JOULE’S LAW OF HEATING

Specific Heat Capacity Equation

• The amount of thermal energy E needed to raise the temperature by Δθ for a mass m with
specific heat capacity c is equal to:

E = mcΔθ Equation 1
• Where:
E = thermal energy given in substance (J)
m = mass of the substance heating up (kg)
c = specific heat capacity of the substance (J kg-1K-1or J kg-1 °C-1)
Δθ = change in temperature (K or °C)
Equation for energy in electrical terms is given as
E = PT , or E= I2RT Equation 2
• Where:
E = thermal energy given in substance (J)
P = Power (W)
T= time (Sec.)
I= Current (A)
R=Resistance(Ω)
Equating both Equation 1 & 2 we get,

I2RT=mcΔθ

Or, I2R= mcΔθ/ T

Or, I2R= (mc/T) Δθ

Joule heating, in electricity, the conversion of electric energy into heat energy by the resistance in a
circuit. The English physicist James Prescott Joule discovered in 1840 that the amount of heat per
second that develops in a wire carrying a current is proportional to the electrical resistance of the wire
and the square of the current. He determined that the heat evolved per second is equivalent to the
electric power absorbed, or the power loss.
Joule heating described quantitatively is that the heat evolved per second, or the electric power loss, P,
equals the current I squared times the resistance R, or P = I2R.

DIGITAL THERMOMETER SUPPLY WITH AMMETER

AND VOLTMETER

LID (insulated)

THERMOMETER PROBE HEATER

A CALORIMETER FOR MEASUREMENT OF RISE OF TEMPERATURE OF WATER DUE TO APPLIED ELECTRICAL POWER
Panel heater:
In response to the growing focus on environmentally friendly technologies, the development of infrared
heaters resumed between the late 20th and early 21st centuries. This period saw a significant expansion in
the applications of infrared heating. Infrared heat is a fundamental form of heating that involves the direct
transfer of heat from a heater to an object or material, bypassing the need to heat the surrounding air. This
method produces heat similar to that from the sun, making it a natural and efficient way to warm surfaces.
In an infrared heater, panels are heated to a temperature that allows them to emit infrared radiation. This
radiation travels through the air until it encounters a solid object or workpiece, directly transferring heat to
it. This process mirrors the way heat is transferred between metals and coils using radiant waves.
Unlike traditional heating methods, which first warm the air before affecting objects in the space, infrared
heaters are designed to project heat directly onto objects. This approach allows infrared heaters to quickly
raise the temperature of surfaces with minimal energy consumption, making them a cost-effective and
efficient solution for heating.

OIL HEATERS
Oil heaters consist of metal columns with cavities inside, where heat-transfer oil flows freely around
the heater. A heating element at the base of the heater heats the oil, which flows around the cavities of
the heater by convection. The oil has a relatively high boiling point. The oil's high boiling point allows it
to remain in the liquid phase for heating. The heating element heats the oil, which transfers heat to the
metal wall through convection, through the walls via conduction, and then to the surroundings via air
convection and thermal radiation. The columns of oil heaters are typically constructed as thin fins, such
that the surface area of the metal columns is large relative to the amount of oil and element that
provides the warmth. A large surface area allows more air to be in contact with the heater at any point
in time, allowing for the heat to be transferred more effectively, which results in a surface temperature
that is safe enough to touch. They do not consume oxygen from the surroundings and do not burn skin
on touch makes them ideal for use in rooms at night.
Convection heaters
Electric Convection Heaters- Convection heaters are made with thermostats to regulate temperature.
Finally, they're often safer because of fixed power settings and a lower risk of fire by turning off
automatically when tipped over. It takes advantage of the natural phenomena of hot and cold air
currents and warms an area using these currents. The heated air rises because it is less dense than the
cold air surrounding it, and then sinks as its density increases until it meets with a cold stream of air
around edges whereupon its cycle repeats. Air made warm by such a system will eventually find itself
drawn through vents to reach areas not yet warmed. These are also known as open coil heaters
Advantages Of Convection Heaters
The benefit of a convection heater is that the heat will be distributed in an even manner around the
room.
Does not rely on combustion or radiation, and thus is safer than a gas stove for a home kitchen.
The main benefit of conduction heaters is that they cost less to operate than electric radiant,
convection ovens.
Heat can be transferred nearly instantaneously over very short distances.
Disadvantages Of Convection Heaters
It causes hot spots because more ingredients are exposed to direct heat as temperatures increase.
Depletes oxygen because it heats the air. This can be damaging to respiratory systems.
Pollutes the environment with carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide.

