MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].

Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

Course
Notes
On

“Fundamentals of Electronics
Engineering”
(Course Code:100103)

SEMESTER – (I & II)

An Autonomous Institute Permanently Affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune

with –
NAAC Accredited ‘A++’ Grade & NBA

F. Y. B. Tech. (2024 Pattern)

Maratha Vidya Prasarak Samaj’s

Karmaveer Adv. Baburao Ganpatrao Thakare College of Engineering
An Autonomous Engineering Institute
Nashik- 422 013
A.Y. 2025-26
Mr. B. J. Pawar
Course Chairman
 MVPS’s KBTCOE
An Autonomous Institute affiliated to Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune
F. Y. B. Tech. (2024 Course)
Course Code: 100103 Course Name: Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering

Teaching Scheme Credits Examination Scheme:

TH 3 Hours/Week CCE 40
2
PR 2 Hour/Week ESE 60
1
TW 25

Prerequisite Courses, if any:

11th and 12th Physics
Companion Course, if any: Laboratory Practical.

Course Objectives:
1. To understand, apply, and analyze the working of P-N junction diodes and rectifiers in various
configurations for practical electronic applications.
2. To enable students to understand, apply, and analyze the operation and applications of Bipolar Junction
Transistors (BJTs), particularly in switching and amplification, and evaluate their frequency response and
bandwidth in practical applications.
3. To equip students with the ability to understand, analyze, and apply operational amplifier principles in
practical circuits and numerical problems.
4. To provide students with the skills to understand, apply, and analyze number systems, logic gates, and
basic logic circuits for digital systems design.
5. To equip students with the skills to classify, apply, and analyze various sensors, and understand their
application in IoT and microprocessor systems.

Course Outcomes:
On completion of the course, learner will be able to:
CO1: To learn the construction and operation of P-N junction diode, apply it’s applications in rectifier
circuits and analyze their performance through numerical analysis.
CO2: To understand the types of BJT, V-I characteristics of n-p-n BJT, apply voltage divider biasing
technique to n-p-n BJT, analyze the operation of n-p-n BJT as switch and amplifiers, evaluate the
frequency response, gain and bandwidth of CE amplifier through simulation and numerical solving.
CO3: To equip the students with the ability to understand, analyze, and apply operational amplifier
principles in practical circuits and numerical.
CO4: To learn various number systems, apply the basic arithmetic operations in number conversions;
analyze the functionality of basic and universal logic gates
CO5: To understand the classification of sensors, apply the selection criteria and introduction to IoT and
microprocessor.

P 1/4
 Unit I Electronic Components (06 Hours)
Introduction to Active and Passive Components.
Symbol, Construction and working of the P-N junction diode under forward and reverse bias conditions, V-
I characteristics of a P-N junction diode. P-N junction diode as a switch. P-N junction diode as a half-wave
rectifier, full-wave rectifier and bridge rectifier. Expressions for the average output voltage and average
output current of rectifiers, Bridge Rectifier with and without Capacitor Filter.
Problem statements on P-N Junction Diodes as a Rectifiers.
Unit II Bipolar Junction Transistor and Applications (07 Hours)
Construction, symbol, and modes of operation of n-p-n & p-n-p BJTs.
V-I characteristics of n-p-n BJT in CE mode, DC load line and operating point for n-p-n transistor biasing
techniques (voltage divider biasing), n-p-n BJT as a switch & amplifier in CE configuration, Types and
comparison of BJTs, Frequency Response of CE BJT Amplifier.
Problem statements on gain and bandwidth of CE BJT amplifier.
Unit III Operational Amplifier and Applications (06 Hours)
Symbol, block diagram of Operational Amplifier, Ideal and Practical Characteristics of OPAMP, OPAMP
in Open Loop and Closed Loop Configurations, OPAMP as an inverting & non-inverting amplifier.
Problem statements on Inverting & Non-inverting Amplifier.
Unit IV Logic Gates and Applications (06 Hours)
Number System: Binary, Decimal, Octal, and Hexadecimal number systems, conversion of Binary to
Decimal and Decimal to Binary numbers, binary addition and subtraction, Basic Logic Gates (AND, OR,
NOT, XOR, XNOR), Universal Gates (NAND, NOR), Boolean laws and expressions, Implement NAND
and NOR gates using basic logic gates (AND, OR, NOT), De-Morgan’s Theorems (I & II), Half adder and
Full adder
Unit V Sensors and IoT (06 Hours)
Active & Passive Sensors, Selection Criteria of Sensor, temperature sensors (RTD), Mechanical sensors
(Strain Gauge), and Biosensors. Wheatstone Bridge with RTD in balanced and unbalanced conditions.
Introduction to IoT, Introduction to Microprocessor and Microcontroller

P 2/4
 List of Practical
Journal consist of the following
Group – A (Any Four)
1. Study of Active and Passive components
a) Resistors (Fixed & Variable), Calculation of resistor value using color code.
b) Capacitors (Fixed & Variable)
c) Inductors, Calculation of inductor value using color code.
d) Devices such as Diode & BJT
e) Sensors and Transducers
2. Study of –
a) Switches
b) Relays
c) Transformers
3. Measurements using various measuring equipments:
a) Set up CRO and function generator for measurement of voltage, frequency
b) Measure voltage, resistance using digital multimeter.
4. Testing of –
a) Diode
b) BJT using digital multimeter
5. To study P-N Junction Diode
To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Silicon P-N Junction Diode.
6. Implement bridge rectifier using P-N Junction Diodes
a) To measure transformer output voltage
b) To measure rectifier output voltage with and without capacitor filter
Group – B (Any Two)
7. Build and test Bipolar Junction Transistor as a Switch
8. Frequency response of BJT Amplifier
a) To plot frequency response of BJT CE amplifier. (Simulation)
b) To find Lower and Higher Cut-off frequencies
c) To determine the bandwidth
9. OPAMP Amplifiers
a) Build and test OPAMP based Inverting amplifier
b) Build and test OPAMP based Non-inverting amplifier
Group – C (Any Two)
[Link] and verify the truth tables of:
a) Basic Gates
b) Universal Gates
[Link] and verify the truth tables of:
a) Half Adder
b) Full Adder
12. Test and verify truth tables of De-Morgan’s Theorems using basic logic gates
a)
b)
13. Build and test NOT Gate using Bipolar Junction Transistor
14. Build and test circuit using Op-Amp and RTD sensor (Simulation)
To implement and test the PT-100 RTD based Signal Conditioning Circuit using Wheatstone bridge

P 3/4
Learning Resources

Text Books:
T1. A Text Book of Applied Electronics, R. S. Sedha, S. Chand & Company Ltd.
T2. Modern Digital Electronics by R. P. Jain, 4th Edition, Tata McGraw Hill
T3. Op Amps And Linear Integrated Circuits, Ramakant A. Gayakwad, Pearson
T4. Sensors and Transducers by D. Patrnabis, 2nd Edition, PHI
T5. Instrumentation and Measurement Principles by . D.V.S. Murty, PHI, New Delhi, 2nd Ed.
T6. Communication Systems, Analog and Digital, R. P. Singh & S. D. Sapre, Tata McGraw-Hill Education
India Pvt. Ltd

Reference Books:
R1. Electronic Circuit Analysis and Design, Donald A. Neamen, Tata McGraw-Hill Edition
R2. Digital Fundamentals by Thomas. L. Floyd, 11th Edition, Pearson
R3. Mobile Communication by J. Schiller, 2nd Edition, Pearson
R4. Sensors Handbook, by S. Soloman, 2nd Edition.
R5. CMOS Circuit Design, Layout & Simulation, by Baker, 2nd Edition, Wiley IEEE Press

e-B ooks:
[Link]

MOOC/NPTEL/YouTubeLinks/Open Source Simulation Softwares

1. [Link]
2. [Link]
3. [Link]

P 4/4
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Unit – I _ Electronic Components
Contents:
Introduction to Active and Passive Components.
Symbol, Construction and working of the P-N junction diode under forward and reverse bias
conditions, V-I characteristics of a P-N junction diode. P-N junction diode as a switch. P-N
junction diode as a half-wave rectifier, full-wave rectifier and bridge rectifier. Expressions for
the average output voltage and average output current of rectifiers, Bridge Rectifier with and
without Capacitor Filter.
Problem statements on P-N Junction Diodes as Rectifiers.

Introduction to Active and Passive Components:

Active and passive components are fundamental building blocks in electronic circuits, each serving distinct
functions and characteristics.
Comparison of Active and Passive Components:
Basis of
Active Component Passive Component
Difference
Definition A circuit component which can deliver A circuit component which only absorbs the
power or power gain in an electric circuit power and converts it in heat or stores in
for infinite duration of time is known as electric field or magnetic field is known as
active component. passive component.
Examples The common examples of active The examples of passive components are
components are energy sources (voltage resistor, inductor, capacitor, transformer, etc.
or current source), generators,
semiconductor devices like transistors,
solar cells, SCR, etc.
Role in the Active components behave as source of The passive components act as load in the
circuit power in the circuit. circuit.
Power gain Active components can provide power Passive components cannot provide power
gain in the electric circuit. gain.
Function Active components receive energy in the Passive components receive electrical energy
forms such as thermal energy, chemical and either convert it in the other forms such as
energy, hydraulic energy, etc. and heat, light, rotation, etc. or store in the
delivers in the circuit in the form of magnetic field or electric field.
electrical energy.
Need of Some active components require an Passive components do not require any
external external power source to function. For external power source to function. The passive
power source example, the active components like components such as resistor, inductor,
to function transistors and SCR use electrical energy capacitor, etc. do not require any source of
to function, i.e., to control the power in electricity to function, they use some other
the circuit. property to control the power in the circuit.
Amplification Active components have power gain
For passive components, the power gain is less
more than unity, so they can amplify a
than unity, hence they cannot amplify a signal.
signal.

Unit_I - 1
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
P-N Junction Diode:
When P-type and N-type semiconductors are joined, the junction formed is known as P-N Junction. During
the formation of this junction, self-recombination between some charge carriers takes place and leaves back
stationary charge carriers also known as immobile charge carriers. These stationary charge carriers remains
accumulated around the junction and hence this region is known as “Depletion Region”. The potential
offered by this region is known as “Barrier Potential”.
The value of barrier potential depends on the type of semiconductor material used to form the P-N
junction. For silicon type, barrier potential is 0.7V while for germanium, barrier potential is 0.3V. Thus
this depletion region does not allows the flow of current through it, if the external applied voltage is less
than that of its barrier potential. To have the flow of current though this region, external applied voltage
should be greater than the barrier potential.

Fig. P-N Junction Diode Construction

Fig. P-N Junction Diode Symbol

A P-N junction diode is a type of semiconductor diode formed by combining p-type (positive) and
n-type (negative) semiconductor materials.
“Di” = Two, and “Ode” = Electrodes i.e. a device or component having two electrodes viz. Anode “+” (A)
and Cathode “-” (K) as shown in the figure.
A diode has two terminals; one terminal is taken from the P-type layer and it is known as Anode.
The second terminal is taken from the N-type material and it is known as Cathode. The semiconductor
diode is the first invention in a family of semiconductor electronics devices. After that many types of
diodes are invented. But today also the most commonly used diode is a semiconductor diode.
Generally, silicon is used to make a diode. But another semiconductor material like germanium or
germanium arsenide is also used.
As this device is a combination of P-type and N-type semiconductor material hence it is also known
as P-N Junction Diode. A junction is formed between the P-type and N-type layers.
Working of Diode:
When anode terminal is connected with a positive terminal and cathode is connected with the negative
terminal of the battery, the diode is said to be connected in forward bias.
While, when anode terminal of diode is connected with a negative terminal and cathode is
connected with the positive terminal of a battery, the diode is said to be connected in reverse bias.

