Period (full stop) .
Ends a declarative sentence: She submitted the report.
Used in abbreviations: Dr., etc., e.g., i.e.
Decimal points: 3.14
Placement with quotes: In American English, periods usually go inside
closing quotation marks: “Done.”
Question mark ?
Ends a direct question: Are you coming?
Rhetorical questions: Who knows?
Not used for indirect questions: He asked whether I was coming.
Inside quotes if part of the quoted question: She asked, “Are you ready”?
Exclamation mark !
Emphasis, surprise, strong feeling, commands: Stop!
Use sparingly in formal writing.
Inside quotes if part of the quoted exclamation.
Comma ,
Separates items in a list: red, white, and blue. (Oxford/serial comma
optional by style)
Joins independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction: I tried, but it
was locked.
Sets off nonessential (parenthetical) elements: My sister, a doctor, arrived.
After introductory words/phrases/clauses: After the meeting, we left.
With direct address: Jenna, could you help?
In dates, numbers, places: April 5, 2025; 1,234; Paris, France.
Avoid comma splice: don’t join two sentences with only a comma.
Semicolon ;
Links closely related independent clauses without a conjunction: I called;
no one answered.
Separates complex list items that contain commas: We met Jane, the
manager; Luis, the engineer; and Priya, the analyst.
Colon :
Introduces an explanation, list, example, or quotation after a complete
clause: Bring the essentials: water, snacks, and a map.
Functions like “namely,” “as follows,” or “because” signals.
Ratios and time: 3:1; 10:45 a.m.
Capitalization after a colon depends on style; capitalize if what follows is a
full sentence in many American styles.
Em dash — (long dash)
Creates a strong break—like this—for emphasis, an abrupt change, or an
aside.
Can substitute for parentheses or a colon to add drama: Only one choice
remains—leave.
Use sparingly; avoid spaces in most styles.
En dash – (medium dash)
Ranges: 2019–2022; pages 5–9.
Connections/contrasts: the Singapore–Johor link.
Not the same as a hyphen; read as “to” or “through.”
Hyphen -
Joins words into compound modifiers: a well-known researcher, a first-year
module.
Avoid when the modifier comes after the noun: The researcher is well
known.
Word breaks at line ends (typesetting), prefixes: re-enter, pre-empt; avoid
when not needed: email is now standard.
Parentheses ( )
Add asides, clarifications, acronyms: the National University of Singapore
(NUS).
Softens or de-emphasizes information: We will proceed (if funding is
approved).
Punctuation goes inside if the parenthetical is a complete sentence on its
own; otherwise outside.
Brackets [ ]
Editorial insertions or clarifications inside quotations: “He [the chair]
disagreed.”
Mark changes to capitalization or tense: “[T]he results were conclusive.”
Indicate “sic” for original errors: “recieve [sic].”
Braces { }
Rare in general prose; used in math, programming, or to group items:
Choose one {A, B, C}.
Quotation marks “ ” (double) and ‘ ’ (single)
Enclose direct speech or quotations: She said, “Let’s begin.”
Titles of short works (style-dependent): “The Lottery.”
Scare quotes to signal unusual usage: the “free” gift.
Nested quotes: “I heard him say, ‘go now.’”
Placement of commas/periods: inside in American English; in British
English, often logical placement.
Avoid for emphasis (use italics instead).
Apostrophe ’
Possession: the student’s laptop; the students’ lounge (plural owners).
Contractions: it’s (it is), don’t, we’re.
Its vs. it’s: its = possessive; it’s = it is/it has.
Singular nouns ending in s usually take ’s (style-dependent): James’s
book.
Ellipsis …
Omission in quotations: “We found … significant gains.”
Trailing off or hesitation: Well … maybe.
Spacing varies by style; avoid overuse for dramatic effect.
Slash /
Alternatives: and/or.
Fractions, ratios, dates (style-dependent): 3/4; 2025/26.
Use sparingly in running text; can read as informal.
Bullet points and lists •
Organize items. Introduce with a lead-in clause; keep parallel structure.
End each item consistently (periods if full sentences).
Diagonal quotes and primes
Avoid using straight quotes ( " ' ) as inch/foot marks; use primes for
measurements if typographically precise: 5′ 10″. In everyday writing,
straight marks are common but technically different.
Other symbols sometimes treated like punctuation
Ampersand (&): Stand-in for “and” in names or shorthand (Johnson &
Johnson); avoid in running prose unless part of a proper name or space-
limited context.
Asterisk (*): Footnotes or emphasis in informal writing; in formal text, use
proper footnote formatting.