SCIENCE : VOLCANOES

VOLCANOES
●​ Vent or chimney that connects molten rock (magma) from within the earth’s crust to the
earth’s surface
○​ A opening in the Earth where hot melted rock (magma), gas, and ash come
out
●​ Includes the surrounding cone of corrupted material
○​ Volcanic cone : The hill or surrounding of the vent made out of ash, hard
magma, and rocks from eruptions
○​ The hill itself
●​ Bridge from inner part of earth to the outer part of earth
○​ Volcanoes are openings in the Earth that connect the inside of the Earth to
the Earth’s surface
○​ This is the opening where the magma from the inside of the Earth (Mantle
layer) gets released and reaches the surface
●​ Magma chamber : where magma is found
PARTS OF VOLCANO
●​ Crater : this is a bowl shaped depression at the top of the volcano that forms when the
summit collapses after an eruption
○​ A bowl-shaped dent/depression around the main vent. It's the wall/bowl
around the vent
●​ Magma chamber : This is a large underground cavity artist where molten rock (magma)
is stored before it erupts
○​ An underground chamber where magma is stored before the volcano
erupts
○​ The magma is from the mantle layer of the Earth. The magma rises and
reaches the magma chamber, found in the Earth’s crust.
●​ Conduit : A long, narrow channel that connects the magma chamber to the surface of the
volcano. Magma rises through the conduit and erupts.
○​ A passageway or pipe in which magma flows through from the magma
chamber to the vent or different fumaroles.
●​ Fumarole : A vent on the surface of the volcano, that emits steam gas, and other
volcanic gases. Fumaroles are usually found near the summit
○​ Fumaroles are mini vents and are one of the exits of the conduit releasing
steam, gas and other volcanic gases. Magma exits through the vent while
its gases exit through the fumarole

WHY DOES VOLCANOES ERUPT?

1.​ High temperature of the earth’s interior
○​ Melting at the lower crust and mantle = molten rock = magma
○​ At depths of > 20km the temperature = 800-1600 celsius
○​ The density of the magma is less than the crustal rock, therefore it rises to the
surface
 ○​ Volcanoes erupt because rocks deep inside the earth are melting at
incredibly high temperatures creating magma.
2.​ Magma rises
○​ As they shift from solid to a somewhat liquid form, their density becomes
lighter than the surrounding rocks so they rise and float to the top to the
surface.
3.​ How magma is formed? Source of this heat? 4 possible ways magma forms
○​ Residual Heat : When Earth was first formed, it was really hot. As the
particles and rocks collide with one another, this produces a lot of heat. As
it compresses due to gravity, more heat was created and was then trapped
inside of the planet. Thus, this leftover heat is incredibly hot – enough to
melt rocks = MAGMAAA
○​ Radioactive Decay :
i.​ When elements found in the mantle and in the crust as well break
down because they are unstable. As they break down, they release
heat which warms up rocks surrounding them. The rocks warming
up causes mantle convection where warmed up rocks rise and the
cooled rock sinks, and the cycle repeats itself. The heat can also
partially melt rocks creating magma. Over time, they can rise to the
surface and magma, ash and gas erupt in the volcano.
○​ Mantle Convection
i.​ Heat from the radioactive decay and residual heat heats and warms
up some of the rocks found in the mantle layer which can partially
melt rocks creating magma. As the rocks are warmed up, they
become lighter and rise towards the surface while the solid, cool
rocks sink as they are heavier. The partially melted rocks caused by
the heat float to the surface again while the first ones that melted
cool down and become solid so they sink back down and the cycle
repeats itself. (Most of the rocks found in the mantle remain solid.
Only some partially melt to form magma. It isn't magma magma but
like soft liquidy rocks)
○​ Shock/impact melting
i.​ Happens when an asteroid or meteorite hits Earth, creating extreme
pressure and heat. This heat instantly melts the rock surrounding
and the area which got hit creating a pool or bowl of magma. The
bowl of magma usually cools into a glassy rock but it doesn't turn
into a volcano.
4.​ ERUPTION BOOOMMM
○​ Gases trapped in magma create pressure which pushes magma towards
the surface. As the pressure increases, it forces the magma plus ash and
gas to erupt from the volcano.
○​ Pressure from magma causes the magma, ash and gas to erup

2 KINDS OF ERUPTIONS
Explosive Eruptions
-​ Explosive volcanic eruptions can be catastrophic
-​ Erupt 10’s -1000km3 of magma
-​ Send ash clouds > 25 km into the stratosphere
-​ Direct measurements of pyroclastic flow are extremely dangerous
-​ A type of eruption in which magma exits out of the vent violently meaning it
shoots upwards. This can be compared to a bottle of champagne in which the
liquid shoots out upwards once opened. The liquid is the magma and the opening
is the vent. This eruption is hazardous and has severe environmental and climatic
effects. There are 3 outcomes/products of explosive eruption : Ash fall,
pyroclastic flow, pyroclastic surge.

Effusive Eruptions
-​ Are characterized by outpourings of lava on the ground
-​ A type of eruption where when magma rises to the surface, it oozes out of the vent
calmly, just like a bottle being filled with water continuously. The water is the lava
oozing out the vent.

