take a shower.

He writes for a living.

This contrasts with the present progressive, which is used for actions taking place at the
present moment.

 With stative verbs in senses that do not use progressive aspect, to refer to a present or
general state, whether temporary, permanent or habitual. (In senses that do use
progressive aspect, the present simple is used when the state is permanent or habitual.)

You are happy.

I know what to do.

Denmark lies to the north of Germany.

 When quoting someone or something, even if the words were spoken in the (usually very
recent) past:
 The label says "External use only".
Mary says she's ready.

 To refer to a single completed action, as in recounting the events of a story in the present
tense (see historical present), and in such contexts as newspaper headlines, where it
replaces the present perfect:

In Hamlet, Ophelia drowns in a stream.

40-year-old wins gold medal.

 Sometimes to refer to an arranged future event, usually with a reference to time:

We leave for Berlin tomorrow at 1 pm.

 In providing a commentary on events as they occur, or in describing some theoretical

sequence of events:

I chop the chives and add them to the mixture.

According to the manager's new idea, I welcome the guests and you give the presentation.

 In many dependent clauses referring to the future, particularly condition clauses, clauses
expressing place and time, and many relative clauses.

If he finds your sweets, he will eat them.

We will report as soon as we receive any information.

 In certain situations in a temporal adverbial clause, rather than the present progressive:

We can see the light improving as we speak.

In colloquial English it is common to use can see, can hear for the present tense of see, hear, etc., and
have got for the present tense of have (denoting possession).

Present progressive

The present progressive or present continuous form combines present tense with progressive aspect.
It thus refers to an action or event conceived of as having limited duration, taking place at the
present time. It consists of a form of the simple present of be together with the present participle of
the main verb.

We are cooking dinner now.

This often contrasts with the simple present, which expresses repeated or habitual action (We cook
dinner every day). However sometimes the present continuous is used with always, generally to
express annoyance about a habitual action:

You are always making a mess in the study.

The present progressive can be used to refer to a planned future event:

We are tidying the attic tomorrow.

It also appears with future reference in many condition and time clauses and other dependent
clauses (see Dependent clauses below):

If he's sleeping when you arrive, wake him up.

I will finish the job while the children are playing.

It can also refer to something taking place not necessarily at the time of speaking, but at the time
currently under consideration, in the case of a story or narrative being told in the present tense (as
mentioned above under present simple):

The king and queen are conversing when Hamlet enters..

Present perfect

The present perfect (traditionally called simply the perfect) combines present tense with perfect
aspect, denoting the present state of an action's being completed, that is, that the action took place
before the present time. (It is thus often close in meaning to the simple past tense, although the two
are not usually interchangeable.) It is formed with the present tense of the auxiliary have (namely
have or has) and the past participle of the main verb.

The choice of present perfect or past tense depends on the frame of reference (period or point in
time) in which the event is conceived as occurring. If the frame of reference extends to the present
time, the present perfect is used. For example:

I have written a letter this morning. (if it is still the morning)

He has produced ten plays. (if he is still alive and professionally active)

They have never traveled abroad. (if they are still alive and considered capable of
traveling)

If the frame of reference is a time in the past, or a period that ended in the past, the past tense is
used instead. For example: I wrote a letter this morning (it is now afternoon);
He produced ten plays (he is now dead or his career is considered over, or a particular past time
period is being referred to);

They never traveled abroad (similarly).

The simple past is generally used when the occurrence has a specific past time frame – either
explicitly stated (I wrote a book in 1995; the water boiled a minute ago), or implied by the context
(for example, in the narration of a sequence of events). It is therefore normally incorrect to write a
sentence like *I have written a novel yesterday; the present perfect cannot be used with an
expression of past time such as yesterday.

With already or yet, traditional usage calls for the present perfect: Have you eaten yet? Yes, I've
already eaten. However, current informal American speech tends to use the simple past: Did you eat
yet? Yes, I ate already.

Use of the present perfect often draws attention to the present consequences of the past action or
event, as opposed to its actual occurrence. The sentence she has come probably means she is here
now, while the simple past she came does not. The sentence, “Have you been to the fair?” suggests
that the fair is still going on, while the sentence, “Did you go to the fair?” could mean that the fair is
over. (See also been and gone below.) Some more examples:

I have eaten. (implies that I'm no longer hungry)

We have made the dinner. (implies that the dinner is now ready to eat)

The weather has gotten cloudier. (implies that it is now more cloudy than previously)

It may also refer to an ongoing state or habitual action, particularly in saying for how long, or since
when, something is the case. For example

I have lived in Paris for five years.

He has held the record since he won his Olympic gold.

We have eaten breakfast together every morning since our honeymoon.

