Cambridge Lower Secondary

Science
Stage 9 — Learner's Book Notes
Mary Jones • Diane Fellowes-Freeman • Michael Smyth
Cambridge University Press, 2nd Edition

All 9 Units Covered

Unit 1: Photosynthesis and the Carbon Cycle
Unit 2: Properties of Materials
Unit 3: Forces and Energy
Unit 4: Maintaining Life
Unit 5: Reactivity
Unit 6: Sound and Space
Unit 7: Genes and Inheritance
Unit 8: Rates of Reaction
Unit 9: Electricity

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UNIT 1: Photosynthesis and the Carbon Cycle
1.1 Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants use light energy to make glucose from
carbon dioxide and water.
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
The word equation: carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen
• Chlorophyll: the green pigment in chloroplasts that absorbs light energy
• Chloroplasts: organelles found mainly in leaf mesophyll cells where photosynthesis
occurs
• Stomata: tiny pores mostly on the lower surface of leaves through which CO₂ enters
and O₂ and water vapour leave
• Guard cells: cells that control the opening and closing of stomata
Factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis:
• Light intensity: higher light = faster rate (up to a limit)
• Carbon dioxide concentration: more CO₂ = faster rate (up to a limit)
• Temperature: higher temp = faster rate (up to about 40°C, then enzymes denature)

1.2 More About Photosynthesis

Plants need mineral ions as well as glucose for healthy growth:
• Nitrate ions: needed to make amino acids and proteins
• Magnesium ions: needed to make chlorophyll
Plants absorb water and mineral ions through root hair cells via osmosis and active
transport.
Transpiration: the loss of water vapour from leaves through stomata. Water moves up the
plant in the xylem (transpiration stream). Factors increasing transpiration: high temperature,
low humidity, wind, high light intensity.

1.3 The Carbon Cycle

Carbon is cycled through the environment in several processes:
• Photosynthesis: removes CO₂ from the air, converts it to glucose (and then into
other organic compounds)
• Respiration: all living organisms respire, releasing CO₂ back to the atmosphere
• Combustion (burning): burning fossil fuels and wood releases stored carbon as
CO₂
• Decomposition: decomposers (bacteria and fungi) break down dead material,
releasing CO₂
• Fossilisation: dead organisms can become coal, oil, or natural gas over millions of
years — locking carbon away
Human impact: Burning fossil fuels increases atmospheric CO₂ levels, contributing to
climate change. Deforestation reduces the amount of CO₂ absorbed by photosynthesis.

1.4 Climate Change

The greenhouse effect: greenhouse gases (CO₂, methane, water vapour) trap heat radiated
from Earth's surface, keeping it warm. This is a natural and essential process.

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Enhanced greenhouse effect: human activities increase greenhouse gas levels, causing
global warming and climate change.
• Effects of climate change: rising sea levels, more extreme weather events,
changes to ecosystems, shifts in species distributions, melting of ice caps
• Solutions: reduce fossil fuel use, use renewable energy, plant more trees, improve
energy efficiency

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UNIT 2: Properties of Materials
2.1 Atomic Structure and the Periodic Table
All matter is made of atoms. An atom has:
• Nucleus: contains protons (positive charge) and neutrons (no charge)
• Electrons: negative charge, arranged in shells (energy levels) around the nucleus
Key terms:
• Atomic number (proton number): number of protons in the nucleus — defines the
element
• Mass number: total number of protons + neutrons in the nucleus
• Number of neutrons = mass number − atomic number
• Neutral atom: number of electrons = number of protons
Electronic configuration: electrons fill shells in order — 1st shell holds max 2, 2nd and 3rd
shells hold max 8 each. E.g. sodium (Na, atomic number 11) = 2,8,1.
The Periodic Table arranges elements in order of atomic number. Elements in the same
group (column) have the same number of outer-shell electrons and similar chemical
properties. Elements in the same period (row) have the same number of electron shells.

2.2 Trends in the Periodic Table

Group 1 (Alkali metals): 1 outer electron; very reactive, react vigorously with water producing
hydrogen gas and a metal hydroxide; reactivity increases down the group (outer electron
further from nucleus, easier to lose).
Group 7 (Halogens): 7 outer electrons; non-metals; reactivity decreases down the group
(outer shell further from nucleus, harder to gain an electron). A more reactive halogen
displaces a less reactive halogen from its salt solution.
Group 0 (Noble gases): full outer shells, chemically inert (unreactive). Used in filament bulbs
(argon), balloons (helium), advertising signs (neon).