Unit_I - 2
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
i. Forward Biasing:

Fig. Forward Biased P-N Junction Diode

ii. Reverse Biasing:

Fig. Reverse Biased P-N Junction Diode

Operation of Diode in Forward Bias Condition:
When the anode is connected with the positive terminal of the battery and cathode is connected with a
negative terminal of the battery, the anode is positive with respect to the cathode. And the diode is said to
be connected in forward bias.
Now, we gradually increase the supply voltage. If we increase a small voltage, the majority charge
carrier does not get sufficient energy to cross the depletion region.
In the forward bias conditions, the width of the depletion region is very small. If we increase the
voltage more than forward break-over voltage, the majority charge carrier gets enough energy to cross the
depletion region and it made the diode conducting.
In this mode of operation, a very small amount of drop occurs. This drop is known as an on-state
voltage drop which depends on semiconductor material used to manufacture the diode. For Silicon
material, on-state voltage drop is 0.7V while for Germanium, it is 0.3V.

Unit_I - 3
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Operation of Diode in Reverse Bias Condition:
When the anode is connected with the negative terminal of the battery and cathode is connected with a
positive terminal of the battery, the anode is negative with respect to the cathode. And the diode is said to
be connected in reverse bias.
In this condition, free electrons diffusing into the P-type regions and recombine with holes. It will
create negative ions. Similarly, holes diffuse into the N-type region and recombine with electrons. It will
create positive ions.
When such voltage is applied to the diode, immobile ions create a depletion region. The width of
the depletion region is large. Hence, no more hole or electron crosses the junction. It cannot create a flow
of electrons or holes even if it is supplied at rated voltage. Hence, it is not possible to flow the current
through the diode and it behaves as an open switch.
Here a very small amount of current will flow through the diode. This current is known as reverse
saturation current or reverses leakage current. This current flows due to the minority charge carriers. This
current is not high enough to conduct the diode.
V-I characteristics of a P-N junction diode:
Volt-ampere (V-I) characteristics of a p-n junction or semiconductor diode is the curve between voltage
applied to the diode and the current through the diode. Normally the voltage is taken along the x-axis and
current along y-axis.
The characteristics can be explained under three cases, such as:
1. Zero bias
2. Forward bias
3. Reverse bias
Zero Bias:
In zero bias condition, no external voltage is applied to the p-n junction i.e. the diode is open.
Hence, the potential barrier at the junction does not permit current flow. Therefore, the diode current is
zero at V= 0 V.

Unit_I - 4
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

Fig. V-I Characteristics of Forward & Reverse Biased P-N Junction Diode
Forward Bias:
In forward biased condition, p-type of the p-n junction is connected to the positive terminal and n-type is
connected to the negative terminal of the external voltage source. This results in reduced potential barrier.
At some forward voltage i.e. 0.7V for Si and 0.3V for Ge, the potential barrier is almost eliminated
and the current starts flowing in the circuit. Form this instant, the current increases exponentially with the
increase in forward voltage. Hence a curve is obtained with forward bias as shown in figure above.
From the forward characteristics, it can be noted that at first, the current increases very slowly. It is
because in this region the external voltage applied to the p-n junction is used in overcoming the potential
barrier.
Once the diode starts to conduct, the exponential increase in diode current can be represented by the
following equation –

Where,
ID = Diode current at a desired applied voltage
IO = Diode Saturation Current
VD = Externally Applied voltage to the diode
Ƞ = Emission Coefficient; = 1 for Ge Diode & = 2 for Si Diode
VT = Volt equivalent of temperature = KT / e = 25mV at room temperature
where, K = Boltzmann’s constant
T = Absolute temperature in 0K

Unit_I - 5
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

Dynamic resistance, rd = ΔVD / ΔID

Before breakdown, rd = ΔVD / 0mA
= infinite
At VFB to V1, ΔVD = 0.1V, ΔID = small,
rd = ΔVD / ΔID
rd = Very high
At V1 to V2, ΔVD = 0.1V, ΔID = high,
rd = ΔVD / ΔID
rd = small
At V2 to VDmax, ΔVD = 0.1V, ΔID = very high,
rd = ΔVD / ΔID
rd = very small
Thus the resistance offered by the diode is variable, hence known as dynamic resistance and is
dependent on applied voltage amplitude.
Thus increase in current is exponential for the linear increase in applied voltage. Hence, diode in
forward bias condition is known as non-linear device.
Reverse Bias:
In reverse bias condition, the p-type of the p-n junction is connected to the negative terminal and n-type is
connected to the positive terminal of the external voltage. This results in increased potential barrier at the
junction. Hence, the junction resistance becomes very high and as a result practically no current flows
through the diode.
However, a very small current of the order of μA, flows through the circuit in practice. This is
known as leakage current (Io) and it is due to the minority carriers in the diode.
As we already know, there are few free electrons in p-type material and few holes in n-type
material. These free electrons in p-type and holes in n-type are called minority carriers.
The reverse bias applied to the p-n junction acts as forward bias to the minority carriers and hence,
small current flows in the reverse direction. If the applied reverse voltage is increased continuously, the
kinetic energy of the minority carriers may become high enough to knock out electrons from the
semiconductor atom. At this stage breakdown of the junction may occur known as avalanche breakdown.
This is characterized by a sudden increase of reverse current and a sudden fall of the resistance of barrier
region. This may destroy the junction permanently.
Unit_I - 6
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Applications of P-N Junction Diode:
1. P-N junction diode as a switch:
When the diode is forward-biased, the switch is said to be in the ON state and when it is reverse-biased, the
switch is in the OFF state.

Fig. P-N Junction Diode as a Switch

The above circuit represents that the diode gets ON when positive voltage forward biases the diode and it
gets OFF when negative voltage reverse biases the diode.
2. Diode as a Rectifier:
What is a Rectifier? The Volt-Ampere characteristics of a P-N junction diode explain how current is
passed through the diode only when it is ‘forward biased’. Hence, if an alternating voltage is applied across
a diode, then the current will flow only in the part where it is forward biased. This property of a P-N
junction diode can be used to rectify alternating voltage/current. The circuit used for this purpose is a
Rectifier.
*Diode as a Half Wave Rectifier (HWR): As the name suggests, the half wave rectifier is a type of
rectifier which converts half of the AC input signal (positive half cycle) into pulsating DC output signal
and the remaining half signal (negative half cycle) is blocked or lost. In half wave rectifier circuit, we use
only a single diode. In half-wave rectification, the rectifier conducts current only during the positive half-
cycles of input a.c. supply. The negative half-cycles of a.c. supply are suppressed i.e. during negative half-
cycles, no current is conducted and hence no voltage appears across the load. Therefore, current always
flows in one direction (i.e. d.c.) through the load though after every half-cycle.

Unit_I - 7
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

Fig. Half Wave Rectifier Circuit Diagram

Fig. Input and Output Waveforms of Half Wave Rectifier

The a.c. voltage across the secondary winding AB changes polarities after every half-cycle. During the
positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, end A becomes positive w.r.t. end B. This makes the diode forward
biased and hence it conducts current. During the negative half-cycle, end A is negative w.r.t. end B. Under
this condition, the diode is reverse biased and it conducts no current. Therefore, current flows through the
diode during positive half-cycles of input a.c. voltage only; it is blocked during the negative half-cycles. In
this way, current flows through load R L always in the same direction. Hence d.c. output is obtained across
RL. It may be noted that output across the load is pulsating d.c. These pulsations in the output are further
smoothened with the help of filter circuits. By using the combination of components such as capacitors,
Unit_I - 8
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
inductors, and resistors in the circuit, we can achieve the smoothening of pulsating DC to pure DC. The
output frequency of a half-wave rectifier is equal to the input frequency (50 Hz).
Derivations:
1. Average Output Voltage (VO):
The formula for calculating the average value of a sinusoidal waveform is

In the given formula, T is the fundamental time period of the waveform and V m is the peak value
of the waveform.
Above we have discussed that the fundamental time period of the output waveform of the
half wave rectifier is 2π.
After applying the given formula on the output waveform of half wave rectifier then we will
get

2. Average Output Current (IO):

The average output current can be determine by using following formula –
As, V = I*R
i.e. VO = IO*RL

IO =

Therefore,

IO =
∗

OR, as Vm = Im*RL
IO =

Unit_I - 9
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
*Diode as a Full Wave Rectifier (FWR using Two Diodes):

Fig. Full Wave Rectifier (using Two Diodes / Center Tapped Transformer) Circuit Diagram
The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two diodes connected to a single load resistance (R L) with each
diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load. When point A of the transformer is positive with
respect to point C, diode D1 conducts in the forward direction as indicated by the arrows.
When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C, diode D 2
conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through resistor R is in the same direction for
both half-cycles.

Fig. Input and Output Waveforms of Full Wave Rectifier

Unit_I - 10
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Derivations:
1. Average Output Voltage (VO):
After applying the given formula on the output waveform of half wave rectifier then we will get

In the given formula,

T is the fundamental time period of the output voltage waveform
Vm is the peak value of output voltage waveform
Vo is the average value of the output voltage waveform
After applying the given formula on the output voltage waveform, we get

2. Average Output Current (IO):

The average output current can be determine by using following formula –
As, V = I*R
i.e. VO = IO*RL
IO =
Therefore,
IO =
∗
OR, as Vm = Im*RL
IO =

Unit_I - 11
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
*Diode as a Bridge Rectifier (FWR using Four Diodes):

Fig. Full Wave Rectifier (using Four Diodes / Bridge Rectifier) Circuit Diagram
The bridge rectifier shown in the circuit has 4 diodes D1, D2, D3 and D4 and a load resistor R L. The four
diodes are connected in a closed-loop configuration to convert alternating current (AC) into direct current
(DC). The main benefit of this configuration is the absence of an expensive center-tapped transformer, and
hence, the size and cost are significantly lesser.
The input signal is applied across terminals A and B, and the output DC signal is obtained across
the load resistor RL (i.e. across terminals C and D).
When an input signal is applied across a bridge rectifier, the signal flows alternatively, i.e. a
positive and a negative cycle occur.
In the positive half cycle, terminal B becomes negative and terminal A becomes positive. This
results in diodes D1 and D2 become forward-biased, and D3 and D4 become reverse-biased. Load current
starts flowing in D1 and D2 diodes when these diodes start conducting.
During the negative half cycle, the diodes D1 and D2 become reverse biased and D3 and D4 are
forward biased. Load current starts flowing in D3 and D4 diodes when these diodes start conducting.
The current flows across resistor RL (as shown) and is the same during negative and positive half cycles.

Unit_I - 12
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

Fig. Input and Output Waveforms of Full Wave Rectifier (Bridge Rectifier)
Derivations:
1. Average Output Voltage (VO):
After applying the given formula on the output waveform of half wave rectifier then we will get

In the given formula,

T is the fundamental time period of the output voltage waveform
Vm is the peak value of output voltage waveform
Vo is the average value of the output voltage waveform
After applying the given formula on the output voltage waveform, we get

2. Average Output Current (IO):

The average output current can be determine by using following formula –

Unit_I - 13
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
As, V = I*R
i.e. VO = IO*RL
IO =
Therefore,
IO =
∗
OR, as Vm = Im*RL
IO =
Advantages of Bridge Rectifier:
 Bridge Rectifiers have higher efficiency compared to half-wave rectifiers.
 They have a smoother output signal as compared to the output DC signal of a half-wave rectifier.
 In a bridge rectifier, the flow of current is allowed during both negative and positive cycles. This makes
the output DC signal almost equivalent to the input AC signal.
Disadvantages of Bridge Rectifier:
 They have a complex circuit consisting of 4 different diodes.
 A Bridge rectifier undergoes large amounts of power loss.
*Bridge Rectifier with Filter Capacitor:

Fig. Full Wave Rectifier (using Four Diodes / Bridge Rectifier) with Filter Capacitor
How does Capacitor Act as a Filter Circuit?
 The rectified output from the diode is not pure DC. Because AC character also exists here. But our
milestone is to acquire pure DC output.
 So, we must to utilize a capacitor for filtering the ripple quantity.
 We know that the capacitor blocks DC and allows AC to flow across the load. Because DC capacitor
acts as an open circuit as DC has no frequency.
 For zero frequency, capacitor has infinite reactance that obstructs DC signal to pass.
 On the contrary, the AC signal has a frequency.
 In fact, the capacitor bears average reactance and lets AC pass through the capacitor.

