UNIT II

ELECTRICAL MACHINES & MEASURING DEVICES

Introduction

DC machines are broadly classified into two types DC motor and DC generator. DC
motor is a device which convert electrical energy into mechanical energy. When a current
carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field, it experienced a force. DC generator is a
device which converts mechanical (rotational) energy into electrical energy. It works
based on the principle of faradays law of electromagnetic induction. Whenever the
conductor cuts by the magnetic field emf is induced on it.

Fig. 2.1. Block diagram of a DC Machine

Construction details of DC Machine

Based on the working principle DC motor & generator, require magnetic fields,
conductor & mechanical movement. So, construction wise both motor & generator are
same. Depends upon the types of input (electrical or mechanical) given to the machines it
should be differentiated by either motor or generator.

Fig.2.2. Constructional details of DC machine

Field Systems:
Field windings to be used to produce uniform magnetic flux. The windings are
placed in a pole which is located in the yoke. The yoke is a circular outer part of DC
machines which is made upon cast iron and projecting even number of poles. It provides
space for the field windings. Field windings are excited by dc supply uniform magnetic field
is produced. Windings are made with conducting materials like aluminium or copper. Poles
shoe is extended and widen because of flux part distribution over to the armature.
Armature Systems:
It is the rotating part of the machine. It consists of two major parts. One is armature core
and other is armature winding.

Fig. 2.3. Armature

A shaft carries cylindrical shaped with slot which is used to place rotating
(armature) windings. Usually, rotating part of the machines are generally called Rotor. It
provides house for the armature conductors and also provides low reluctance to magnetic flux
created by the field coils.

Fig. 2.4. Cross-sectional view of armature

Interconnection of armature conductors/coils is called Armature Windings. It is
placed over to the periphery of the armature slots.
Main function of the armature coil is to generate e.m.f. also carries current in case
of D.C motor. Usually, copper is preferred to making materials for this winding.

Commutator:

Induced e.m.f in a D.C generator are alternating nature. Rectification is required and
commutator are used for this purpose.
 Fig. 2.5. Commutator
It is cylindrical shaped and each commutator segments are made with copper and
connected to armature coil with strips. Connections are shown in figure.
Brushes:
It is a stationary part and seated over to the commutator. It collects current from
commutator and given to stationary external circuit. Usually, it is made with carbon like
soft materials. It is in rectangular shape and made to press on the surface of the commutator
with help of a spring. For D.C machines two carbon brushes are required.

Types of Armature Winding:

More number of conductors arranged in a systematic manner is called windings.
Depending upon the conductor connections the armature windings classified as two types.
Lap winding
Wave winding

Lap winding:
First conductor connected to 3rd conductor for return path and continuation is join or
overlap into 2nd conductor and move into so on. In this conductor connection are number of
poles is number of parallel paths.
i,e., P= number of parallel paths. Figure shows the Lap winding diagram.

Fig. 2.6. Lap winding

Wave winding
First conductor is move forwarded shown in figure. The conductor moves ahead like
wave. For this connection the total conductors are divided into two parallel paths always i.e.,
A=2

Fig. 2.7. Wave winding

Principle of Operation of a D.C Motor
The principle of operation of d.c motor can be stated in a single statement as “when a
current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field; it experiences a mechanical force”.
In dc motor, field winding produces a required magnetic field while armature conductors
play a role of a current carrying conductors and hence armature conductors experience a
force. As conductors are placed in the slots which are on the periphery, the
individual force experienced by the conductors acts as a twisting or turning force on the
armature which is called a torque.