2.3 Ionic Bonding

Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non-metals. Atoms transfer electrons so that each
achieves a full outer shell, forming ions.
• Metal atoms lose electrons → become positive ions (cations)
• Non-metal atoms gain electrons → become negative ions (anions)
E.g. NaCl: Na loses 1 electron to become Na⁺; Cl gains 1 electron to become Cl⁻.
Oppositely charged ions attract strongly in a giant ionic lattice.
Properties of ionic compounds: high melting/boiling points; conduct electricity when
dissolved in water or molten (ions free to move); usually soluble in water.

2.4 Covalent Bonding and Giant Structures

Covalent bonding occurs between non-metals. Atoms share pairs of electrons to achieve full
outer shells.
• Single covalent bond: one shared pair of electrons (e.g. H₂, HCl)
• Double covalent bond: two shared pairs (e.g. O₂, CO₂)
• Triple covalent bond: three shared pairs (e.g. N₂)

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Simple molecular compounds have low melting/boiling points because intermolecular forces
between molecules are weak. They do not conduct electricity.
Giant covalent structures: e.g. diamond and graphite (both forms of carbon).
• Diamond: each C bonded to 4 others; extremely hard; does not conduct electricity
• Graphite: layers of C in hexagonal rings; layers can slide; conducts electricity (free
electrons); used as a lubricant and in pencils

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UNIT 3: Forces and Energy
3.1 Density
Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance.
Density (kg/m³) = Mass (kg) ÷ Volume (m³)
Also commonly: density in g/cm³ = mass in g ÷ volume in cm³.
Objects less dense than a fluid float; objects denser than a fluid sink. To find the volume of
an irregular solid, use water displacement.

3.2 Forces and Motion

A force is a push or pull measured in newtons (N). Forces can change the shape, speed, or
direction of an object.
• Balanced forces: resultant force = 0; the object remains stationary or moves at
constant velocity
• Unbalanced forces: resultant force ≠ 0; the object accelerates or decelerates
Resultant force (N) = mass (kg) × acceleration (m/s²) [Newton's 2nd Law]
Speed and velocity:
Speed (m/s) = distance (m) ÷ time (s)
Velocity includes direction (a vector quantity). Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
Acceleration (m/s²) = change in velocity (m/s) ÷ time (s)

3.3 Turning Forces and Pressure

A moment (turning effect) depends on the force and the perpendicular distance from the
pivot.
Moment (Nm) = Force (N) × perpendicular distance (m)
Principle of moments: for a balanced system (equilibrium), sum of clockwise moments = sum
of anticlockwise moments.
Pressure is the force per unit area.
Pressure (Pa) = Force (N) ÷ Area (m²)
Pressure in fluids increases with depth and acts in all directions. Atmospheric pressure
decreases with altitude.

3.4 Work, Energy, and Power

Work is done when a force moves an object in the direction of the force.
Work done (J) = Force (N) × distance moved in direction of force (m)
Energy cannot be created or destroyed — it is transferred or transformed (conservation of
energy).
• Kinetic energy (KE): energy of a moving object: KE = ½ × mass × speed²
• Gravitational potential energy (GPE): GPE = mass × g × height (g = 10 N/kg on
Earth)
Power is the rate of doing work or transferring energy.
Power (W) = Work done (J) ÷ Time (s)

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Efficiency: useful energy output ÷ total energy input × 100%. No machine is 100% efficient;
energy is wasted mainly as heat.

3.5 Thermal Energy

Thermal energy transfers by: conduction (in solids), convection (in fluids), and radiation
(electromagnetic waves — infrared — no medium needed).
• Conduction: free electrons and vibrating atoms pass energy along solids; metals are
good conductors
• Convection: warm fluid rises (less dense), cool fluid sinks; convection currents form
• Radiation: all objects emit and absorb infrared radiation; dark/matt surfaces emit and
absorb best; shiny/light surfaces reflect best
Specific heat capacity (c): energy needed to raise 1 kg of substance by 1°C.
Energy (J) = mass (kg) × specific heat capacity (J/kg°C) × temperature change (°C)

3.6 Waves
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. Key wave properties:
• Amplitude: maximum displacement from the rest position
• Wavelength: distance between two successive identical points on a wave
• Frequency: number of complete waves passing a point per second (Hz)
• Wave speed (m/s) = frequency (Hz) × wavelength (m)
Waves can be reflected, refracted, and diffracted.