Unit_I - 14
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
 In a positive half cycle, a capacitor gets charged and during the negative half cycle, the capacitor gets
discharged.
 The depth of discharge of capacitor depends on the level of load current (Io).
 Through the charging and discharging process, the capacitor filters ripple quantity.

Fig. Effect of Load Current on Average Output Voltage

Unit_I - 15
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Theory Questions
1. Differentiate Active and Passive Electronic Components with the help of examples of them.
2. Sketch P-N junction diode and its symbol.
3. With the help of sketch, explain the construction of P-N junction diode.
4. With the help of sketch, explain the working of P-N junction diode in forward and reverse bias
condition.
5. With the help of circuit diagram, explain the V-I characteristics of P-N junction diode in forward and
reverse bias condition.
6. With the help of circuit diagram, explain the application of P-N junction diode as a switch.
7. What is mean by rectifier? List the various types of rectifiers using P-N junction diode.
8. With the help of circuit diagram, explain the application of P-N junction diode as a half wave rectifier.
9. With the help of circuit diagram, input _ output waveforms and derivations for average output voltage,
average output current, explain the application of P-N junction diode as a half wave rectifier.
10. With the help of circuit diagram, explain the application of P-N junction diode as a full wave rectifier
using two diodes.
11. With the help of circuit diagram, input _ output waveforms and derivations for average output voltage,
average output current, explain the application of P-N junction diode as a full wave rectifier using two
diodes.
12. With the help of circuit diagram, explain the application of P-N junction diode as a full wave rectifier
using four diodes (Bridge Rectifier).
13. With the help of circuit diagram, input _ output waveforms and derivations for average output voltage,
average output current, explain the application of P-N junction diode as a full wave rectifier using four
diodes (Bridge Rectifier).
14. What is filter capacitor? Explain its use with proper input _ output waveforms by connecting it to the
Bridge Rectifier
15. Compare half wave rectifier, full wave rectifier & bridge rectifier

Unit_I - 16
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Numerical
1. If a simple (two terminals secondary) step-down transformer is of 24V rating. The transformer is
powered by 230V. What will be its turn’s ratio?
Given Data:
V1 = 230V
V2 = 24V
Solution:
For the transformer,
(V2 / V1) = (N2 / N1)
24 / 230 = (N2 / N1) = 0.104

2. Using HWR circuit, the load of 12V, 500mA is desired to operate. Using the single phase AC supply of
220V, what should be the ratings of used transformer?
Given Data:
Rectifier: Half Wave Rectifier
Diodes: Not mentioned, and hence consider as Ideal diode (0V Voltage Drop)
Vo = VL = VL DC = VO AVG. = Vm / π = 12V
IO = IL = ILDC = IO AVG = Im / π = 500mA = 0.5A
V1 = 220V
Solution:
For Half Wave Rectifier, as
Vo = Vm / π = 12V
Therefore, Vm = (12 x π)
= 37.70V
Now, as Vrms = Vm / √2
= 26.66V
Thus RMS voltage of transformer secondary should be
Vrms = V2 = 26.66V
Similarly,
IO = Im / π = 500mA = 0.5A
Therefore, Im = (0.5 x π)
= 1.57A
Now, as Irms = Im / √2
= 1.11A
Thus RMS current of transformer secondary should be
Irms = I2 = 1.11A

3. Using HWR circuit, the load of 12V, 1KΩ is desired to operate. Using the single phase AC supply of
220V, what should be the ratings of used transformer?
Given Data:
Rectifier: Half Wave Rectifier
Diodes: Not mentioned, and hence consider as Ideal diode (0V Voltage Drop)
Vo = VL = VL DC = VO AVG. = Vm / π = 12V
RL = 1KΩ
Unit_I - 17
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
V1 = 220V
Solution:
For Half Wave Rectifier, as
Vo = Vm / π = 12V
Therefore, Vm = (12 x π)
= 37.70V
Now, as Vrms = Vm / √2
= 26.66V
Thus RMS voltage of transformer secondary should be
Vrms = V2 = 26.66V
Similarly,
IO = Vm / π*RL
Therefore, Io = 37.70 / π*1K
= 0.012A
Now, as Io = Im / π
Im = Io * π
= 0.038A
Now, as Irms = Im / √2
= 0.038 / √2
= 0.027A
Thus RMS current of transformer secondary should be
Irms = I2 = 0.027A

4. Using 230V, 50Hz single phase power supply, a half-wave rectifier circuit with the load of 500Ω, is
powered by 12V transformer. Determine:- 4M
1. Turns ratio of transformer
2. Frequency of secondary voltage
3. Average output voltage of rectifier
4. Average output current of rectifier
Given Data:
Rectifier: Half Wave Rectifier
Diodes: Not mentioned, and hence consider as Ideal diode (0V Voltage Drop)
V1 = 230V
V2 = 12V
RL = 500Ω
Solution:
1. Turns ratio of transformer
As, V2 / V1 = N2 / N1
N2 / N1 = 12 / 230
Thus, turns ratio of transformer N2 / N1 = 0.052
2. Frequency of secondary voltage
As the frequency of secondary voltage remains same, irrespective of type of transformer,
Hence, frequency of secondary voltage will be same as that of primary voltage = 50Hz
3. Average output voltage of rectifier
Unit_I - 18
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
For Half Wave Rectifier,
Vo = Vm / π
& as Vrms = Vm /√2 = 12V
Therefore, Vm = (12 x √2)
= 16.97V
Therefore, Vo = 16.97 / π
= 5.40V
Thus, average output voltage of rectifier = 5.40V
4. Average output current of rectifier
For Half Wave Rectifier,
Io = Vm / π*RL
= 5.40 / 500
= 0.01A
Thus, average output current of rectifier = 0.01A

5. Using FWR circuit (Using Two Diodes), the load of 12V, 500mA is desired to operate. Using the single
phase AC supply of 220V, what should be the ratings of used transformer?
Given Data:
Rectifier: Full Wave Rectifier using two diodes
Diodes: Not mentioned, and hence consider as Ideal diode (0V Voltage Drop)
Vo = VL = VL DC = VO AVG. = 2Vm / π = 12V
IO = IL = ILDC = IO AVG = 2Im / π = 500mA = 0.5A
V1 = 220V
Solution:
For Full Wave Rectifier using two diodes, as
Vo = 2Vm / π = 12V
Therefore, Vm = (12 x π) / 2
= 18.85V
Now, as Vrms = Vm / √2
= 13.33V
Thus RMS half secondary voltage of transformer should be
Vrms = V2 = 13.33V
Similarly,
IO = 2Im / π = 500mA = 0.5A
Therefore, Im = (0.5 x π) / 2
= 0.79A
Now, as Irms = Im / √2
= 0.56A
Thus RMS current of transformer secondary should be
Irms = I2 = 0.56A

6. A FWR circuit (using two diodes), with a load of 2KΩ, is powered by 18-0-18Vtransformer. The diodes
used are Si diodes. Determine average output voltage & average output current of rectifier.
Given Data:

Unit_I - 19
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Rectifier: Full Wave Rectifier
Diodes: Si diode (0.7V Voltage Drop)
V2 = 18-0-18V
RL = 2KΩ
Solution:
As, Vrms = Vm/√2 = 18V
Therefore, Vm = 18 x √2
= 25.46V
As Si diode is used
Therefore, Vm = 25.46 – 0.7
= 24.76V
For FWR,
Vo = 2Vm/π
= 2*24.76/ π
= 15.76V
Thus, the average output voltage of given rectifier is 15.76V.
Similarly,
For FWR
Io = 2Vm/ π*RL
=15.76/2K
= 0.0079A
Thus, the average output current of given rectifier is 0.0079A.

7. Using FWR (Bridge) circuit, the load of 12V, 500mA is desired to operate. Using the single phase AC
supply of 220V, what should be the ratings of used transformer?
Given Data:
Rectifier: Bridge Rectifier
Diodes: Not mentioned, and hence consider as Ideal diode (0V Voltage Drop)
Vo = VL = VL DC = VO AVG. = 2Vm / π = 12V
IO = IL = ILDC = IO AVG = 2Im / π = 500mA = 0.5A
V1 = 220V

Solution:
For Bridge Rectifier, as
Vo = 2Vm / π = 12V
Therefore, Vm = (12 x π) / 2
= 18.85V
Now, as Vrms = Vm / √2
= 13.33V
Thus RMS voltage of transformer secondary should be
Vrms = V2 = 13.33V
Similarly,
IO = 2Im / π = 500mA = 0.5A
Therefore, Im = (0.5 x π) / 2
Unit_I - 20
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
= 0.79A
Now, as Irms = Im / √2
= 0.56A
Thus RMS current of transformer secondary should be
Irms = I2 = 0.56A

8. A FWR circuit (using four diodes), with a load of 1KΩ, is powered by 18Vtransformer. The diodes used
are Si diodes. Determine average output voltage & average output current of rectifier.
Given Data:
Rectifier: Full Wave Rectifier (Bridge)
Diodes: Si diode (0.7V voltage drop across each diode)
V2 = 18V
RL = 1KΩ
Solution:
As, Vrms = Vm/√2 = 18V
Therefore, Vm = 18 x √2
= 25.46V
As Si diode is used
Therefore, Vm = 25.46 – 1.4
= 24.06V
For FWR,
Vo = 2Vm/π
= 2*24.06/ π
= 15.31V
Thus, the average output voltage of given rectifier is 15.31V.
Similarly,
For FWR
Io = 2Vm/ π*RL
=15.31/1K
= 0.015A
Thus, the average output current of given rectifier is 0.015A.

9. If 18V, 2A step down transformer is used to power a HWR circuit with an ideal diode, how much
maximum average output voltage and current it can produce?
Given Data:
Rectifier: Half Wave Rectifier
Diode: Ideal (0V Voltage Drop)
V2 = 18V = Vrms
I2 = 2A = Irms
Solution:
As, Vrms = Vm / √2
Therefore, Vm = Vrms x √2
= 18 x √2
= 25.46 V
Unit_I - 21
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
As, diode used is ideal diode, total drop during half cycle will be 0V
Therefore, Vm = 25.46V
Now, for Half Wave Rectifier,
Vo = VL = VL DC = VO AVG. = Vm / π
VOMAX. = 25.46 / π
VOMAX. = 8.10V
Similarly, for Half Wave Rectifier,
IO = IL = ILDC = IO AVG = Im / π
As, Irms = Im / √2
Therefore, Im = Irms x √2
= 2 x √2
= 2.83A
Therefore,
IO MAX = Im / π
= 2.83 / π
IO MAX = 0.9A

10. If 18V, 2A step down transformer is used to power a HWR circuit with a practical Si diode, how much
maximum average output voltage and current it can produce?
Given Data:
Rectifier: Half Wave Rectifier
Diode: Practical Si (0.7V Voltage Drop)
V2 = 18V = Vrms
I2 = 2A = Irms
Solution:
As, Vrms = Vm / √2
Therefore, Vm = Vrms x √2
= 18 x √2
= 25.46 V
As, Si diode is used, total drop during half cycle will be 0.7V
Therefore, Vm = 25.46 – 0.7
= 24.76V
Now, for Half Wave Rectifier,
Vo = VL = VL DC = VO AVG. = Vm / π
VOMAX. = 24.76 / π
VOMAX. = 7.88V
Similarly, for Half Wave Rectifier,
IO = IL = ILDC = IO AVG = Im / π
As, Irms = Im / √2
Therefore, Im = Irms x √2
= 2 x √2
= 2.83A
Therefore,
IO MAX = Im / π
Unit_I - 22
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
= 2.83 / π
IO MAX = 0.9A