But volcanoes cause fewer fatalities than earthquakes, hurricanes and famine

VOLCANIC HAZARDS : different ways a volcano eruption can affect living things and the
environment
-​ Pyroclastic flow
-​ Lava flow
-​ Lahars/mud flow
-​ Pyroclastic fall
-​ Noxious gas
-​ Earthquakes

EFFECTS OF PYROCLASTIC FLOW

Direct impact - The direct force of pyroclastic flow travelling at 10’s of meters per second and
carrying boulders as large as houses is extremely dangerous
Pyroclastic flow is like a hot flowing river of ash, gas and rocks rushing down the
sides/walls of the volcano. It has temperatures (200-700°C or even hotter) hot enough to
burn forests and wooden structures. The debris left behind from a passing pyroclastic
flow can bury structures too.
Hot volcanic activity that can melt snow and ice
Lahar : An Indonesian term that describes a hot or cold mixture of water and rock, flowing down
the slope of a volcano or river valleys

EFFECTS OF PYROCLASTIC FALL

Ash clouds : Collapses roofs, brings down power lines, kill plants, contaminates water supplies,
respiratory hazards for humans and animals
Pyroclastic fall is when the materials like ash and rocks shoot up to the sky and fall down
like rain in huge areas.

LAVA FLOW : Is not just explosive volcanic activity that can be hazardous. Effusive (lava)
activity is also dangerous.
A lahar is a mixture of broken rocks, volcanic ash, and water that turns into a thick, wet,
concrete-like mud and rushes downhill really fast.

DIFFERENT KINDS OF VOLCANOES

EFFECTS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

Property Damage : Volcanic eruptions can also cause significant property damage
particularly if they produce lava flows, pyroclastic flows (debris flowing from the side
downwards), or lahars (mixtures of water and rock rushing downhill really fast). These
can destroy buildings, infrastructure and agricultural land

Water Pollution : Volcanic eruptions can also release ash and other materials into bodies
of water which can kill fish and other aquatic life and contaminate drinking water
supplies

Soil Fertility : Volcanic ash is rich in minerals and can provide nutrient-rich soil for plant
growth. For example the volcanic soils of the Hawaiian Islands have been known to
produce highly productive agricultural land

Geothermal Energy : Is the energy that comes from the heat inside of the Earth. How this
geothermal energy is used? So volcanoes are naturally hot because of magma found inside of
the Earth which heats up the rocks and water surrounding it. This water heated by the magma
turns into steam and is then piped to turbines which spin to produce electricity that can be used
for things such as appliances. The steam can also be piped directly into homes, buildings and
greenhouses to heat them up without having to use fossil fuels.

Volcanic activity can produce geothermal energy which can be harnessed for electricity
generation and heating. This can provide a clean and sustainable source of energy and areas
with volcanic activity.

New Landforms : While the creation of new landforms can also have negative impacts, it can
also provide new habitats for plants and animals and support new ecosystems
New landforms form when lava from volcanic eruptions and other materials pile up one
after another and cool down. Over time as they stack up one after another, this creates
new land like mountains or islands (if erupted from underwater). Volcanic eruptions seem
negative at first but once the materials cool down and harden, it can also provide new
habitats for plants and animals and support life.
Tourism Spot : Volcanoes and nearby features or things around it such as hot springs and
geysers, can attract tourists and bring money and jobs to local communities, benefitting their
local economy

VOLCANO MONITORING
PURPOSE : Volcano observatories are set up on all active volcanoes that could threaten the
human population. Their goal is to monitor volcanic activity (behaviour of the volcano) and to
potentially predict eruptions

VOLCANOLOGISTS MONITOR 3 KEY SIGNS THAT A VOLCANO MAY ERUPT :

1.​ SEISMICITIC ACTIVITIES (EARTHQUAKES)
a.​ Earthquakes usually happen before a volcanic eruption
b.​ As magma rises, it increases in volume causing the surrounding rocks to
crack or break to make space for the rising magma. The sudden cracks and
breaking release energy which travels in the form of vibrations or in the
form of earthquakes.
2.​ DEFORMATION
a.​ When magma inside a volcano rises, this causes the inside to push upwards
causing swelling, bulging or tilting of the volcano surface.
b.​ To measure the change in the volcano’s surface, scientists use an instrument
called TILTMETERS. This instrument is highly sensitive to changes in the surface
as small as one part per million. By using this instrument, scientists can track and
observe the tilting, bulging and swelling of the volcano which is an early sign that
an eruption is about to happen.
3.​ GAS EMISSIONS
a.​ As magma rises and erupts from the volcano, it releases gases.
b.​ The gas it releases is made up of several kinds such as Sulfur Dioxide.
c.​ Before a volcanic eruption, the gas composition or the gas the volcano releases
change. Sometimes, more of a certain gas is being released or sometimes less
of a certain gas is being released and more of another gas is being released.
d.​ The gas that escape from magma is called EXSOLVED gases
e.​ Scientists can measure these gases to monitor the volcano. They can do this by
either going directly to fumaroles or areas where the volcano is active and
directly collect gas samples to see what's in them OR by using instruments such
as satellites to detect changes in gas composition from far away