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UNIT 4: Maintaining Life
4.1 The Excretory System
Excretion: the removal of waste products of metabolism from the body (not the same as
egestion which is the removal of undigested food).
• Lungs: excrete CO₂ and water vapour
• Kidneys: excrete urea (made in the liver from excess amino acids) and salts in urine;
also regulate water content of the blood (osmoregulation)
• Skin: excretes small amounts of water and salts in sweat
The kidneys:
• Filter blood under pressure in the glomerulus (in the Bowman's capsule)
• Glucose, water, and urea are filtered out
• All glucose and most water are selectively reabsorbed into the blood
• Urea and excess water and salts remain as urine; urine passes to the bladder via the
ureter

4.2 The Nervous System

The nervous system allows the body to detect and respond to stimuli rapidly.
• Central nervous system (CNS): brain and spinal cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS): all nerves outside the CNS
Neurons (nerve cells):
• Sensory neurons: carry impulses from receptors (sense organs) to the CNS
• Motor neurons: carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or glands)
• Relay neurons (interneurons): found in the CNS; connect sensory and motor
neurons
A reflex arc is a rapid, automatic response to a stimulus: receptor → sensory neuron → relay
neuron → motor neuron → effector. Reflexes are involuntary and protect the body from
harm.
At synapses, nerve impulses are transmitted by chemical neurotransmitters across the gap
between neurons.

4.3 Hormones and the Endocrine System

Hormones are chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands directly into the blood,
and they act on target organs.
• Insulin (pancreas): lowers blood glucose — promotes uptake of glucose by cells
and conversion to glycogen in the liver
• Glucagon (pancreas): raises blood glucose — stimulates conversion of glycogen
back to glucose
• ADH (pituitary gland): controls water reabsorption in kidneys
• Adrenaline (adrenal glands): prepares body for 'fight or flight' — increases heart
rate, dilates pupils
Diabetes: Type 1 diabetes is caused by the immune system destroying insulin-producing
cells; treated with insulin injections. Type 2 diabetes is caused by cells becoming less
responsive to insulin; often linked to lifestyle.

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4.4 Reproduction and Development
Sexual reproduction involves the fusion (fertilisation) of male and female gametes to form a
zygote. Gametes are haploid (half the normal chromosome number); the zygote is diploid.
In humans: fertilisation produces a zygote → develops into an embryo → implants in the
uterus wall → becomes a fetus over 9 months (gestation).
The placenta allows exchange of substances between mother's and fetus's blood without the
blood actually mixing: oxygen and glucose diffuse to the fetus; CO₂ and urea diffuse to the
mother.
Contraception prevents fertilisation or implantation: condoms (also prevent STIs), hormonal
methods (pill, injection), IUDs, sterilisation.
Sexually transmitted infections (STIs): infections passed on through sexual contact. E.g.
HIV/AIDS, chlamydia. Condom use reduces risk.

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UNIT 5: Reactivity
5.1 The Reactivity Series
Metals can be arranged in order of how readily they react — their reactivity. The reactivity
series (most to least reactive): potassium, sodium, lithium, calcium, magnesium, aluminium,
zinc, iron, lead, copper, silver, gold.
More reactive metals displace less reactive metals from their salt solutions (displacement
reactions).
Metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series react with dilute acids to produce a salt and
hydrogen gas. More reactive metals react more vigorously.
Metals above carbon in the reactivity series cannot be extracted from their ores by reduction
with carbon — they must be extracted by electrolysis (e.g. sodium, aluminium).

5.2 Corrosion and Protection

Corrosion is the destruction of a metal by chemical reactions with substances in the
environment. Rusting of iron requires both oxygen and water.
• Protective coatings: paint, oil, plastic coating, electroplating, galvanising (zinc coat)
— barrier protection
• Sacrificial protection: a more reactive metal (e.g. zinc or magnesium blocks) is
attached to the iron and corrodes instead; used on ships and pipelines
Galvanising: coating iron with zinc. Even if the zinc layer is scratched, the zinc (being more
reactive) corrodes first, protecting the iron.