11. If 9-0-9V, 2A step down transformer is used to power a FWR circuit (using two diodes) with an ideal
diode, how much maximum average output voltage and current it can produce?
Given Data:
Rectifier: Bridge Rectifier
Diodes: Ideal (0V Voltage Drop)
V2 = 9V = Vrms
I2 = 2A = Irms
Solution:
As, Vrms = Vm / √2
Therefore, Vm = Vrms x √2
= 9 x √2
= 12.73 V
As, diodes used are ideal diodes, voltage drop across diodes during each half cycle will be 0V
Therefore, Vm = 12.73V
Now, for Full Wave Rectifier using two diodes,
Vo = VL = VL DC = VO AVG. = 2Vm / π
VOMAX. = (2 x 12.73) / π
VOMAX. = 8.10V
Similarly, for Full Wave Rectifier using two diodes,
IO = IL = ILDC = IO AVG = 2Im / π
As, Irms = Im / √2
Therefore, Im = Irms x √2
= 2 x √2
= 2.83A
Therefore,
IO MAX = 2Im / π
= (2 x 2.83) / π
IO MAX = 1.80A

12. If 9-0-9V, 2A step down transformer is used to power a FWR circuit (using two diodes) with a practical
Si diodes, how much maximum average output voltage and current it can produce?
Given Data:
Rectifier: Bridge Rectifier
Diodes: Practical Si (0.7V Voltage Drop)
V2 = 9V = Vrms
I2 = 2A = Irms
Solution:
As, Vrms = Vm / √2
Therefore, Vm = Vrms x √2
= 9 x √2
= 12.73 V
Unit_I - 23
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
As, Si diodes are used and only one diode is in conduction at a time, total voltage drop during each half
cycle will be 0.7V
Therefore, Vm = 12.73 – 0.7
= 12.03V
Now, for Full Wave Rectifier using two diodes,
Vo = VL = VL DC = VO AVG. = 2Vm / π
VOMAX. = (2 x 12.03) / π
VOMAX. = 7.66V
Similarly, for Full Wave Rectifier using two diodes,
IO = IL = ILDC = IO AVG = 2Im / π
As, Irms = Im / √2
Therefore, Im = Irms x √2
= 2 x √2
= 2.83A
Therefore,
IO MAX = 2Im / π
= (2 x 2.83) / π
IO MAX = 1.80A

13. If 18V, 2A step down transformer is used to power a FWR circuit (Bridge Rectifier) with an ideal
diode, how much maximum average output voltage and current it can produce?
Given Data:
Rectifier: Bridge Rectifier
Diodes: Ideal Si (0V Voltage Drop)
V2 = 18V = Vrms
I2 = 2A = Irms
Solution:
As, Vrms = Vm / √2
Therefore, Vm = Vrms x √2
= 18 x √2
= 25.46 V
As, diodes used are ideal diodes, thus the voltage drop across them will be 0V
Therefore, Vm = 25.46V
Now, for Bridge Rectifier,
Vo = VL = VL DC = VO AVG. = 2Vm / π
VOMAX. = (2 x 25.46) / π
VOMAX. = 16.21V
Similarly, for Bridge Rectifier,
IO = IL = ILDC = IO AVG = 2Im / π
As, Irms = Im / √2
Therefore, Im = Irms x √2
= 2 x √2
= 2.83A
Therefore,
Unit_I - 24
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
IO MAX = 2Im / π
= (2 x 2.83) / π
IO MAX = 1.80A

14. If 18V, 2A step down transformer is used to power a FWR circuit (Bridge Rectifier) with a practical Si
diode, how much maximum average output voltage and current it can produce?
Given Data:
Rectifier: Bridge Rectifier
Diodes: Practical Si (0.7V Voltage Drop)
V2 = 18V = Vrms
I2 = 2A = Irms
Solution:
As, Vrms = Vm / √2
Therefore, Vm = Vrms x √2
= 18 x √2
= 25.46 V
As, Si diodes are used and two diodes are in conduction at a time, total drop during each half cycle will be
1.4V
Therefore, Vm = 25.46 – 1.4
= 24.06V
Now, for Bridge Rectifier,
Vo = VL = VL DC = VO AVG. = 2Vm / π
VOMAX. = (2 x 24.06) / π
VOMAX. = 15.32V.
Similarly, for Bridge Rectifier,
IO = IL = ILDC = IO AVG = 2Im / π
As, Irms = Im / √2
Therefore, Im = Irms x √2
= 2 x √2
= 2.83A
Therefore,
IO MAX = 2Im / π
= (2 x 2.83) / π
IO MAX = 1.80A

Unit_I - 25
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Previously Asked Questions:
Dec. 2024
A. MCQ
1. What is the purpose of a smoothing capacitor in a rectifier circuit? 1M
i. To filter out high-frequency noise. ii. To regulate the output voltage
iii. To reduce ripple factor iv. To increase the output current
2. What is the main advantage of a bridge rectifier over a center-tapped rectifier 1M
i. Higher efficiency ii. Lower Cost
iii. Simple circuitry iv. Ability to use a transformer without a center-tap
B. Theory + Numerical
1. Define Active and passive components with suitable example 3M
2. Explain V-I Characteristics of PN Junction Diode 3M
3. Draw and Explain Half Wave Rectifier (HWR) with its corresponding input and output waveforms 4M
4. Compare HWR, FWR (center tap) & FWR (Bridge) 3M
5. Draw and Explain Half Wave Rectifier (HWR) with its corresponding input and output waveforms 3M
6. Using 230V, 50Hz single phase power supply, a full-wave rectifier circuit with the load of 250Ω, is
powered by 12V transformer. Determine:- 4M
1. Turns ratio of transformer
2. Output frequency of transformer
3. Average output voltage of rectifier
4. Average output current of rectifier
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
May 2025
A. MCQ
1. A device converting A.C. to D.C. is called as – 1M
A] Rectifier B] Amplifier
C] Attenuator D] Buffer
2. In Half Wave Rectifier circuit, diode conducts for- 1M
A] Never B] Only one half cycle of AC input
C] Both half cycles of AC input D] All above conditions are possible
B. Theory + Numerical
1. Compare Active and Passive Components 3M
2. Draw and explain operation of P-N Junction Diode under Forward and Reverse Biased Condition 3M
3. For bridge Rectifier, RMS Secondary Voltage of transformer is 12.7V. Assume an ideal diodes and load
resistance of 1KΏ. Calculate 4M
i) Average DC Load Voltage ii) Average DC Load Current
4. Discuss P-N junction diode as a switch 3M
5. Draw and explain operation of Bridge Rectifier along with waveforms 3M
6. In centre tapped FWR, rms half secondary voltage is 10V. Assuming ideal diodes and load resistance of
2KΏ.Calculate – 4M
i) Average DC Load Voltage ii) Average DC Load Current
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Dec. 2025
A. MCQ
1. Which of the following is a passive component? 1M
A) Transistor B) Diode
Unit_I - 26
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
C) Resistor D) OPAMP
2. The average output voltage of a full-wave rectifier is: 1M
A) Vm/π B) 2Vm/π
C) Vm/2π D) 0
B. Theory + Numerical
1. Differentiate between active and passive components with suitable examples 3M
2. Draw and Explain operation of PN Junction Diode under Forward Biased and Reverse Biased conditions
3M
3. A half-wave rectifier with RL = 1KΩ, has an input AC voltage of 10 Vrms. The used diode is an ideal
diode. Calculate- 4M
(i) Average output voltage (ii) Average output current
4. Explain the working of a P-N junction diode as a switch with a neat diagram 3M
5. Draw the circuit of a full-wave rectifier using a center-tap transformer and explain its operation 3M
6. A full-wave rectifier with RL = 1KΩ, has an input voltage of 20 [Link] used diode is an ideal diode.
Calculate- 4M
(i) Average output voltage (ii) Average output current
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Unit_I - 27
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Unit – II _ Bipolar Junction Transistor and Applications
Contents:
Types and comparison of BJTs, Construction, symbol, and modes of operation of n-p-n & p-n-p
BJTs, V-I characteristics of n-p-n BJT in CE mode, DC load line and operating point for n-p-n
transistor, biasing techniques (voltage divider biasing), n-p-n BJT as a switch & amplifier in CE
configuration, Frequency Response of CE BJT Amplifier.
Problem statements on gain and bandwidth of CE BJT amplifier.
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT):-
BJT family is known as Current Control family
Classification

BJT

n-p-n p-n-p

B:- Bipolar device: Current conduction takes place by both type of charge carriers (Electrons as well as
Holes)
J:- Junction: Device consist of two junctions
T:- Transistor: Transfer of Resistance: When current conduction takes place, charge carriers passes through
different resistive regions.
1. n-p-n BJT:-
Construction:-

Fig. Construction of NPN Transistor with Symbol

The NPN transistor is constructed with three layers of semiconductor material: two N-type semiconductors
sandwiching a P-type semiconductor. The P-type material forms the base, while the two N-type materials
are the emitter and collector. This arrangement creates two p-n junctions: one between the emitter and base
(JE), and another between the collector and base (JC).
The base region is typically lightly doped, the emitter region is highly doped, and the collector
region is moderately doped. Due to this, Base current is smallest; emitter current is largest while collector
current is moderate.
The emitter region is moderate in size; the collector region is largest in size while the base region is
Unit_II - 1
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
smallest in size.
As the Emitter and Collector regions are of N-type semiconductors, they consist of Electrons
(Negative charge carriers) as a Majority while Holes (Positive charge carriers) as a Minority. While Base
region is of P-type semiconductor, it consists of Holes (Positive charge carriers) as a Majority while
Electrons (Negative charge carriers) as a Minority.
During the junction formation process, the depletion layers get formed around both the junctions (J E
& JC). As, deletion width penetrates more in lightly doped semiconductor, here as shown in the diagram,
spreads more in base region from both sides.
For external connection purpose, three terminals from all three regions are taken out through an
ohmic contacts; namely Emitter (E), Base (B) & Collector (C).
Working:-

Fig. Working & various currents of NPN BJT

Depending on the application of transistor as an Amplifier and as a Switch, the polarity of external supply
gets changed.
Transistor as an Amplifier: Base to Emitter Junction (JE) should be forward biased, while Base to
Collector Junction (JC) should be reverse biased.
Transistor as a Switch: Transistor as a Closed Switch, both junctions should be forward biased.
Transistor as an Opened Switch, both junctions should be reverse biased.
Considering transistor as an amplifier, as shown in the diagram, Base-Emitter Junction (J E) is forward
biased by external DC source, VEE. Base-Collector Junction (JC) is reverse biased by external DC source,
VCC.
As, negative terminal of VEE is connected to Emitter (N-type), electrons from emitter region gets
push towards the base region by crossing junction J C. Similarly, positive terminal of VEE is connected to
Base (P-type), holes from the base region gets push and recombination of few Electrons coming from
emitter region with these pushed holes occurs. As, the base region is lightly doped, the number of flow of
and recombined holes are very less as compared to Electrons coming from emitter region. So, remaining
electrons gets migrate towards the collector region. Now, as the Collector region (N-type) is moderately
doped and connected to positive terminal of VCC, electrons gets migrate towards the positive terminal of
VCC. Due to these flow of Electrons and Holes through various regions, the various currents gets constitute.
The level of various currents through various regions depends on the doping concentration of that
particular region.
As, emitter is highly doped region, current through it (IE) is maximum. Collector is moderately
doped region, current through it (IC) is moderate and base is lightly doped region, current through it (IB) is

Unit_II - 2
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
minimum.
Similarly, the direction of flow of current is also depending on the direction of flow of charge
carriers (Electrons & Holes).
The direction of flow current due to flow of electrons is always opposite as that of direction of flow
of electrons. The direction of flow current due to flow of holes is always in the same direction as that of
direction of flow of holes.
Hence, as shown in the diagram, various currents and their direction are shown. Also, it is noted
that, IE = IC + IB.
Configurations:-
The transistor is a three terminal device; we can connect the transistor by three ways in the electronic
circuits. By making any one terminal as a common between input and output of transistor, there are three
configurations as follows-
i. Common Emitter (CE) Configuration:
In this configuration as shown below, Emitter terminal is common between input and output ports of
transistor. Base terminal acts an input terminal while collector terminal acts as an output terminal.

Fig. NPN BJT in CE Configuration

Therefore, current amplification factor (output current divided by input current) in CE mode is –
β = I C / IB
It is moderate as IC is large as compared to IB
OR
IC = β.IB
ii. Common Base (CB) Configuration:
In this configuration as shown below, Base terminal is common between input and output ports of
transistor. Emitter terminal acts an input terminal while collector terminal acts as an output terminal.