This implies that I still live in Paris, that he still holds the record and that we still eat together every
morning (although the first sentence may also refer to some unspecified past period of five years).
When the circumstance is temporary, the present perfect progressive is often appropriate in such
sentences (see below); however, if the verb is one that does not use the progressive aspect, the
basic present perfect is used in that case too:

Amy has been on the swing for ten minutes.

The present perfect may refer to a habitual circumstance, or a circumstance being part of a
theoretical or story narrative being given in the present tense (provided the circumstance is of an
event's having taken place previously):

Whenever I get home, John has usually already arrived.

According to the plan, the speeches have already been given when the cake is brought out.

The present perfect may also be used with future reference, instead of the future perfect, in those
dependent clauses where future occurrence is denoted by present tense. For example:

When you have written it, show it to me.

Present perfect progressive

The present perfect progressive (or present perfect continuous) construction combines some of this
perfect progressive aspect with present tense. It is formed with the present tense of have (have or
has), the past participle of be (been), and the present participle of the main verb.

This construction is used for ongoing action in the past that continues right up to the present or has
recently finished:

I have been writing this paper all morning.

Why are his eyes red? He has been crying.

It is frequently used when stating for how long, or since when, something is the case:

She has been working here since 1997.

How long have you been sitting there?

They have been arguing about it for two weeks.

In these sentences the actions are still continuing, but it is the past portion of them that is being
considered, and so the perfect aspect is used. (A sentence without perfect aspect, such as I am
sitting here for three hours, implies an intention to perform the action for that length of time.) With
stative verbs that are not used in the progressive, and for situations that are considered permanent,
the present perfect (nonprogressive) is used instead.

Simple future

The term simple future or future simple, as applied to English, generally refers to the combination of
the modal auxiliary verb will with the bare infinitive of the main verb. Sometimes (particularly in
more formal or old-fashioned English) shall is preferred to will when the subject is first person (I or
we); see shall and will for details. The auxiliary is often contracted to 'll;

This construction can be used to indicate what the speaker views as facts about the future,
including confident predictions:

The sun will rise tomorrow at 6:14.

It will rain later this week.

It may be used to describe future circumstances that are subject to some condition.

He will go there if he can.

However English also has other ways of referring to future circumstances. For planned or
scheduled actions the present progressive or simple present may be used (see those sections for
examples). There is also a going-to future, common in colloquial English, which is often used to

express intentions or predictions (I am going to write a book some day; I think that it is going to
rain). Use of the will/shall construction when expressing intention often indicates a spontaneous
decision:

I know! I'll use this book as a door stop.

Compare I'm going to use..., which implies that the intention to do so has existed for some time.

The modal verbs will and shall also have other uses besides indicating future time reference. For
example:

I will pass this exam. (often expresses determination in addition to futurity)

You will obey me! (insistence)

I will not do it! (negative insistence, refusal)

At this moment I will tolerate no dissent. (strong volition)

He hasn't eaten all day; he will be hungry now. (confident speculation about the present)

One of his faults is that he will make trouble unnecessarily. (habit)

Shall we get to work? (suggestion)

Future progressive

The future progressive or future continuous combines progressive aspect with future time reference;
it is formed with the auxiliary will (or shall in the first person; see shall and will), the bare infinitive
be, and the present participle of the main verb. It is used mainly to indicate that an event will be in
progress at a particular point in the future:

This time tomorrow I will be taking my driving test.

I imagine we will already be eating when you arrive.

Future perfect

The future perfect combines perfect aspect with future time reference. It consists of the auxiliary
will (or sometimes shall in the first person, as above), the bare infinitive have, and the past
participle of the main verb. It indicates an action that is to be completed sometime prior to a future
time of perspective, or an ongoing action continuing up to a future time of perspective (compare
uses of the present perfect above).

I shall have finished my essay by Thursday.

When I finally search him he will have disposed of the evidence.

By next year we will have lived in this house for half a century.

The same construction may occur when will or shall is given one of its other meanings; for example:

He will have had his tea by now. (confident speculation about the present)

You will have completed this task by the time I return, is that understood? (giving
instruction)

Future perfect progressive

The future perfect progressive or future perfect continuous combines perfect progressive aspect with
future time reference. It is formed by combining the auxiliary will (or sometimes shall, as above),
the bare infinitive have, the past participle been, and the present participle of the main verb.

Uses of the future perfect progressive are analogous to those of the present perfect progressive,
except that the point of reference is in the future. For example:

He will be very tired because he will have been working all morning.

By 6 o'clock we will have been drinking for ten hours.

The same construction may occur when the auxiliary (usually will) has one of its other meanings,
particularly expressing a confident assumption about the present:

No chance of finding him sober now; he 'll have been drinking all day.