5.3 Acids, Bases, and Neutralisation

Acids are solutions with pH < 7; they release H⁺ ions in water. Bases are substances that
neutralise acids; alkalis are soluble bases, pH > 7.
Neutralisation: acid + base → salt + water
• Acid + metal oxide → salt + water
• Acid + metal hydroxide → salt + water
• Acid + metal carbonate → salt + water + carbon dioxide
• Acid + metal → salt + hydrogen
The pH scale runs from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline), 7 is neutral. pH is measured with
universal indicator or a pH meter.

5.4 Making Salts

Methods for making salts: titration (acid + alkali), using excess solid (acid + metal/metal
oxide/metal carbonate and filtering off the excess), precipitation (mixing two solutions that
form an insoluble salt).
Purifying salts: filter to remove excess solid, evaporate to crystallise the salt, filter off
crystals, wash and dry.

5.5 Electrolysis
Electrolysis: the decomposition of an ionic compound in solution or in molten form using
electricity.
• Electrolyte: the ionic compound that is dissolved or molten

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 • Cathode (negative electrode): positive ions (cations) are attracted here and gain
electrons — reduced
• Anode (positive electrode): negative ions (anions) are attracted here and lose
electrons — oxidised
Example — electrolysis of copper sulfate solution using copper electrodes: copper is
deposited at the cathode; the anode dissolves (copper atoms become Cu²⁺ ions). This is
used in electroplating and copper purification.
Electrolysis of brine (sodium chloride solution): cathode produces hydrogen gas; anode
produces chlorine gas; sodium hydroxide solution is left behind. These are important
industrial products.

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UNIT 6: Sound and Space
6.1 Sound
Sound is a longitudinal mechanical wave — vibrations travel through a medium as
compressions and rarefactions (areas of high and low pressure). Sound cannot travel
through a vacuum.
• Amplitude: determines loudness — larger amplitude = louder sound
• Frequency: determines pitch — higher frequency = higher pitch; measured in hertz
(Hz)
• Human hearing range: approximately 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz
• Ultrasound: sound above 20,000 Hz — used in medical imaging (ultrasound scans),
sonar, and cleaning jewellery
Speed of sound: approximately 340 m/s in air; faster in liquids and solids than in gases.
Speed (m/s) = distance (m) ÷ time (s)
Echoes are reflections of sound. The relationship between distance, speed, and time can be
used to calculate distances (e.g. echolocation, sonar).

6.2 Light
Light is a transverse electromagnetic wave that can travel through a vacuum at
approximately 3 × 10⁸ m/s.
Reflection: angle of incidence = angle of reflection (measured from the normal).
Refraction: light changes speed (and direction) when it passes from one medium to another.
It bends towards the normal when slowing down (e.g. entering glass from air) and away from
the normal when speeding up (e.g. leaving glass into air).
Lenses:
• Convex (converging) lens: brings parallel rays to a focus at the focal point; used in
magnifying glasses and cameras
• Concave (diverging) lens: spreads rays outward; used in spectacles for short-
sighted people
The electromagnetic spectrum (in order of increasing frequency/decreasing wavelength):
radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays. All travel at
the speed of light in a vacuum.

6.3 The Solar System and Beyond

The Solar System: the Sun (a star) is orbited by 8 planets, dwarf planets, moons, asteroids,
and comets. Planets orbit in ellipses.
• Inner planets (rocky, terrestrial): Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
• Outer planets (gas giants): Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune
Gravitational force holds planets in orbit around the Sun and moons in orbit around planets.
The force of gravity decreases with increasing distance.
Stars: The Sun is a medium-sized star. Stars form from clouds of gas and dust (nebulae).
The life cycle of a star like the Sun: nebula → protostar → main sequence star → red giant
→ white dwarf → black dwarf. Very massive stars end as neutron stars or black holes.