Fig. NPN BJT in CB Configuration

Therefore, current amplification factor (output current divided by input current) in CB mode is –
α = IC / IE
It is less than unity or maximum equals to unity as IC is small as compared to IE
OR
IC = α.IE
iii. Common Collector (CC) Configuration:
In this configuration as shown below, Collector terminal is common between input and output ports of
transistor. Base terminal acts an input terminal while Emitter terminal acts as an output terminal.

Unit_II - 3
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

Fig. NPN BJT in CC Configuration

Therefore, current amplification factor (output current divided by input current) in CC mode is –
γ = IE / IB
It is largest as IE is largest as compared to IB
OR
IE = γ.IB
Relation between Amplification Factors:
i. α in terms of β:
as we have, α = IC / IE
= IC / (IC + IB )
Dividing numerator and denominator by IB, we have;
α = (IC / IB ) / [(IC / IB) + (IB/ IB)]
Therefore,
α = β / (β + 1)
ii. β in terms of α
as we have, β = IC / IB
= IC / (IE – IC)
Dividing numerator and denominator by IE, we have;
β = (IC/ IE) / [(IE/ IE ) – (IC/ IE)
Therefore,
β = α / (1 – α)

V-I Characteristics of transistor:-

There are three Volt-Ampere (V-I) characteristics of transistor as follows -
A. Input Characteristic:-
It is the characteristic between input voltage and input current by keeping output voltage at constant value.
B. Output Characteristic:-
It is the characteristic between output voltage and output current by keeping input current at constant value.
C. Transfer Characteristic:-
It is the characteristic between controlled and controlling parameters by keeping output voltage at constant
value.

Unit_II - 4
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
V-I Characteristics for n-p-n BJT in CE Configuration:-

Fig. Circuit Diagram CE Configuration

There are two DC Voltage sources at the input and output side as VBB & VCC respectively. By considering
the transistor as an Amplifier, junction JE is forward biased and junction JC is reverse biased.
VBB is used to change input voltage i.e. VBE (V) and hence input current IB (µA).
VCC is used to change output voltage i.e. VCE (V) and hence output current IC (mA).
Resistors RB and RC are used to limit the input current IB and output current IC respectively.
1. Input Characteristic:
It is the characteristic in between input voltage i.e. VBE and input current i.e. IB by keeping output voltage
i.e. VCE at constant value.

Fig. Input Characteristic of CE BJT

After cut-in voltage of junction JE of the transistor, by increasing VBE, IB increases. As it is a semiconductor
device, the change in IB is exponential in nature.
When VCE is at higher constant value, for the same value of V BE, as that of previous case, IB gets
decreased (i.e. IB1 > IB2). It is due to increased reverse biasing of collector junction J C of transistor.
2. Output Characteristic:
It is the characteristic in between output voltage i.e. VCE and output current i.e. IC by keeping input current
i.e. IB at constant value.

Unit_II - 5
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

Fig. Output Characteristic of CE BJT

When input current constant value is zero i.e. IB = 0, whatever may be the value of output voltage
i.e. VCE, output current remains zero.
When input current at constant value is non-zero i.e. IB ≠ 0, by increasing the output voltage i.e.
VCE, the output current IC also increases initially up-to a particular level and later on remains constant.
By increasing input current at various constant values, the output current i.e. IC also increases.
Therefore, BJT is known as current controlled device.
As shown in the output characteristic, BJT can operate in three regions as Cut-off Region, Active
Region and Saturation Region.
In cut-off region, when input current IB = 0, output current IC also remains zero and hence BJT acts
as an Open Switch (OFF Switch). During this condition, output voltage V CE is equals to VCC.
In Active region, when input current IB ≠ 0 but less than IB Max, output current IC also remains non-
zero and hence BJT gets turn ON. During this condition, output voltage VCE is large but gets maximize up-
to VCC. Hence, Active Region is selected when transistor is to be used as an Amplifier.
In Saturation region, when input current IB ≠ 0 but equals to IB Max, output current IC also becomes
maximum. Hence BJT acts as a Closed Switch (ON Switch). During this condition, output voltage V CE is
almost equals to zero.

3. Transfer Characteristic:
It is the characteristic between output current i.e. IC (Controlled Parameter) and input current i.e. IB
(Controlling Parameter) by keeping output voltage i.e. V CE at constant value.

Unit_II - 6
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

Fig. Transfer Characteristic of CE BJT

By increasing the input current i.e. IB, output current i.e. IC also increases linearly. Therefore, input current
controls the output current of BJT and hence it is known as current controlled device.

DC load line and operating point for n-p-n transistor:

As shown in the following figure, the DC load line of a transistor is a line which connects the two
maximum operating points i.e. VCE MAX. and IC MAX. of transistor on X & Y-axis respectively.
As, resistor RC is used to limit the collector current IC, it decides the maximum collector current
flowing through the transistor i.e. IC MAX. = (Vcc /RC). [Located on Y-axis.]
Similarly, maximum possible output voltage of transistor is V CC. Hence, VCE MAX. = VCC. [Located
on X-axis.]
Now, it becomes very easy that in which region the transistor is to be get operated by locating its
operating point. This operating point is known as Quiescent Point or simply Q-point.

Fig. DC Load Line of CE BJT

Unit_II - 7
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
What is Q Point?
The Q point or operating point is a fixed DC voltage and current level at which a transistor functions. It
plays a significant role in determining the power consumption and amplification capacity of the transistor.
Setting the Q point precisely is critical for safe operation and optimal performance of the transistor. The Q-
point is set at a desired level on the DC load line by applying a particular voltage and hence the particular
amount of input current. This is known as Biasing of Transistor. So, biasing of transistor means operate the
transistor in the desired region (i.e. Cut-off, Active or Saturation region) according to the application.

Fig. DC Load Line of CE BJT with Q-Point

Biasing Techniques for BJT as an Amplifier:

Transistor as an amplifier biasing is the process of setting a transistor's DC operating voltage or current to
the correct level so that it can amplify AC input signals properly. It involves applying the correct DC
voltage to the transistor's base-emitter junction and calculating the necessary resistor values.
Types of Biasing Circuit: µ
The following five common biasing circuits used with bipolar junction transistor amplifiers:
1. Fixed bias
2. Collector-to-base bias
3. Fixed bias with emitter resistor
4. Voltage divider bias
5. Emitter bias

Unit_II - 8
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Voltage Divider Biasing:

Fig. Voltage Divider Biasing of NPN BJT in CE Configuration

Fig. Q-Point at the middle of DC Load Line

DC Voltage Source, Vcc is used to power the complete circuit. Resistors R 1 and R2 are connected in series
with Vcc, currents (I1 & I2) flows through them as shown in the diagram. This combination of resistors R 1
and R2 is known as Voltage Divider Network. By Voltage Divider Rule, voltage drop across R2 (i.e. the
Base Terminal Voltage, VB of transistor) can be determined using the formula –
VR2 = VB = (Vcc x R2) / (R1 + R2)
This generated base voltage forward biases the Base-Emitter junction, J E and hence the desired
Unit_II - 9
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
level of base current IB as IBQ. It will decide now IC as ICQ (as we have IC = β.IB i.e. BJT is known as
Current Controlled Device) and hence also the output voltage, V CE as VCEQ.
Thus, we can say that the transistor is biased at the middle of DC load line (i.e. in Active Region)
and hence will be operating as an Amplifier.
CE BJT as an Amplifier:-

Fig. CE BJT as an Amplifier

Components used:
NPN transistor in CE configuration is used as an amplifier.
Resistors R1 & R2 are used to bias the transistor, in the active region / at the middle of load line / as an
amplifier.
Resistor Rc is used to limit the collector current of transistor and hence to avoid the damage of transistor.
Resistor RE is used for temperature compensation and hence to avoid the damage of transistor due to its rise
in temperature.
Resistor RL is load resistor, across which the output amplified signal waveform is to be get observed.
Capacitors Ci & Co are known as input and output coupling capacitors and are used to block the DC
component and hence avoids to corrupt the input as well as output purely sinusoidal signals.
Capacitor CE is known as a bypass capacitor and is used to minimise the AC voltage drop across resistor R E
and hence improves the overall gain of an amplifier.
Vin is the input sinusoidal signal which is desired to get amplified.
Vo is the obtained amplified sinusoidal signal.
Vcc is used to power the complete circuit including biasing of transistor as an amplifier.
Ground connection is needed to complete the signal path.
Working:
As shown in the circuit diagram, input sinusoidal signal is applied to the node form by resistors R1, R2 and
base terminal of BJT. As input is sinusoidal in nature, it will convert the said node voltage sinusoidal. The
sinusoidal node / base terminal voltage will convert the base current sinusoidal in nature. Now, as we know

Unit_II - 10
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
that the output current, IC is directly proportional to input current IB, IC also will get convert to sinusoidal in
nature.
Now, by applying KVL to the output of an amplifier circuit, we can perform AC as well as DC analysis as
follows.
DC Analysis:
Vcc = IC*RC + VCE + IE*RE
Therefore,
VCE = Vcc - IC*RC - IE*RE
Which indicates that as Ic increases due to increase in input current IB, output voltage i.e. VCE decreases.
AC Analysis:
Vce = Vcc - iC*RC - iE*RE
The AC drop across resistor can be minimized by bypassing the AC components through capacitor C E.
Thus from above equations, we can conclude that as output current increases due to increase in input
current IB, the output voltage, VCE decreases i.e. input and output signals of amplifier are out of phase by
1800 with each other. The same can be observed in following input-output signal waveforms of signal.
Voltage Gain of BJT CE Amplifier (Av):
Voltage Gain of an Amplifier is the ratio of obtained output voltage to the applied input voltage. It is
denoted as Av. It is also called as absolute voltage gain.
Thus,
Av = Vo/Vin.
Voltage gain in decibel (dB):
It is calculated from the absolute gain of an amplifier as
Av (dB) = 20log (Vo/Vin)
= 20log(Av)
Significance of decibel gain:
Gain of an amplifier is dependent on input signal frequency. As input and output coupling capacitors are
used in the amplifier circuit, they affect the gain of an amplifier when input signal frequency is quite low.
Because reactance offered by these capacitors becomes high as we know –
Xc = 1 / (2.π.f.C)
where,
f = applied signal frequency (may be variable)
C = capacitance of capacitor (constant)
Xc = reactance of capacitor which is inversely proportional to applied signal frequency
Similarly, at very high input signal frequency, gain of an amplifier gets affect due to the Junction
Capacitances / Stray Capacitances / Parasitic Elements of the transistor.
So, when an amplifier is used with large variation input signal frequency, we get large variation in
obtained gain.
To plot the voltage gain response with large variation in frequency becomes quite difficult.
Similarly, to plot very large as well very small value of gain becomes hard. So, to minimize these
difficulties, it becomes simple if the given values are converted into decibel as discussed below-
Let the absolute gain value varies from 1 to 100000
Av (dB) = 20log(1) = 0dB &
Av (dB) = 20log(100000) = 100dB
Similarly, let the absolute gain value is 0.000001;
Unit_II - 11
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Av (dB) = 20log(0.000001) = -120dB

Fig. Input and output signal waveforms of CE BJT Amplifier

How to draw the above waveforms:
1. First draw output V-I characteristic of CE NPN BJT
2. Draw the DC load line on it.
3. Select the operating point at the middle of load line.
4. Draw one more output characteristic curve which passes through the Q point. Marked this curve as a I BQ.
5. Draw the perpendicular lines to X & Y-axis which passes through Q point. Mark the intersection points
on X & Y-axis as a VCEQ and ICQ.
6. Now, draw a perpendicular line to DC load line passing through Q point. This will act as a X-axis and
DC load line will act as now Y-axis. Show now limited amplitude sinusoidal signal on this X-axis. Draw
perpendicular lines from the maximum peak and minimum peak towards the DC load line. Their
intersection points on DC load line, mark them as Q’ and Q”.
7. Draw perpendicular lines to original X & Y-axis passing through Q’ and Q”. Mark these points on X &
Y-axis as a VCEQ’, VCEQ”, ICQ’ and ICQ”. Draw now output voltage and current swings within these lines.
Also show the peak amplitudes of these signals.
8. Mark maximum and minimum shifting of Q point on DC load line.