Fig. 2.8. Working of DC motor

Applications of DC Motor

The applications of different types of DC motors are listed below:

Shunt DC Motors
Owing to the fairly constant speed and medium starting torque of shunt DC motors, they are
used in the following applications:
Centrifugal and reciprocating pumps, Lathe machines, Machine tools
Blowers and Fans, Drilling machines, Milling machines
Series DC Motors
Owing to the high starting torque and variable speed of series DC motors, they are used in the
following applications:
Conveyors, Hoists, Elevators, Cranes, Electric Locomotives

Cumulative Compound DC motors

Owing to the high starting torque of cumulative compound DC motors, they are used in the
following applications:
Shears, Heavy Planers, Rolling mills, Elevators

Single-phase Transformers

Single-phase transformer (Figure 2 labeled A) works on a single-phase power supply

and contains a single winding on the primary and secondary sides. A 3-phase transformer
works on a three-phase power supply, and both primary and secondary windings have three
sets of windings. Read our three-phase transformers overview article for more details about
the construction and wiring diagrams of a three-phase transformer.
In most cases, single-phase transformers take up less space than other transformers. It
is also easy to transport single-phase transformers compared to three-phase transformers.
However, using one three-phase transformer is more efficient than three single-phase
transformers.

Fig. 2.9: Single-phase with primary (A) and secondary windings (B) and the magnetic core
(C).

Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction

Faraday's Law of electromagnetism predicts how a magnetic field will interact with a
circuit to produce an electromotive force. Faraday's Law consists of:
 Faraday's first law of electromagnetic induction states that whenever a conductor is in
a varying magnetic field, there is electromotive force (EMF).
Faraday's second law of electromagnetic induction states that the induced
electromotive force equals the rate of change of flux linkages.
A single-phase transformer operates on single-phase power and has two parts - the
magnetic and the electric parts. The magnetic transformer part consists of a magnetic iron
core, while the electric part consists of a copper transformer. Read our electrical transformers
overview article for more details on the construction of a transformer.
Only alternating current operates the transformer because direct current does not
create an electromagnetic field. A transformer doesn’t have any moving parts; hence, there is
no mechanical friction when operating a single-phase transformer. Therefore, there are few
energy losses when using a single-phase transformer, making the single-phase transformer
highly efficient.
When a transformer's primary winding encounters an alternating current, it generates
an alternating electromagnetic field. A part of the generated magnetic field links with the
secondary winding through mutual induction, producing a current. Voltage is induced in the
secondary windings with the same frequency as primary windings. Faraday's Law can
determine the value of the induced voltage.

Working
A single-phase transformer works based on the principle of mutual inductance. The
primary windings connect to an alternating current supplying power to the coil, which builds
up a magnetic field. The process of magnetic field build-up is known as mutual inductance,
and the current flows through the coil as per Faraday's Law. The magnetic field created
strengthens when the current flowing through the coil increases, building magnetic lines of
force. The magnetic lines of force form the magnetic flux, and the secondary winding links
the system to the magnetic flux. The turns ratio between the primary and secondary windings
will determine the strength of the generated magnetic field. An increase in current leads to an
increase in the magnetic flux - they are directly proportional. The flowing magnetic flux in
the core induces a voltage in the secondary winding. The value of the induced voltage can be
determined using Faraday's Law.

Construction
The single-phase transformer has a primary and a secondary winding. The windings
are placed on a magnetic core constructed from silicon steel laminations. The purpose of the
magnetic core is to provide a path for the magnetic flux. Silicon steel reduces hysteresis
losses, while the laminations reduce losses due to eddy-current (localized electric current
induced in a conductor due to the varying magnetic field. The laminations are thin sheets put
together to form the core. Enamel insulating coating insulates the laminations from each
other. Based on construction, single-phase transformers can be core-type or shell-type.
Core-type transformer
The transformer has two vertical legs (limbs) and two horizontal sections (yokes) in the
magnetic current. Half of the primary and secondary windings are placed on each limb to
minimize the effect of leakage flux. The two windings form a cylindrical winding (Figure 2
labelled A)
Shell-type transformer
The transformer has three limbs in a magnetic circuit. The windings are in the middle limb,
and the other limbs complete the low reluctance flux path (Figure 2 labelled B). The primary
and secondary windings have two sub-divisions; the low voltage and the high voltage section.

Fig. 2.10. Core-type (A) and shell-type (B) transformers

Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is an imaginary transformer which has:
No copper losses
No iron loss in the core
No leakage flux
Here,
In ideal transformer, input power = output power. Concept of such transformer exists to make
problems easier.