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6.4 Space Exploration
Satellites orbit the Earth and are used for communication, weather forecasting, GPS, and
scientific research.
Space exploration uses telescopes (optical and radio), probes, and crewed spacecraft. The
James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) and the Hubble Space Telescope observe distant
galaxies and nebulae.
The Universe: contains billions of galaxies, each with billions of stars. Our galaxy is the Milky
Way. The Universe began with the Big Bang approximately 13.8 billion years ago and has
been expanding ever since. Evidence: the red-shift of light from distant galaxies (galaxies
moving away — Doppler effect) and cosmic microwave background radiation.

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UNIT 7: Genes and Inheritance
7.1 DNA and Chromosomes
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) carries the genetic information in cells. DNA is found in the
nucleus, wound around proteins to form chromosomes.
• Gene: a section of DNA that codes for a specific protein (including enzymes), which
determines a characteristic
• Human cells normally contain 46 chromosomes (23 pairs) — called the diploid
number (2n)
• Gametes contain 23 chromosomes — haploid (n)
• DNA is a double helix — two strands twisted together, held by base pairs (A-T and C-
G)
Mutations: changes in the DNA base sequence. Most mutations have little or no effect; some
can be harmful (e.g. causing cancer); occasionally beneficial. Mutations can be caused by
ionising radiation (UV, X-rays) and certain chemicals.

7.2 Inheritance
Heredity: the passing of characteristics (genes) from parents to offspring.
• Alleles: different versions of the same gene
• Dominant allele: expressed even if only one copy is present (written with a capital
letter, e.g. B)
• Recessive allele: only expressed when two copies are present (written with a
lowercase letter, e.g. b)
• Homozygous: two identical alleles (e.g. BB or bb)
• Heterozygous: two different alleles (e.g. Bb)
• Genotype: the alleles an organism has
• Phenotype: the observable characteristic produced by the genotype
Punnett squares are used to predict the probability of offspring having particular
genotypes/phenotypes. E.g. crossing two carriers (Bb × Bb) gives: 25% BB, 50% Bb, 25%
bb — so 25% chance of showing the recessive trait.
Sex determination: females are XX, males are XY. Sex chromosomes are separated during
meiosis; each gamete contains either X or Y. Equal probability of producing male or female
offspring.

7.3 Variation and Natural Selection

Variation: differences between individuals of the same species.
• Genetic variation: caused by different combinations of alleles (due to sexual
reproduction and mutation)
• Environmental variation: caused by factors such as diet, temperature, and sunlight
• Continuous variation: a range of values with no distinct categories (e.g. height,
mass)
• Discontinuous variation: distinct categories with no intermediates (e.g. blood
group, attached/free earlobes)
Natural selection: in a population with variation, individuals with advantageous
characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce (survival of the fittest). They pass on

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their genes to offspring. Over many generations, the frequency of the favourable allele
increases. This is how evolution occurs.
Extinction occurs when all members of a species die. Causes include habitat destruction,
climate change, hunting, disease, and competition with invasive species.

7.4 Selective Breeding and Genetic Engineering

Selective breeding: humans choose organisms with desirable characteristics to breed
together over many generations; e.g. high-yield crops, disease-resistant animals.
Genetic engineering: inserting a gene from one organism into another to produce a desired
protein. E.g. human insulin gene inserted into bacteria to produce human insulin for
diabetics; genetically modified (GM) crops with herbicide resistance or pest resistance.

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UNIT 8: Rates of Reaction
8.1 Rate of Reaction
The rate of a chemical reaction measures how quickly reactants are converted into products.
Rate of reaction = amount of reactant used (or product formed) ÷ time
Measuring rate: by collecting gas produced and measuring volume over time, or by
measuring the decrease in mass as gas escapes, or by measuring turbidity (cloudiness) as a
precipitate forms.

8.2 Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction

The factors that affect rate of reaction are:
• Temperature: higher temperature → molecules move faster → more frequent
collisions with more energy → greater reaction rate
• Concentration (in solutions): higher concentration → more particles per unit
volume → more frequent collisions → greater rate
• Pressure (for gases): higher pressure → molecules closer together → more
frequent collisions → greater rate
• Surface area: smaller particle size → greater surface area → more collision
opportunities → greater rate (e.g. powders react faster than lumps)
• Catalyst: a substance that increases the rate of reaction without being used up. It
provides an alternative pathway with lower activation energy
Collision theory: for a reaction to occur, particles must collide with sufficient energy
(activation energy) and in the correct orientation. Factors that increase collision frequency or
energy increase the rate.