Unit_II - 12
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

From the shown waveforms, we can conclude that:

1. During the positive half cycle of sinusoidal input signal, the operating point of transistor gets shift
maximum from Q to Q’ position.
2. Due to this, output current of transistor also shifts maximum from ICQ to ICQ’.
3. And hence, output voltage also varies from VCQ to VCQ’
4. During the negative half cycle of sinusoidal input signal, the operating point of transistor gets shift
maximum from Q to Q” position.
5. Due to this, output current of transistor also shifts maximum from ICQ to ICQ”.
6. And hence, output voltage also varies from VCQ to VCQ”
7. To avoid the clipping of output obtained signal, input can be changed up to Maximum Q’ and Minimum
Q” levels.
8. Beyond Maximum Q’ and Minimum Q” levels, transistor will enter into Saturation region and Cut-off
region respectively. And hence, that much part of the input signal will remain saturated (fixed value, closed
to zero) and equals to Vcc respectively as a output signal.
9. Input, Vin and Output, Vout signal waveforms are out of phase by 180 0 with each other.
10. The limitation of given amplifier is that, we can apply limited amplitude signal as an input to avoid the
saturation at the output side.
Now, after this study, we concluded that why the operating point i.e. Q point should be selected at
middle of DC load line within the active region of transistor. i.e.
1. If the operating point (Q point) is selected somewhere above the middle level on the DC load line,
during the positive swing of input signal, transistor will enter earlier in the saturation region and hence
clipped negative half of output.
2. Similarly, if the operating point (Q point) is selected somewhere below the middle level on the DC load
line, during the positive swing of input signal, transistor will work in the active region but it will enter
earlier in the cut-off region and hence clipped positive half of output.
3. So, to increase the maximum input signal capacity of transistor, it should be biased at the center of DC
load line within the active region.

Unit_II - 13
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

The input, output, voltage and current waveforms of BJT CE Amplifier:

Fig. Input, output, voltage and current waveforms of BJT CE Amplifier

The input, output, voltage and current waveforms of BJT CE Amplifier shows that:
1. Input signal is a sinusoidal weak signal (mV). It acquires positive peak at π/2 and negative peak at 3π/2.
At 0, π & 2π, the signal goes to zero level.
2. During the positive half cycle (0 to π) of input signal, input current IB (very small µA) & output current
IC (large mA) of transistor follows the input signal i.e. at π/2 both attains the positive peak value.
3. During the negative half cycle (π to 2π) of input signal, input current IB & output current IC of transistor

Unit_II - 14
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
follows the input signal i.e. at 3π/2 it both attains the negative peak value.
4. During the positive half cycle (0 to π) of input weak signal (mV), the output strong signal (V) gets
inverted (as increase in IC decrease the output voltage) and hence the obtained output signal have negative
half cycle during same time duration.
5. During the negative half cycle (π to 2π) of input signal, the output signal gets inverted (as increase in IC
decrease the output voltage) and hence the obtained output signal have positive half cycle during same time
duration.
6. Thus, when BJT is used in CE configuration, it works as an Inverting Voltage Amplifier.

Frequency Response of CE BJT Amplifier:

The voltage gain of a CE amplifier varies with signal frequency. It is because the reactance of the
capacitors in the circuit changes with signal frequency and hence affects the output voltage. The curve
drawn between voltage gain and the signal frequency of an amplifier is known as frequency response. The
shown diagram is known as the frequency response of a typical CE amplifier.

Fig. Frequency Response of BJT CE Amplifier

From the above graph, we observe that the voltage gain drops off at low (< F L) and high (> FH) frequencies,
whereas it is constant over the mid-frequency range (FL to FH).
At Low Frequencies (< FL):
The reactance of coupling capacitors is relatively high and hence very small part of the signal will pass
from the amplifier stage to the load.
Moreover, CE cannot shunt the RE effectively because of its large reactance at low frequencies. These two
factors cause drops off of voltage gain at low frequencies.
At High Frequencies (> FH):
The reactance of coupling capacitors is very small and it behaves as a short circuit. This increases the
loading effect of the amplifier stage and serves to reduce the voltage gain.
Moreover, at high frequencies, the capacitive reactance of base-emitters junction (Stray Capacitances) is
Unit_II - 15
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
low which increases the base current. This frequency reduces the current amplification factor β. Due to
these two reasons, the voltage gain drops off at a high frequency.
At Mid Frequencies (FL to FH):
The voltage gain of the amplifier is constant. The effect of the coupling capacitors in this frequency range
is such as to maintain a constant voltage gain.
However, at the same time, lower reactance means higher almost cancel each other, resulting in a uniform
fair at mid-frequency.
Frequency points like FL & FH are related to the lower corner & the upper corner of the amplifier which are
the gain falls of the circuits at high as well as low frequencies. These frequency points are also known as
decibel points. So the BW can be defined as -
BW = FH – FL
BJT as a Switch:

Fig. BJT as Switch Circuit Diagram

Fig. BJT as Switch Input, output waveforms

As discussed earlier, the application of BJT depends on in which region the BJT is operating. Now, BJT
can be used as a Closed Switch when it is operated in saturation region. Also, it can be used as an Open

Unit_II - 16
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Switch when it is operated in cut-off region.
By making both junctions (JE & JC) of BJT as a forward biased, it works into saturation region while by
making both junctions as a reverse biased, it works into cut-off region.
The various currents and their relations are as follows.
When IC = β.IB i.e. IB = IC / β, Transistor works in active region
When IB > IC / β, Transistor works in saturation region &
When IB = 0; & hence IC = 0, Transistor works in cut-off region
In the shown circuit diagram, Vcc is used to power the complete circuit. Resistors R B & RC are
used to limit the currents IB & IC respectively. The values of Resistors RB & RC are calculated & selected in
in such way that when base terminal voltage will be High (≠ 0V), IB > IC / β, transistor will operate in
saturation region (ON Switch). When base terminal voltage will be Low (= 0V), IB = 0; & hence IC = 0,
transistor will work in cut-off region (OFF Switch).
The LED (Light Emitting Diode) is connected in series of transistor and Vcc. When LED will
be ON, means transistor is ON (operating into saturation region) and hence current path from Vcc to
ground forms. While LED OFF means transistor is OFF (operating into cut-off region) and hence current
path from Vcc to ground is broken.
When transistor operates into saturation region, voltage drop across transistor (i.e.V CE SAT.) is
negligible and hence considered it as zero. While, when it operates into cut-off region, means transistor is
OFF and hence voltage across it is equals to Vcc.
In the shown input-output waveforms of transistor, when input voltage pulse will be at High
level (≠ 0V), VCE SAT. is zero (Transistor ON and operating into saturation region). Similarly, when input
voltage pulse will be at Low level (= 0V), VCE SAT. is equals to Vcc (Transistor OFF and operating into cut-
off region).
As shown in the input-output waveforms,
Transistor as an ON switch, hence LED ON during 0 to t1, t2 to t3.
Transistor as an OFF switch, hence LED OFF during t1 to t2, t3 to t4.

Unit_II - 17
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Questions
1. BJT stands for –
2. Sketch the construction of n-p-n BJT
3. Differentiate the various regions of n-p-n transistor in terms of their –
i. Area
ii. Doping Concentration
iii. Level of flow of current
4. With the help of neat sketch, explain the working (various current flow) through n-p-n BJT
5. List and sketch the various configurations of n-p-n BJT with their amplification factors
6. Give the relation between α in terms of β
7. Give the relation between β in terms of α
8. With the help of neat circuit diagram and V-I characteristics of n-p-n BJT in CE configuration, explain
i. Input Characteristic
ii. Output Characteristic
iii. Transfer Characteristic
9. With the help of neat sketch, explain the various regions of operation of n-p-n BJT in CE configuration
10. With the help of neat sketch, explain the significance of different regions of operation of n-p-n BJT in CE
configuration.
10. With the help of neat sketch, explain the DC load line and its significance
11. What is the Q-point and its significance?
12. What is mean by Biasing of Transistor? List the various methods of biasing.
13. With the help of neat sketch and circuit diagram, explain the Voltage Divider Biasing Technique of transistor
14. With the help of neat circuit diagram and input _ output waveforms, explain in detail n-p-n BJT in CE
configuration as an amplifier
15. With the help of neat circuit diagram, explain n-p-n BJT in CE configuration as a switch to ON and OFF LED
16. With the help of neat circuit diagram and sketch, explain the Frequency Response Curve of n-p-n BJT in CE
configuration.
17. With the help of Frequency Response Curve, explain –
i. Lower Cut-Off Frequency
ii. Higher Cut-Off Frequency &
iii. Bandwidth of an amplifier

Unit_II - 18
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Numerical
1. For the shown, determine its amplification factor –

Given:
I/P Current; i.e. IB = 100µA
O/P Current; i.e. IC = 99mA
Shown Circuit: BJT is in CE configuration
Solution:
When BJT is in CE configuration, its amplification factor is β, which is –
β = IC / IB
= 99mA / 100 µA
= 990
Therefore, for the shown circuit, amplification factor is –
β = 990

2. For the shown, determine its amplification factor –

Given:
I/P Current; i.e. IE = 100mA
O/P Current; i.e. IC = 99mA
Shown Circuit: BJT is in CB configuration
Solution:
When BJT is in CB configuration, its amplification factor is α, which is –
α = IC / IE
= 99mA / 100 mA
= 0.99
Therefore, for the shown circuit, amplification factor is –
α = 0.99

3. For the shown, determine its amplification factor –

Unit_II - 19
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Given:
I/P Current; i.e. IB = 100µA
O/P Current; i.e. IE = 100mA
Shown Circuit: BJT is in CC configuration
Solution:
When BJT is in CE configuration, its amplification factor is γ, which is –
γ = IE / IB
α = IC / IE
= 100mA / 100 µA
= 1000
Therefore, for the shown circuit, amplification factor is –
γ = 1000

4. For the shown, determine the relation between amplification factors –

Vs

Given:
Shown input side circuit is CE configuration; while output side circuit is CB configuration.
Therefore, here we have to relate β in terms of α
Solution:
As, we have,
β = α / (1 – α)
= 0.99 / (1 – 0.99)
= 99

5. For the shown, determine the relation between amplification factors –

Vs

Given:
Shown input side circuit is CB configuration; while output side circuit is CE configuration.
Therefore, here we have to relate α in terms of β
Solution:
As, we have,
α = β / (1 + β)
= 990 / (1 + 990)
= 0.99

Unit_II - 20
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
6. For the shown circuit, determine its absolute voltage gain (Av) –

Given:
Vin = 100mV, 1KHz
Vout = 1V
Solution:
Absolute Voltage Gain, (Av) = Vo / Vin
Therefore, Av = 1 /100m
Av = 10

7. For the shown circuit, determine its decibel voltage gain (Av_dB) –

Given:
Vin = 100mV, 1KHz
Vout = 1V
Solution:
Absolute Voltage Gain, (Av) = Vo / Vin = 10
Thus, voltage gain in dB [Av(dB)] = 20log (Absolute Voltage Gain)
Av(dB) = 20log(10)
Thus, Av(dB) = 20dB

Unit_II - 21
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
8. In shown, determine biasing node voltage –

Given:
Vcc = 10V
R1 = 12KΩ
R2 = 2.7KΩ
Solution:
By Voltage Divider Rule, Biasing node voltage i.e. VB
VB = (Vcc x R2) / (R1 + R2)
= (10 x 2.7K) / (12K + 2.7K)
= 1.8V

9. In the shown curve, determine the maximum gain in dB –

Given:
3dB Gain = 97dB
Therefore, the maximum gain in dB = 3dB Gain + 3dB
= (97 + 3) dB
= 100dB

Unit_II - 22
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

10. In the shown curve, determine the maximum BW –

Given:
FL = 100Hz,
FH = 1KHz (1000Hz)
Solution:
B.W. = FH – FL
Thus, B.W. = 1000 – 100
B.W. = 900Hz

