CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Electrical earthing, also known as grounding, is a fundamental aspect of power system design
that ensures safety, stability, and efficiency. The concept of earthing involves creating a low-
resistance path to the ground to safely dissipate excess electrical charges caused by faults,
lightning strikes, or power surges. Without an effective earthing system, electrical systems
become vulnerable to voltage instability, equipment damage, and life-threatening hazards such as
electric shocks and fires.(Adebayo et al, 2020).

This chapter presents a comprehensive review of literature on the design, implementation, and
challenges of electrical earthing systems. The review covers the fundamental principles of
earthing, factors influencing grounding performance, existing standards, and case studies from
various regions, including Nigeria. The findings from previous research will help in analyzing
the current earthing conditions in Igbajo Town and proposing a suitable design that ensures
reliability and safety.

2.2 OVERVIEW OF ELECTRICAL EARTHING SYSTEMS

2.2.1 Definition And Importance Of Earthing

Electrical earthing refers to the process of connecting electrical systems, equipment, and
installations to the earth to prevent the buildup of dangerous voltages. According to IEEE (2019),
an effective grounding system ensures:

1. Protection Against Electric Shock: A properly designed earthing system prevents live
electrical parts from reaching dangerously high voltages that could endanger human lives.
2. Stabilization of Voltage Levels: Grounding helps maintain a uniform voltage distribution
within an electrical system.
3. Prevention of Electrical Fires: By providing a low-resistance path for fault currents,
earthing minimizes excessive heating and sparks that could cause fire outbreaks.
4. Protection of Equipment: Sensitive electrical appliances and machinery are safeguarded
against damage caused by surges, overvoltages, or faults.
5. Lightning Protection: An effective grounding system dissipates lightning-induced surges
safely into the ground, reducing structural and equipment damage.

2.2.2 TYPES OF EARTHING SYSTEMS

Earthing systems can be broadly classified into two main types:

[Link] System Earthing

This type of earthing is used in power distribution networks and electrical substations. It ensures
that the neutral point of a system is connected to the ground, preventing excessive voltage
fluctuations (IEEE Standards Association, 2019).. System earthing types include:

1. Solid Earthing: The neutral point is directly connected to the earth, offering a low-impedance
path for fault currents.
2. Resistance Earthing: A resistor is placed between the neutral and the ground to limit fault
currents.
3. Reactance Earthing: An inductor is used to limit fault current while maintaining voltage
stability.

[Link] EQUIPMENT EARTHING

This type of earthing is used in buildings, industrial plants, and households to protect electrical
appliances and users. It involves connecting metallic parts of electrical installations to the earth
to prevent electric shocks. Equipment earthing methods include:
1. Rod Earthing: Metal rods are driven into the soil to provide a grounding connection.
2. Plate Earthing: Copper or galvanized iron plates are buried in the ground and connected to
the electrical system.
3. Strip Earthing: Conductive metal strips are used to create a grounding path in areas with high
soil resistivity.

2.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING EARTHING SYSTEM PERFORMANCE

The effectiveness of an earthing system depends on several factors, including soil resistivity,
grounding electrode material, environmental conditions, and installation depth.

2.3.1 Soil Resistivity

Soil resistivity is one of the most important factors affecting the performance of an earthing
system. High-resistivity soil makes it difficult for fault currents to dissipate effectively into the
ground, increasing electrical risks. Studies by (Okoro. et al. 2020) have shown that tropical
regions like Nigeria experience seasonal variations in soil resistivity due to changes in moisture
content.

SOIL RESISTIVITY CLASSIFICATIONS

1. Low Resistivity Soil (<100 Ωm): Ideal for grounding, commonly found in clayey and moist
soils.
2. Moderate Resistivity Soil (100-500 Ωm): Requires deeper electrode installation or chemical
treatment.
3. High Resistivity Soil (>500 Ωm): Poor for grounding; advanced grounding techniques such
as chemical enhancement may be required.

2.3.2 GROUNDING ELECTRODE MATERIAL

The choice of grounding electrode material affects conductivity, corrosion resistance, and
longevity. Common materials include:
1. Copper: Highly conductive and corrosion-resistant but expensive.
2. Galvanized Steel: Cost-effective but prone to corrosion over time.
3. Copper-Clad Steel: A balance between conductivity and durability.

2.3.3 INSTALLATION DEPTH AND CONFIGURATION

Deeper grounding electrodes tend to offer lower resistance to fault currents. Various
configurations such as multiple rods, grounding grids, and interconnected electrodes can enhance
grounding efficiency (Eze & Udo, 2022).

2.3.4 ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS

Factors such as temperature, rainfall, and soil composition impact the effectiveness of grounding
systems. Dry and rocky environments often require alternative grounding techniques such as
chemical-enhanced electrodes (Okonkwo & Ogunleye, 2019).

2.4 STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS FOR EARTHING SYSTEMS

Various international and national standards provide guidelines for the design and
implementation of earthing systems.

2.4.1 International Standards

 IEEE 80: Specifies grounding design for substations and power systems.
 IEC 60364: Provides guidelines for electrical installations in buildings.
 NFPA 70 (NEC): Covers grounding requirements in the National Electrical Code (USA).

2.4.2 NIGERIAN STANDARDS

 Nigerian Electricity Supply and Installation Standards (NESIS): Regulates electrical