CHAPTER 1
The Atoms in Modern
Chemistry
Silicon atoms shown by Scanning
Tunneling Microscopy (STM)
Throughout this course, we will learn about CHEMISTRY
However, most of the contents in the first half are physics,
quantum mechanics or physical chemistry
▪ Definition of Chemistry: Works occurring in the Universe.
▪ Definition of Works in Chemistry: Chemical bond formation
▪ Then, what is the chemical bond?
▪ Chemical bond is physical coupling among atoms
▪ Physical coupling between two atoms is nothing but electron sharing
This is why we need to understand physics and quantum mechanics of
atoms in order to understand CHEMISTRY
1.1 The Nature of Modern Chemistry
Modern Chemistry is established since
the 18th century.
Before that, most chemists were
known as ALCHEMIST.
Alchemy: conversion of base metals
into gold. Mostly based on trials and
errors
Start to establish “laws” and “basic
assumptions”
c.f. In physics, classical mechanics vs.
quantum mechanics
Conservation of Matter and Energy
Key concept of chemistry
→ During chemical reactions, the total number of matter remains constant
→ Throughout chemical reactions, the total energy is conserved
(Energy is just transformed into different forms. Ex. Chemical energy to
electrical, or thermal energy)
Energy is neither created nor destroyed during chemical reactions!
c.f. Interconversion of Energy and Matter
Definition of Chemistry
Chemistry is the study about the properties of substances and the
reactions that transform one substance into another.
Substance: composed of elements
Elements: sorted in the periodic table
Electrolysis of H2O
1.2 Macroscopic Methods for Classifying Matter
Substances: unit material obtained after separation
- Mixtures: no chemical bonds (homogeneous vs. heterogeneous)
gas + gas gas + solid (aerosol)
liquid + liquid liquid + solid (for not soluble ones)
liquid + solid (for soluble ones)
- Is salt a substance?
Yes – sodium chloride
No – Table salt (mixtures of NaCl, NaI, MgCO3…)
Elements
are substances that are not decomposed into two or more simpler
substances by ordinary chemical and physical means
- Is NaCl an element? No. NaCl → Na+ + Cl-
- Is Na+ an element? Yes. No simpler substance is available
- Generally, all the atoms in the periodic table are “elements”
Compounds
are products made of various elements
Ex. NaCl, H2O, H2…..
Mixture of Cu(NO3)2 6H2O and Only Cu(NO3)2 6H2O soluble in Evaporation of water results in
CdS in water water pass through the filter pure crystals of Cu(NO3)2 6H2O
paper
1.3 Indirect Evidence for the Existence of Atoms: Laws of Chemical Combination
Law of Conservation of Mass (Lavoisier, 1770’s)
An equal quantity of matter exists before and after the operation (chemical
reaction)
2HgO(s) 2Hg(s) + O2(g)
First notice of the similarity between chemical reaction and algebraic equation
Two key apparatus for the experimental confirmation: Very accurate balance and
the concept and detection tool for oxygen gas.
c.f. In 1740’s, Mikhail Lomonosov proposed “plasistron” theory. “There is
plasistron in a burning flame” => mass is conserved.
Law of Definite Proportions (Berthollet and Proust, 1794)
In a given chemical compound, the proportions by mass of the elements that
compose it are fixed, independent of the origin of the compound or its mode of
preparation
Ex. Water is composed of 11.1 % by mass of hydrogen, always!
Most of people disagreed as the mass could be somewhat more or less than
11.1 %.
Proust, however, claimed that the discrepancy could be due to experimental
errors or impurities.
Fe – O: Fe2O3, Fe3O4, FeO, Fe0.95O, Fe0.85O
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
Based on the Lavoisier and Proust theories, John Dalton proposed the existence
atoms: the mass relationship could be interpreted most simply by Atom
In Greek, a-[not] + tomos [cut] = not divisible
[Link] consists of indivisible atoms
[Link] the atoms of a given chemical element are identical in mass and in all other
properties
[Link] chemical elements have different kinds of atoms (different mass)
[Link] are indestructible and retain their identities in chemical reactions
5.A compound forms from its elements through the combination of atoms of
unlike elements in small whole-number ratios
Law of Multiple Proportions
When two elements form a series of compounds, the masses of one element
that combine with a fixed mass of the other element are in the ratio of small
integers to each other
Atom1 + atom2 + atom3+…….Molecule
Representation Chemical Formula
Ex. H + H + O H2O
C + O CO
C + O2 CO2
2C + 2O2 C2O4
…..
Law of Combining Volumes (Joseph Gay-Lussac)
The volumes of two reacting gases are in the ratio of simple integers. Moreover,
the ratio of the volume of each product gas to the volume of either reacting gas is
the ratio of simple integers
2 volumes of H2 + 1 volume of O2 2 volumes of H2O
Key: Not a simple algebraic summation!
2H2 + O2 2H2O
3H2 + N2 2NH3
Meaning: the volume occupied by 3 H2 and 1 N2 is identical to the one occupied
by 2 NH3
Avogadro’s Hypothesis
Equal volumes of different gases at the same temperature and pressure contain
equal numbers of particles (gas molecules)
Although Dalton believed that single atoms played the role in reactions,
Avogadro proposed “diatomic molecule” that involves in the reactions.
This now supports well the Gay-Lussac’s combining volume theory.