Unit_II - 23
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Previously Asked Questions:
Dec. 2024
A. MCQ
1. What is primary function of BJT 1M
i. Amplification ii. Switching
iii. Rectification iv. All of the given
2. What is the region of operation where the BJT is fully on and conducting maximum current? 1M
i. Active region ii. Saturation region
iii. Cutoff region iv. Linear region
B. Theory + Numerical
1. Draw and Explain the input characteristic of BJT in CE configuration. 3M
2. For the shown, determine its amplification factor – 3M

3. Explain with suitable diagram operation of NPN transistor 4M

4. Explain construction of BJT with respect to area and doping concentration. Also mention the types of
BJT 3M
5. Draw and explain BJT as a switch. 3M
6. Draw and Explain the output characteristic of BJT in CE configuration 4M
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
May 2025
A. MCQ
1. Transistor acts as an amplifier in the region of – 1M
A] Cut-Off B] Saturation
C] Active D] All of the given
B. Theory + Numerical
1. Draw and Explain BJT as a CE Amplifier with its input & output waveforms 3M
2. Draw & explain the transfer characteristic of BJT in CE Configuration 3M
3. For BJT operating in CE Configuration having input voltage of 30mV and output voltage is 2.4V then
find the gain of an amplifier in dB 4M
4. Differentiate Base, Collector and Emitter regions of NPN transistor in terms of their Doping
Concentration, Size & Current Level 3M
5. What is the relation between current amplification factors α in terms of β? 3M
6. For the shown frequency response curve of a BJT Amplifier, what is the maximum gain of an amplifier?
4M

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Unit_II - 24
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Dec. 2025
A. MCQ
1. Which of the BJT configuration offers the highest voltage gain? 1M
A) CE B) CB
C) CC D) Both A and C
2. What is the role of the DC load line in a transistor amplifier? 1M
A) To block the DC component B) Determines the frequency response
C) Sets the Q-point D) Acts as a filter
B. Theory + Numerical
1. With the help of neat circuit diagram, explain the various components used in BJT CE Amplifier. 3M
2. With the help of a neat diagram, explain the construction and working of NPN transistor. 3M
3. In a CE amplifier circuit, the input signal of 10 mV results in an output voltage of 2 V in the mid-band
region. Calculate the mid-band voltage gain in dB 4M
4. Differentiate Base, Collector and Emitter regions of NPN transistor in terms of their Doping
Concentration, Size & Current Level 3M
5. Describe the working of an NPN transistor as a switch to turn ON and OFF LED 3M
6. From the shown frequency response curve of a BJT Amplifier, what is the bandwidth of an amplifier?
4M

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Unit_II - 25
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Unit – III _ Operational Amplifier and Applications
Contents:
Symbol, block diagram of Operational Amplifier, Ideal and Practical Characteristics of OPAMP,
OPAMP in Open Loop and Closed Loop Configurations, OPAMP as an inverting & non-
inverting amplifier.
Problem statements on Inverting & Non-inverting Amplifier
Operational Amplifier (OPAMP):
The operational amplifier (also known as Op-Amp) is a multi-terminal direct coupled high gain amplifier
which is consisting of one or more differential amplifiers and a level shifter transistor and an output current
amplifier stage.
The Op-Amp is a versatile device which can be used to amplify both DC and AC signals and these
are mainly designed for performing mathematical operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication etc.
OPAMP Pin Diagram with Symbol:

Figures: PIN Diagram & Symbol of OPAMP

Pin 1&5. Offset Null: When both the input terminals of OPAMP are grounded, the expected output
voltage at the output pin no. 6 is zero. But still if it provides a non-zero output which is known as offset
voltage, it is made zero by using a simple circuit and connecting it across these two null pins of OPAMP.
Pin 2. It is known as inverting input pin of OPAMP. When input signal (AC or DC) is applied to this input
pin of OPAMP, at the output pin no. 6 is 1800 phase shifted (Inverted Output as compared to applied
input).
Pin 3. It is known as non-inverting input pin of OPAMP. When input signal (AC or DC) is applied to this
input pin of OPAMP, at the output pin no. 6 is 0 0 phase shifted (Non-Inverted Output).
Pin 4. Maximum general purpose OPAMPs requires dual power supply (±Vcc) for their operation. So, this
pin should be connected to –Vcc of that dual power supply.
Pin 5. Used for offset null
Pin 6. This is the output pin of OPAMP. Load, which is to be driven by OPAMP should be connected to
this pin w.r.t. ground.
Pin 7. Maximum general purpose OPAMPs requires dual power supply (±Vcc) for their operation. So, this
pin should be connected to + Vcc of that dual power supply.
Pin 8. This is not connected pin. This pin is never used in any application of OPAMP.

Unit_III - 1
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Block diagram of OPAMP:

Fig. Block diagram of OPAMP

Input Stage:
 It consists of a dual input, balanced output differential amplifier.
 Its function is to amplify the difference between the two input signals.
 It provides high differential gain, high input impedance and low output impedance.
Intermediate Stage:
 It consists of a dual input, unbalanced output differential amplifier.
 The overall gain requirement of an Op-Amp is very high. Since the input stage alone cannot
provide such a high gain. Intermediate stage is used to provide the required additional voltage gain.
Level Shifting Stage:
 Since direct coupling is used, therefore the DC voltage at the output of intermediate stage is above
the ground potential.
 Hence, the level shifting transistor circuit is used after intermediate stage to shift the DC level at
intermediate stage output downward to zero volts with respect to ground.
Output Stage:
 The output stage is a push-pull complementary amplifier.
 The output stage increases the output voltage as well current.
 The output stage also provides low output resistance.
Ideal and Practical Characteristics of OPAMP:
Parameter Ideally Practically
Open loop voltage gain (AVO) Infinite Very high
Bandwidth (BW) Infinite Very high
Input Impedance (Zi) Infinite Very high
Output Impedance (Zo) Zero Very low
Common Mode Rejection Ration (CMRR) Infinite Very high
Slew Rate (SR) Infinite Very high
Output Offset Voltage (Voo) Zero Very low
Input Offset Voltage (Vio) Zero Very low
Input offset Current (Iio) Zero Very low
Input bias Current (Ib) Zero Very low
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR) Infinite Very high
Table: Ideal and Practical Characteristics of OPAMP
Open Loop Gain (AVO): It is the ratio of the output voltage and the differential input voltage.
AVO = Output voltage/Differential input=

Unit_III - 2
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Bandwidth (BW): An ideal opamp has an infinite bandwidth that is it can amplify any signal from DC to
the highest AC frequencies without any losses. So, an ideal op amp is said to have infinite frequency
response.
In real op amps, the bandwidth is generally limited. The limit depends on the gain bandwidth (GB) product.
GB is defined as the frequency where the amplifier gain becomes unity.
Input Impedance (Zi): Input impedance is the ratio of input voltage to input current and is assumed to be
infinite to prevent any current flowing from the source supply into the amplifiers input circuitry ( I IN = 0 ).
Output Impedance (Zo): The output impedance of the ideal operational amplifier is assumed to be zero
acting as a perfect internal voltage source with no internal resistance so that it can supply as much current
as necessary to the load. This internal resistance is effectively in series with the load thereby reducing the
output voltage available to the load.
Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR): It is the ability of a Differential Amplifier (Op-Amp) to reject
the common mode signals successfully and defined as the ratio of Differential mode gain and Common
mode gain.
CMRR = or = 20log
Slew Rate: It is also defined as the maximum rate at which an Op-Amp can change output without
distortion and expressed in Volt per microsecond.
SR =
Output Offset Voltage, (Voo): Even when the input voltage is zero, an Op-Amp can have non zero output
voltage called as output offset voltage.
Input Offset Voltage, (Vio): In ideal op-amp, the output will be zero when both the input terminal is
grounded. An extra small amount of voltage is applied at any one of the input terminals to make output
voltage zero. This extra voltage is called input off set voltage.
Input offset Current (Iio): The algebraic difference between the currents between the non-inverting
terminal and inverting terminal is called input offset current (Iio).
Iio = IB1 – IB2
Input bias Current (Ib): It is the average of the currents flowing in the input terminals of the Op-Amp.
Ib =
Power Supply Rejection Ratio (PSRR): PSRR specifies that if there is any change in the supply voltage,
then how it will affect the output of the op-amp. For op-amp, if there is any change in the supply voltage,
then it should not affect the output of the op-amp.
OPAMP in Open Loop and Closed Loop Configurations:
When there is no any kind of feedback between input and output terminals of OPAMP, it is known as Open
Loop connection. But such connection has disadvantages in maximum applications using OPAMP. To
overcome the disadvantages of open loop configuration of OPAMP, few components like resistor or
capacitor or both are used between input and output terminals of OPAMP, is known as Closed Loop
configuration of OPAMP.
OPAMP in Open Loop Configuration:
In the case of amplifiers the term open loop indicates that no connection exists between input and output
terminals of any type. That is, the output signal is not feedback in any form as part of the input signal.
In open loop configuration, the OPAMP functions as a high gain amplifier. There are three open
loop OPAMP configurations.

Unit_III - 3
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Transfer Characteristic of OPAMP:

Fig. Transfer Characteristic of OPAMP

As it is a Transfer Characteristic, it is defined as the characteristic between input voltage (controlling
parameter) and output voltage. As OPAMP have two input terminals, we can apply input signal to any one
terminal by making another terminal as a ground. Depending on the input terminal selected, output may be
in phase or out of phase by 1800 i.e. inverted. Hence, this characteristic lies between 1 st as well as 3rd
quadrant as shown in the figure.
If the OPAMP is used in Open Loop Configuration, it offers very high gain (for general purpose
OPAMP 741, it is 2x105). Also, the OPAMP ideally can produce the maximum output voltage equals to its
powering voltage i.e. ±Vcc. Practically, it is closed to 90%.±Vcc. So, due to very high open loop gain, for a
small input voltage (Vin1 or Vin2), output of OPAMP saturates to ±Vcc & this saturation level may be
positive (+Vsat.) or negative (-Vsat.).
After saturation occurs, even if input voltage is increased, output of OPAMP remains saturated to
±Vsat. as shown in the figure.
The Differential Amplifier:
Fig. shows the open loop differential amplifier in which input signals Vin1 and Vin2 are applied to the
positive and negative input terminals.

Fig. OPAMP as an Open Loop Differential Amplifier

Since the OPAMP amplifies the difference the between the two input signals, this configuration is called
the differential amplifier. The OPAMP amplifies both ac and dc input signals. The source resistance Rin1
Unit_III - 4
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
and Rin2 are normally negligible compared to the input resistance Ri of OPAMP. Therefore voltage drop
across these resistances can be assumed to be zero.
Vo = Ad*(Vin1-Vin2)
The Inverting Amplifier:
If the input is applied to only inverting terminal and non-inverting terminal is grounded then it is called
inverting amplifier. This configuration is shown in fig.

Fig. OPAMP as an Open Loop Inverting Amplifier

V1 = 0, V2 = Vin .
Vo = -Ad*(Vin)
The negative sign indicates that the output voltage is out of phase with respect to input by 180 ° or is of
opposite polarity. Thus the input signal is amplified and inverted also.
The non-inverting amplifier:
In this configuration, the input voltage is applied to non-inverting terminals and inverting terminal is
ground as shown in fig.

Fig. OPAMP as an Open Loop Non-Inverting Amplifier

V1 = +Vin, V2 = 0
Vo = +Ad*(Vin)
This means that the input voltage is amplified by Ad and there is no phase reversal at the output. In all
three configurations any input signal slightly greater than zero drive the output to saturation level of
OPAMP. This is because of very high gain. Thus when operated in open-loop, the output of the OPAMP is
either negative or positive saturation or switches between positive and negative saturation levels.
Therefore open loop op-amp is not used in linear applications.

OPAMP in Closed Loop Configuration:

The gain of the OPAMP can be controlled if negative feedback is introduced in the circuit. That is, an
output signal is fedback to the input either directly or via another network. If the signal fedback is of
opposite or out phase by 180° with respect to the input signal, the feedback is called negative feedback.