Open coil heater with forced air flow

Electric radiant floors typically consist of electric heating cables built into the floor. Systems that feature
electrical matting mounted on the subfloor below a floor covering such as tile are also available.
Electric radiant floors include a significant thermal mass such as a thick concrete floor. If the floor's
thermal mass is large enough and it is heated up, the heat stored in it will keep the house comfortable
for eight to ten hours without any further electrical input, particularly when daytime temperatures are
significantly warmer than nighttime temperatures and saving energy. Also, as temperature drops in
evening it is switched on and thus cycle continues. At places where daytime temperature are very low
the floor heater on time has to be increased.

LIGHTING
The incandescent lamp was the second form of electric light to be developed for commercial use after
the carbon arc lamp. It is the second most used lamp in the world today behind fluorescent lamps.
Halogen lamps are also incandescent light sources. The traditional incandescent bulb is not just a light
source but has become a symbol of innovation.
Advantages:
*Great for small area lighting
*Good colour rendering: CRI of 100 which is the best possible (colour rendering index)
*Cheap to produce
*No quantity of toxic materials to dispose of (like mercury, toxic alloys, or semiconductors)
*Is easily used in strobe or dimming circuits
Disadvantages:
*Not energy efficient (90% of energy goes to heat, 10% makes visible light)
*Traditional incandescent light bulbs are not useful for lighting large areas. It takes many to light a large
area
Stats
*Color Temperature - comes in all variations, but normally 2700 - 5000K
*Lumens per watt 8 - 24
*Lamp life: 750 - 1000 hrs (standard household bulb)
life can be greatly extended by using the lamp at a lower-than-normal voltage.
Common uses: used everywhere for almost any application. From 1-10,000 W. A 100 W lamp has a
typical efficacy of 14 lumens/watt.
Most materials will catch fire or melt and cannot make a good filament. Filaments are made from
materials that have a high melting point. Tungsten can reach up to 3422 C before it melts. Other
materials have made good filaments or parts of filaments including tantalum, molybdenum, and
carbon. When we pass current through a filament material, the resistance creates heat. Atoms in the
material absorb energy. Electrons around the atoms are excited and temporarily reach an orbital which
is further from the nucleus. When the electron orbit collapses to a lower orbital it ejects the extra
energy in the form of a photon. Incandescence is thermal radiation. Heat is constantly emitted from
objects around us, we just can't see it. When heat gets intense enough it reaches wavelengths that we
can see. It starts with red and goes up the spectrum. In an incandescent bulb most of the heat energy
(90%) is emitted in the infrared spectrum which is just below visible light and we only need the visible
spectrum.
Parts of an incandescent lamp
Tungsten halogen lamps

Low voltage lamp

lamps used at mains voltage

These are similar to incandescent lamps and produce light in the same manner from a tungsten
filament. However, the bulb contains halogen gas (bromine or iodine) which is active in controlling
tungsten evaporation. Fundamental to the halogen cycle is a minimum bulb wall temperature of 250 °C
to ensure that the tungsten halide remains in a gaseous state and does not condense on the bulb wall.
This temperature means bulbs made from quartz in place of glass. With quartz it is possible to reduce
the bulb size. Most tungsten halogen lamps have an improved life over incandescent equivalents and
the filament is at a higher temperature, creating more light and whiter colour.
Extra low voltage tungsten halogen lamps combined with Precision faced glass reflectors are used
extensively for commercial display lighting. These have a larger filament mass operating at Higher
temperature. They have special type of reflectors only for visible light and the heat IR radiation) passes
through the back of the lamp.
Efficacy ranges between 18 to 24 lumen per watt
Low voltage lamps can be placed in any position where as linear lamps require horizontal Positioning
These lamps are suitable for dimmers
These are more expensive than incandescent lamps.
Average life of these lamps at 2000 to 4000 hours
They are used for varied purposes
On a precautionary note, these lamps should not be touched during or immediately after operation.
Metal Halide lamp

This type of lamp is also known as a 'Metal' lamp. It is an HID lamp (High Intensity Discharge), which
means it provides most of its light from the electric arc within a small discharge tube. It is becoming
increasingly popular due to its good quality white light and good efficiency. The most prominent use of
the MH lamp is in stadiums and sports fields. It is also used widely for parking lots and street lighting in
urban areas. Its competitors include the HPS lamp, mercury vapour lamp, LPS lamp, halogen lamps,
and LEDs. MH lamps have advantages over the rest which make it more useful for certain applications.