Voltage Regulation
Voltage Regulation of single-phase transformers is the percentage (or per unit value)
change in its secondary terminal voltage compared to its original no-load voltage under
varying secondary load conditions.
In other words, regulation determines the variation in secondary terminal voltage
which occurs inside the transformer as a result of variations in the transformers connected
load thereby affecting its performance and efficiency if these losses are high and the
secondary voltage becomes too low.
When there is no-load connected to the transformers secondary winding, that is its
output terminals are open-circuited, there is no closed-loop condition, so there is no output
load current (IL = 0) and the transformer acts as one single winding of high self-inductance.
Note that the no-load secondary voltage is a result of the fixed primary voltage and the turns
ratio of the transformer.
Loading the secondary winding with a simple load impedance causes a secondary
current to flow, at any power factor, through the internal winding of the transformer. Thus,
voltage drops due to the winding internal resistance and its leakage reactance causes the
output terminal voltage to change.
A transformers voltage regulation change between its secondary terminal voltage from
a no-load condition when IL = 0, (open circuit) to a fully-loaded condition when I L =
IMAX (maximum current) for a constant primary voltage is given as:
Transformer Voltage Regulation as a Fractional Change

V No−load −V Full −load

% Regulation= × 100 %
V No−load

That is when the load is connected to the secondary output terminal, the terminal
voltage goes down, or when the load is removed, the secondary terminal voltage goes up.
Thus, the regulation of the transformer will depend on which voltage value is used as the
reference voltage, load or non-load value.

Efficiency
Transformer efficiency (η) can be explained as the ratio of the output power to the input
power.
Output Power
Efficiency= ×100 %
Input Power

Applications
The single-phase transformer is mainly used in low voltage appliances like home devices.
Some of the applications of a single-phase transformer are:
Decrease voltage in localized power distribution
Regulation of voltage in television sets
Used in lighting and heating devices
Used in areas where the demand for electricity is low, such as rural areas
Increasing voltage in home inverters

Single-Phase Induction Motor

 The single-phase motors are more preferred over a three-phase induction motor for
domestic, commercial applications. Because form utility, only single-phase supply is
available. So, in this type of application, the three-phase induction motor cannot be used.

Construction of Single-Phase Induction Motor

A single-phase induction motor is similar to the three-phase squirrel cage induction
motor except there is single phase two windings (instead of one three phase winding in 3-
phase motors) mounted on the stator and the cage winding rotor is placed inside the stator
which freely rotates with the help of mounted bearings on the motor shaft.
The construction of a single-phase induction motor is similar to the construction of a
three-phase induction motor.

Fig. 2.11. Construction of single-phase energy meter

Similar to a three-phase induction motor, single-phase induction motor also has two main
parts;
• Stator
• Rotor
Stator
In stator, the only difference is in the stator winding. The stator winding is single-phase
winding instead of three-phase winding. The stator core is the same as the core of the three-
phase induction motor.
In a single-phase induction motor, there are two winding are used in stator except in shaded-
pole induction motor. Out of these two windings, one winding is the main winding and the
second is auxiliary winding.
The stator core is laminated to reduce the eddy current loss. The single-phase supply is given
to the stator winding (main winding)
Rotor
Rotor of single-phase induction motor is the same as a rotor of squirrel cage induction motor.
Instead of rotor winding, rotor bars are used and it is short-circuited at the end by end-rings.
Hence, it makes a complete path in the rotor circuit. The rotor bars are braced to the end-rings
to increase the mechanical strength of the motor.
The rotor slots are skewed at some angle to avoid magnetic coupling. And it also used to
make a motor run smooth and quiet.
The following fig shows the stator and rotor of a 1-phase induction motor.