8.3 Reversible Reactions and Equilibrium

Some reactions are reversible — products can react to form the original reactants again.
In a closed system, when the forward and backward rates become equal, the reaction is at
dynamic equilibrium. The concentrations of reactants and products remain constant (but not
necessarily equal).
If conditions change (temperature, pressure, or concentration), equilibrium shifts to oppose
the change (Le Chatelier's principle). E.g.:
• Increasing temperature: equilibrium shifts in the endothermic direction (to absorb
the extra heat)
• Increasing pressure: equilibrium shifts to the side with fewer moles of gas
• Increasing concentration of a reactant: equilibrium shifts forward (to use up the
extra reactant)

8.4 Energy in Reactions

Exothermic reactions: release energy (usually heat) to the surroundings. Temperature of
surroundings increases. E.g. combustion, oxidation, neutralisation, respiration.
Endothermic reactions: absorb energy from the surroundings. Temperature of surroundings
decreases. E.g. thermal decomposition, photosynthesis.
Bond breaking requires energy (endothermic); bond forming releases energy (exothermic). If
more energy is released in bond forming than absorbed in bond breaking, the reaction is
exothermic overall.

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UNIT 9: Electricity
9.1 Charge and Current
Electric current is the flow of electric charge (electrons) around a circuit. Current is measured
in amperes (A) using an ammeter (connected in series).
Charge (C) = Current (A) × Time (s)
Conventional current flows from positive to negative; electron flow is from negative to
positive.

9.2 Voltage, Resistance, and Ohm's Law

Voltage (potential difference) is the energy transferred per unit charge. Measured in volts (V)
using a voltmeter (connected in parallel).
Resistance opposes the flow of current. Measured in ohms (Ω).
Voltage (V) = Current (A) × Resistance (Ω) [Ohm's Law]
Ohm's Law: for a metallic conductor at constant temperature, the current through a
conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across it (constant resistance). A component
that obeys this is an ohmic conductor.
Factors affecting resistance: length of wire (longer = more resistance), cross-sectional area
(thinner = more resistance), material, temperature.

9.3 Series and Parallel Circuits

Series circuit: components connected in a single loop.
• Same current flows through all components
• Voltage is shared across components (voltages add up to supply voltage)
• Total resistance = sum of all individual resistances
• If one component fails, the whole circuit breaks
Parallel circuit: components connected in separate branches.
• Voltage is the same across each branch (same as supply voltage)
• Current is shared between branches (total current = sum of branch currents)
• Total resistance is less than the smallest individual resistance
• If one component fails, other branches continue working

9.4 Electrical Power and Energy

Electrical power is the rate at which energy is transferred.
Power (W) = Voltage (V) × Current (A)
Also: Power (W) = Current² (A²) × Resistance (Ω)
Energy transferred:
Energy (J) = Power (W) × Time (s)
The kilowatt-hour (kWh) is used by electricity companies to measure energy. 1 kWh =
3,600,000 J.
Cost = number of kWh × cost per kWh
Fuses and circuit breakers protect circuits from excess current. A fuse melts if the current
exceeds its rating, breaking the circuit. A circuit breaker acts as a switch that flips off.

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Safety features: earthing, residual current circuit breakers (RCCBs), double insulation.
Insulators (rubber, plastic) prevent electric shock. Conductors (copper, aluminium) allow
current to flow.

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Scientific Skills: Thinking and Working Scientifically
Throughout the course, you are expected to demonstrate scientific skills. Key skills include:
• Planning investigations: identifying variables (independent, dependent, control),
writing hypotheses, selecting appropriate equipment
• Collecting data: using tables with correct units, repeating readings, identifying
anomalous results
• Processing data: calculating means (excluding anomalous results), drawing
appropriate graphs (line graphs for continuous data, bar charts for discontinuous
data)
• Analysing and evaluating: describing trends/patterns, drawing conclusions,
suggesting improvements
Scientific method: observation → hypothesis → experiment → results → conclusion →
evaluation. Science is iterative — conclusions may lead to new questions.

© Cambridge University Press, 2021 | Cambridge Lower Secondary Science 9, 2nd Edition | Notes compiled for
study purposes

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