Working :

The lamp uses mercury vapour to create the powerful light (like the high pressure mercury vapour) but
includes other metals (halide salts) to improve the colour. A Halide is a chemical compound of a
halogen combined with an electropositive element, or in the case of lamps: a metal. A halogen is a
monovalent element which readily forms negative ions. There are 5 halogens: fluorine, chlorine,
bromine, iodine, and astatine.

1. When the lamp is cold the halides and mercury are condensed on the fused quartz tube. When
the lamp is turned on current passed through the starting electrode and jumps the short
distance to the main electrode aided by argon gas. The argon gas strikes an arc at low
temperatures.
2. After the initial small arc, the tube heats up and the mercury is vaporized. soon the arc is able
to travel through the mercury vapour to reach the other main electrode on the opposite side of
the discharge tube. There is less resistance on this path now and current stops flowing through
the starting electrode.
3. After a mercury vapour arc strikes and heats, the halides vaporize and the halides dissociate.
The metal atoms diffuse away from the arc to cooler areas and recombine with the halogen
before they damage any part of the silica or electrodes. The lamp is now fully warmed up and
produces its white light.
Materials used for making of lamp

1. The high pressure and temperature of this light would normally react and destroy the silica in
normal glass. Fused quartz is used due to a high melting temperature, and by using halogens
the destructive process is stopped.
2. Tungsten has the highest melting point of any metal and therefore it makes the best electrode
material.
3. Molybdenum is used in the seal of the discharge tube because it does not expand or soften
easy, even under extremely high temperatures. Expansion of the electrode coming out of the
discharge tube would crack or break the sealed tube which forms a flat seam on each end.
Molybdenum is also highly resistant to corrosion and is also used in high strength steel, armour
and electrical contacts.

Metal halide lamps for different uses and fittings. For headlights & Flash bulbs HMI, bottom two are
for outdoor/large area use.
Advantages:
metal-halide lamps have luminous efficacy of around 75–100 lumens per watt, appx twice that of
mercury vapor lights.
Lamp life is 6,000 to 15,000 hours.
produces an intense white light and is most efficient sources of high CRI white light
Disadvantages:
A cold metal-halide needs high temperature and pressure in the inner arc chamber thus requires
time to reach full glow.
If power is interrupted, the lamp's arc will extinguish and 5 to 10 minutes are needed to reestablish
the arc.
The mercury vapour lamp is a high intensity discharge lamp. It uses an arc through vaporized
mercury in a high pressure tube to create very bright light directly from it's own arc. This is different
from fluorescents which use the mercury vapour arc to create a weaker light that mainly creates UV
light to excite the phosphors.

Low Pressure:

The first mercury vapour lamps were in a lower pressure tube. One would tip the lamp, and electrical
contacts on each side of the lamp would send electricity through a liquid mercury which started the
lamp. After that the lamp would heat fast and mercury became a vapor. The light would intensify as the
arc grew stronger in the tube.

High Pressure:

Lamps of today are high pressure lamps with a fused quartz inner discharge tube. The high pressure
helps increase efficiency and this was developed in 1936, 35 years after the low pressure lamps came
out.
This lamp start with a small arc between the starting electrode and the main electrode. This arc goes
through argon gas which easily strikes, even in cold weather. This little arc heats the tube, and over
several minutes the tube gets hot enough to vaporize the solid mercury stuck to the sides. The mercury
vaporized creates a strong light between the two main electrodes.
To prevent the arc from infinitely getting stronger a ballast limits the current. Some lamps are "Self
Ballasted", they use an incandescent filament to act as a resistor, limiting current. Home lighting
fixtures usually use the self-ballasted type whereas the more expensive but more efficient ballasted
lamps are found in large fixtures for municipal lighting.
CRI 20 (clear bulb) 60 (phosphor coated)
Color Temperature - 6800 K (clear bulb)
Lumens per watt: 30-60
Lamp life: 24,000 - 175,000 hours

Advantages:
- Good efficiency (lamps after 1980s have a high lumen per watt rating)
- Colour rendering is better than that of high-pressure sodium street lights
- long life
Disadvantages:
- Like many lamps it contains traces of mercury which must be disposed of properly
- high pressure sodium street lights have a better lumen per watt rating
- Human skin looks green under the light, it is poor for colour film/photography
-Warm up time required to start the lamp
 FLUORESCENT Lamp

Fluorescent Lamp
Fluorescent Lamp employs transformation of UV radiation due to low pressure mercury vapour.
Luminescent Powder in tubular vapour Lamps Enhances brilliancy of light. Radiation from Low Pressure
Mercury Vapour (which is in UV region) is impinged on Luminescent Materials and re – radiated at
longer wavelengths of visible spectrum. In a Glass Tube small drop of Mercury and small amount of
Argon gas are placed for initiation of discharge.
Working
A bimetallic strip is sealed into a glass envelope, with (usually) neon gas inside. When power is applied,
the voltage is more than enough to cause an arc in the neon starter, but nowhere near enough to start
the arc in the lamp itself. The heat from the neon arc causes the bimetallic strip to bend, until it closes
the contacts. The arc in the neon starter then stops, and the mains is connected through the ballast
and the filaments at each end of the tube, via the starter switch.