Fig. 2.12. Rotor and Stator of single-phase induction motor

Working of Single-phase Induction Motor

Single-phase AC supply is given to the stator winding (main winding). The alternating
current flowing through the stator winding produces magnetic flux. This flux is known as the
main flux.
Now we assume that the rotor is rotating and it is placed in a magnetic field produced
by the stator winding. According to Faraday’s law, the current start flowing in the rotor circuit
it is a close path. This current is known as rotor current.
Due to the rotor current, the flux produced around the rotor winding. This flux is
known as rotor flux.
There are two fluxes; main flux which is produced by stator and second is the rotor
flux which is produced by the rotor.
Interaction between main flux and rotor flux, the torque produced in the rotor and it
starts rotating.
The stator field is alternating in nature. The speed of the stator field is the same as
synchronous speed. The synchronous speed of the motor depends on the number of pole and
supply frequency.
It can represent by two revolving fields. These fields are equal in magnitude and
rotating in the opposite direction.
Let say Φm is a maximum field induced in the main winding. So, this field is divided into two
equal parts and that is Φm/2 and Φm/2.
Out of these two fields, one field Φf is rotating in an anticlockwise direction and the second
field Φb is rotating in a clockwise direction. Therefore, the resultant field is zero.
Φr = Φf – Φb
Φr = Φf – Φb
 Φr = 0
Now consider the resultant field at different instants.

Fig. 2.13. Flux at 0°

When a motor starts, two fields are induced as shown in the above figure. These two fields
are the same magnitude and opposite direction. So, resultant flux is zero.
In this condition, the stator field cannot cut by rotor field and resultant torque is zero.
So, the rotor cannot rotate but it produces humming.

Fig. 2.14. Flux at 90°

Now consider after the rotation of 90˚, both filed are rotated and pointing in the same
direction. Therefore, the resultant flux is a summation of both fields.
Φr = Φf + Φb

Φr = 0
In this condition, the resultant filed is equal to the maximum field induced by the
stator. Now, both fields rotate separately and it is alternative in nature. So, both fields cut by
the rotor circuit and EMF induced in the rotor conductor. Due to this EMF, the current starts
flowing in the rotor circuit and it induces a rotor flux.
Due to the interaction between stator flux and rotor flux motor continues to rotate.
This theory is known as Double Revolving Theory or double field revolving theory.
Now, from the above explanation, we can conclude that the single-phase induction
motor is not self-starting. To make this motor self-starting motor, we need stator flux rotating
in nature instead of alternating nature. This can be done by various methods. A single-phase
induction motor lacks a naturally rotating magnetic field, which makes it non-self-starting.
Unlike three-phase motors that generate a rotating magnetic field with three alternating
currents, single-phase motors rely on a single alternating current that produces a pulsating
magnetic field. This field is unable to initiate continuous rotation in the motor’s rotor due to
its non-uniform nature and inability to provide sufficient starting torque.
At the starting condition of the motor, both φf (forwarding component of
alternating flux (φm)) and φb (backward component of alternating flux(φm)) are equal
in magnitude but opposite in direction. They cancel each other out, which results zero net
torque on the rotor. This zero torque at the starting condition is why single-phase induction
motors are not self-starting. To overcome this limitation, various techniques are used, such
as adding an auxiliary winding and a capacitor to simulate a rotating magnetic field during
startup or using centrifugal switches to disconnect the starting winding once the motor
reaches a certain speed. These methods help single-phase induction motors achieve the
necessary torque for self-starting and sustained operation.

MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
• Absolute Measuring Instruments
These instruments give output in terms of physical constant of the instruments. For
example, Rayleigh’s current balance and Tangent galvanometer are absolute instruments.
• Secondary Measuring Instruments
These instruments are constructed with the help of absolute instruments. Secondary
instruments are calibrated by comparison with absolute instruments. These are more
frequently used in measurement of the quantities as compared to absolute instruments, as
working with absolute instruments is time consuming.

CLASSIFICATION OF SECONDARY INSTRUMENTS

i. Indicating instruments
ii. Recording instruments
iii. Integrating instruments

Indicating instruments: It indicate the magnitude of an electrical quantity at the time when
it is being measured. The indications are given by a pointer moving over a graduated dial.

Integrating Instruments: The instruments which measure the total amount of either quantity
of electricity or electrical energy supplied over a period of time. For example: Energy
meters.

Recording Instruments: The instruments which keep a continuous record of the variations
of the magnitude of an electrical quantity to be observed over a defined period of time.

ESSENTIALS OF INDICATING INSTRUMENTS

The moving system is subjected to the following three torques:
1. A deflecting (or operating) torque;
2. A controlling (or restoring) torque;
3. A damping torque.