Once the starter has no arc (or glow), the bimetallic strip cools, and the switch opens after about a
second or so. The interruption of current through the inductor causes a high voltage pulse that starts
the arc in the tube. If the arc does not start the first time, the process repeats until it does. This is why
standard fluorescent lamps flicker a few times when switched on. The filaments are heaters that act as
cathodes (emitters of electrons), and are needed to ensure that there is enough heat to vaporise the
mercury, and to get a good electron flow to energise the plasma. Once the lamp is working normally,
the electron flow is enough to maintain the filaments at operating temperature.

The poor power factor of fluorescent lamps is caused by the predominantly inductive load. The
inductive load causes a lagging power factor which can be corrected by a power factor correction
capacitor. In simpler terms a better power factor will consume less current in a system/appliance
working at rated capacity.

Now-a-days we use electronic chokes which have removed the use of choke and starter and their
advantages are:
Quieter operation: Electronic ballasts are known for their silent and vibration-free operation compared
to magnetic ballasts.
longer life: Stable power supply helps prevent fluctuations that can shorten the lamp’s lifespan. With
electronic ballasts, can operate more reliably and last longer
Less energy consumption: They operate at a higher power factor thus consuming less energy.
Candela ( cd )
The SI unit of luminous intensity, equal to one lumen per steradian.
Colour Rendering
A general expression for the appearance of surface colours when illuminated by light from a given source compared,
consciously or unconsciously, with their appearance under light from some reference source. ‘Good colour rendering’ implies
similarity of appearance to that under an acceptable light source, such as daylight.
Colour Rendering Index ( CR1 )
A measure of the degree to which the colours of surfaces illuminated by a given light source confirm to those of the same
surfaces under a reference illuminent. Suitable allowance having been made for the state of chromatic adaptation.
Colour Temperature ( K ) The temperature of the black body that emits radiation of the same chromaticity as the radiation
considered.
Correlated Colour Temperature ( Unit : K )
The temperature of a block body which emits radiation having a chromaticity nearest to that of the light source being
considered, for example,. the colour of a full radiator at 3 500 K is the nearest match to that of a ‘White’ tubular fluorescent
lamp.
Direct Lighting
Lighting by means of luminaires with a light. distribution such that 90 to 100 percent of the emitted luminous flux reaches the
working plane directly.
Glare
Condition of vision in which there is discomfort or a reduction in the ability to see significant objects, or both, due to an
unsuitable distribution or range of luminance or to extreme contrasts in space or time.
Indirect Lighting
Lighting by means of luminaires with a light distribution such that not more than 10 percent of the emitted luminous flux
reaches the working plane directly.
Lumen ( lm )
Luminous flux emitted within unit solid angle (one steradian) by a point source having a uniform luminous intensity of 1
candela.
Luminaire
Apparatus that distributes, filters or transforms the light given by a lamp or lamps and which includes all the items necessary for
fixing and protecting these lamps and for connecting them to the supply circuit.
Luminous Efficacy ( Unit : lm/W )
The ratio of luminous flux emitted by a lamp to the power consumed by the lamp. When -the power consumed by control gear
is taken into account, this term is sometime known as lamp circuit luminous efficacy and is expressed in. lumens/circuit watt. 0
Luminous Flux
The quantity derived from radiant flux by evaluating the radiation according to its action upon a selective receptor, the spectral
sensitivity of which is defined by the standard spectral luminous efficiencies ( Unit : lumen ).
Luminous Intensity (Of a source in a given direction) Quotient of the luminous flux leaving the source propagated in an element
of solid angle containing the given direction, by the element of solid angle ( Unit : candela, cd ).
Lux ( lx ), Lumen Per Square Metre ( SI Unit of Illuminance )
Illuminance produced by a luminous flux- of one lumen uniformly distributed over a surface of area one square metre.
Sources:
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Illumination Engineering and Electric Utility Services – Nptel
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Home Heating | Department of Energy and Bureau of Indian standards