Construction of Energy Meter

The construction of the single-phase energy meter is shown in the figure below.

Fig. 2.15. Induction type energy meter

The energy meter has four main parts. They are the
1. Driving System
2. Moving System
3. Braking System
4. Registering System
The detail explanation of their parts is written below.
1. Driving System – The electromagnet is the main component of the driving system. It is the
temporary magnet which is excited by the current flow through their coil. The core of the
electromagnet is made up of silicon steel lamination. The driving system has two
electromagnets. The upper one is called the shunt electromagnet, and the lower one is called
series electromagnet.
The series electromagnet is excited by the load current flow through the current coil. The coil
of the shunt electromagnet is directly connected with the supply and hence carry the current
proportional to the shunt voltage. This coil is called the pressure coil.
The centre limb of the magnet has the copper band. These bands are adjustable. The main
function of the copper band is to align the flux produced by the shunt magnet in such a way
that it is exactly perpendicular to the supplied voltage.
2. Moving System – The moving system is the aluminium disc mounted on the shaft of the
alloy. The disc is placed in the air gap of the two electromagnets. The eddy current is induced
in the disc because of the change of the magnetic field. This eddy current is cut by
the magnetic flux. The interaction of the flux and the disc induces the deflecting torque.
When the devices consume power, the aluminium disc starts rotating, and after some number
of rotations, the disc displays the unit used by the load. The number of rotations of the disc is
counted at particular interval of time. The disc measured the power consumption in kilowatt
hours.
3. Braking system – The permanent magnet is used for reducing the rotation of the
aluminium disc. The aluminium disc induces the eddy current because of their rotation. The
eddy current cut the magnetic flux of the permanent magnet and hence produces the braking
torque.
This braking torque opposes the movement of the disc, thus reduces their speed. The
permanent magnet is adjustable due to which the braking torque is also adjusted by shifting
the magnet to the other radial position.
4. Registration (Counting Mechanism) – The main function of the registration or counting
mechanism is to record the number of rotations of the aluminium disc. Their rotation is
directly proportional to the energy consumed by the loads in the kilowatt hour.
The rotation of the disc is transmitted to the pointers of the different dial for recording the
different readings. The reading in kWh is obtained by multiply the number of rotations of the
disc with the meter constant. The figure of the dial is shown below.

Fig. 2.16. Pointer type of register

Working of the Energy Meter
The energy meter has the aluminium disc whose rotation determines the power consumption
of the load. The disc is placed between the air gap of the series and shunt electromagnet. The
shunt magnet has the pressure coil, and the series magnet has the current coil.
The pressure coil creates the magnetic field because of the supply voltage, and the current
coil produces it because of the current.
The field induces by the voltage coil is lagging by 90º on the magnetic field of the current
coil because of which eddy current induced in the disc. The interaction of the eddy current
and the magnetic field causes torque, which exerts a force on the disc. Thus, the disc starts
rotating.
The force on the disc is proportional to the current and voltage of the coil. The permanent
magnet controls Their rotation. The permanent magnet opposes the movement of the disc and
equalises it on the power consumption. The cyclometer counts the rotation of the disc.

Theory of Energy Meter

The pressure coil has the number of turns which makes it more inductive. The reluctance path
of their magnetic circuit is very less because of the small length air gap. The current I p flows
through the pressure coil because of the supply voltage, and it lags by 90º.
The Ip produces the two Φp which is again divided into Φ p1 and Φp2. The major portion of the
flux Φp1 passes through the side gap because of low reluctance. The flux Φ p2 goes through the
disc and induces the driving torque which rotates the aluminium disc.
The flux Φp is proportional to the applied voltage, and it is lagged by an angle of 90º. The
flux is alternating and hence induces an eddy current Iep in the disc.
The load current passes through the current coil induces the flux Φ s. This flux causes the eddy
current Ies on the disc. The eddy current I es interacts with the flux Φp, and the eddy current
Iep interacts with Φs to produce another torque. These torques are opposite in direction, and
the net torque is the difference between these two.