Unit_III - 5
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
If the signal is fedback in phase with the input signal, the feedback is called positive feedback. In
positive feedback the feedback signal aids the input signal. It is also known as regenerative feedback.
To control the gain and hence to avoid the saturation at the output of OPAMP, negative feedback is
always preferred. Again, in closed loop configuration, the OPAMP functions as a controlled gain amplifier,
so that to avoid the saturation. There are three closed loop OPAMP configurations.
Differential Amplifier:

Fig. Closed Loop Differential Amplifier

Inverting Amplifier:

Fig. Closed Loop an Inverting Amplifier

Non-Inverting Amplifier:

Fig. Closed Loop a Non-Inverting Amplifier

Unit_III - 6
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
OPAMP as an Inverting Amplifier:

Fig. OPAMP as an Inverting Amplifier

As shown in the diagram, OPAMP is used in inverting configuration (Input Vin is given to inverting
terminal). Non-inverting terminal of OPAMP is grounded. Resistors R1 & Rf are used to control the gain
of OPAMP.
Analysis:
 As V1 = 0V; V2 = 0V (Virtual Ground concept) & therefore, differential voltage between input
terminals of OPAMP, Vd = (V1 – V2) = 0V.
 As ideally OPAMP have infinite input impedance (Ri), input currents i.e. IB2 & IB3 = 0.
 Now, as IB2 & IB3 = 0; current through R1 and Rf will be same i.e. I = If. (by KCL)
 Now, as V2 = 0V, the input voltage Vin is the voltage across R1 & voltage across Rf is the output
voltage of OPAMP.
 Therefore, input voltage, Vin = I*R1 &
output voltage, Vout = - I*Rf
Thus, closed loop gain;
i.e. AVf = Vout / Vin
= I*Rf / (- I*R1)
= - (Rf / R1)
Or, Vout = - (Rf / R1) * Vin
Conclusion:
 Negative sign indicates that output is inverted as compared to input. In the input-output signal
waveforms as shown below, they are 1800 phase shifted from each other.
 AVf (Closed Loop Gain of OPAMP) doesn’t depend on its AV (Open Loop Gain of OPAMP)
 AVf can be adjusted easily as per our requirement just by selecting the proper values of R 1 & Rf

Unit_III - 7
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

Fig. Input and Output Waveforms of an Inverting Amplifier

OPAMP as a Non-Inverting Amplifier:

Fig. OPAMP as a Non-Inverting Amplifier

As shown in the diagram, OPAMP is used in non-inverting configuration (Input Vin is given to non-
inverting terminal). Inverting terminal of OPAMP is grounded. Resistors R1 & Rf are used to control the
gain of OPAMP.
Analysis:
 As ideally OPAMP have infinite input impedance (Ri), input currents i.e. IB2 & IB3 = 0.
 Also, as in this case V1 ≠ 0V; V2 ≠ 0V & therefore, differential voltage between input terminals of
OPAMP, Vd = (V1 – V2) ≠ 0V.
 By voltage divider rule,
V2 = (Vout * R1) / (R1 + Rf)
Now, as V2 = V1 = Vin
Therefore,
Unit_III - 8
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Vin = (Vout * R1) / (R1 + Rf)
Therefore, closed loop gain,
i.e. AVf = Vout / Vin
= (R1 + Rf) / R1
i.e. = [1 +( Rf / R1)]
or Vout = [1 +( Rf / R1)] * Vin

Fig. Input and Output Waveforms of a Non-Inverting Amplifier

Unit_III - 9
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Questions
1. What is mean by OPAMP?
2. Draw the PIN Diagram and Symbol of OPAMP
3. Draw and explain the block diagram of OPAMP
4. Explain various characteristics of OPAMP
5. Compare various ideal and practical various characteristics of OPAMP
6. Draw and explain transfer characteristic of OPAMP
7. Explain OPAMP in Open Loop and Closed Loop Configurations
8. Draw and explain OPAMP as a Differential Amplifier, Inverting Amplifier and Non- Inverting
Amplifier in its open loop configuration
9. Explain the drawbacks of OPAMP in its open loop configuration
10. How the drawbacks of OPAMP in its open loop configuration can be overcome?
11. Draw and explain in detail (Circuit diagram, use of each component, derivation for output voltage,
gain, input _ output waveforms etc…), OPAMP as an Inverting Amplifier
12. Draw and explain in detail (Circuit diagram, use of each component, derivation for output voltage,
gain, input _ output waveforms etc…), OPAMP as a Non-Inverting Amplifier
13. Compare Inverting Amplifier and Non-Inverting Amplifier using OPAMP

Unit_III - 10
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Numerical
1. If a 741 OPAMP is used in open loop configuration with an input to the inverting terminal, of 1Vp-p, 1
KHz Sinusoidal signal and powered by ± 15V.
a) Calculate the expected output voltage of OPAMP
b) How much will be the maximum possible output voltage of OPAMP?
c) What will be the nature of output signal waveform?
Given:
OPAMP Configuration: Open Loop and Inverting
Input: 1Vp-p, 1 KHz
±Vcc: ±15V
Solution:
For 741 OPAMP, Open Loop Gain = 2x105
As OPAMP is used in Open Loop and Inverting Configuration;
Output of OPAMP, Vo = - (Open Loop Gain x Vin)
= - 2x105 x 1
a) Thus, the expected output voltage of OPAMP = Vo = - 2x10 5Vp-p
b) But, as we know, maximum output voltage of OPAMP = ±Vcc = ±15V
Also, practically, maximum output voltage of OPAMP = 90% of ±Vcc = ±13.5V
c) And hence, the nature of output signal waveform will be an inverted saturated square wave of 1
KHz frequency.

2. If a 741 OPAMP is used in open loop configuration with an input to the non-inverting terminal, of 1Vp-
p, 1 KHz Sinusoidal signal and powered by ± 15V.
a) Calculate the expected output voltage of OPAMP
b) How much will be the maximum possible output voltage of OPAMP?
c) What will be the nature of output signal waveform?
Given:
OPAMP Configuration: Open Loop and Non-Inverting
Input: 1Vp-p, 1 KHz
±Vcc: ±15V
Solution:
For 741 OPAMP, Open Loop Gain = 2x105
As OPAMP is used in Open Loop and Non-Inverting Configuration;
Output of OPAMP, Vo = Open Loop Gain x Vin
= 2x105 x 1
a) Thus, the expected output voltage of OPAMP = Vo = 2x105Vp-p
b) But, as we know, maximum output voltage of OPAMP = ±Vcc = ±15V
Also, practically, maximum output voltage of OPAMP = 90% of ±Vcc = ±13.5V
c) And hence, the nature of output signal waveform will be a non-inverted saturated square wave of
1 KHz frequency.

3. If a 741 OPAMP is used in closed loop configuration with an input to the inverting terminal, of 1Vp-p, 1
KHz Sinusoidal signal and powered by ± 12V. The used feedback resistor is of 100KΩ and input resistor is
of 1KΩ.
Unit_III - 11
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
a) Calculate the expected output voltage of OPAMP
b) How much will be the maximum possible output voltage of OPAMP?
c) What will be the nature of output signal waveform?
Given:
OPAMP Configuration: Closed Loop and Inverting
Input: 1Vp-p, 1 KHz
±Vcc: ±12V
Rf = 100 KΩ
R1 = 1KΩ
Solution:
As OPAMP is used in Closed Loop and Inverting Configuration;
Output of OPAMP, Vo = - (Rf/R1) x Vin
= - (100K/1K) x 1
a) Thus, the expected output voltage of OPAMP = Vo = -100Vp-p
b) But, as we know, maximum output voltage of OPAMP = ±Vcc = ±12V
Also, practically, maximum output voltage of OPAMP = 90% of ±Vcc = ±10.8V
c) And hence, the nature of output signal waveform will be an inverted saturated square wave of 1
KHz frequency.

4. If a 741 OPAMP is used in closed loop configuration with an input to the non-inverting terminal, of
1Vp-p, 1 KHz Sinusoidal signal and powered by ± 12V. The used feedback resistor is of 100KΩ and input
resistor is of 1KΩ.
a) Calculate the expected output voltage of OPAMP
b) How much will be the maximum possible output voltage of OPAMP?
c) What will be the nature of output signal waveform?
Given:
OPAMP Configuration: Closed Loop and Non-Inverting
Input: 1Vp-p, 1 KHz
±Vcc: ±12V
Rf = 100 KΩ
R1 = 1KΩ
Solution:
As OPAMP is used in Closed Loop and Non-Inverting Configuration;
Output of OPAMP, Vo = [1 + (Rf/R1)] x Vin
= [1 + (100K/1K)] x 1
a) Thus, the expected output voltage of OPAMP = Vo = 101Vp-p
b) But, as we know, maximum output voltage of OPAMP = ±Vcc = ±12V
Also, practically, maximum output voltage of OPAMP = 90% of ±Vcc = ±10.8V
c) And hence, the nature of output signal waveform will be a non-inverted saturated square wave of
1 KHz frequency.

Unit_III - 12
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
5. For the shown circuit, determine the gain.

Given:
OPAMP Configuration: Closed Loop and Inverting
Input: 100mV, 10 KHz
±Vcc: ±12V
Rf = 4.7 KΩ
R1 = 3.3KΩ
Solution:
As OPAMP is used in Closed Loop and Inverting Configuration;
Closed loop gain, Avf = (Rf/R1)
= 4.7K/3.3K
Hence, the gain, Avf = 1.42

6. For the shown circuit, determine the output voltage.

Given:
OPAMP Configuration: Closed Loop and Inverting
Input: 100mV, 10 KHz
±Vcc: ±12V
Rf = 4.7 KΩ
R1 = 3.3KΩ
Solution:
As OPAMP is used in Closed Loop and Inverting Configuration;
Closed loop gain, Avf = (Rf/R1)

Unit_III - 13
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
= 4.7K/3.3K
Hence, the gain, Avf = 1.42
Therefore, the output of OPAMP, Vo = - (Avf ) x Vin
= - 1.42x100m
Thus, the obtained output voltage of OPAMP = Vo = - 0.142V
Also, the nature of output signal waveform will be an inverted wave of 10 KHz frequency.

7. For the shown circuit, determine the input voltage.

Given:
OPAMP Configuration: Closed Loop and Inverting
Output: 1Vp-p, 1 KHz
±Vcc: ±12V
Rf = 4.7 KΩ
R1 = 3.3KΩ
Solution:
As OPAMP is used in Closed Loop and Inverting Configuration;
Closed loop gain, Avf = (Rf/R1)
= 4.7K/3.3K
Hence, the gain, Avf = 1.42
As, the output of OPAMP, Vo = - (Avf ) x Vin = 1Vp-p
Therefore, Vin = 1 / 1.42
= 0.70Vp-p
Thus, the input voltage of OPAMP will be, Vin = 0.70Vp-p, 1 KHz

8. For the shown circuit, determine the ratio of R f / R1.

Unit_III - 14
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Given:
OPAMP Configuration: Closed Loop and Inverting
Input: 500mVp-p, 1 KHz
Output: 1Vp-p, 1 KHz
±Vcc: ±12V
Solution:
As OPAMP is used in Closed Loop and Inverting Configuration;
The output of OPAMP, Vo = - (Rf/R1) x Vin = 1Vp-p
The ratio of Rf / R1 = Vo / Vin
= 1 / 500m
Thus, the ratio of Rf / R1 = 2

9. For the shown circuit, determine the output voltage.

Given:
OPAMP Configuration: Closed Loop and Inverting
Input: 1Vp-p, 1 KHz
±Vcc: ±12V
Rf = 100 MΩ
R1 = 1KΩ
Solution:
As OPAMP is used in Closed Loop and Inverting Configuration;
Output of OPAMP, Vo = - (Rf/R1) x Vin
= - (100M/1K) x 1
Thus, the expected output voltage of OPAMP = Vo = -100KVp-p
But, as we know, maximum output voltage of OPAMP = ±Vcc = ±12V
Also, practically, maximum output voltage of OPAMP = 90% of ±Vcc = ±10.8V
And hence, the nature of output signal waveform will be an inverted saturated square wave of 1 KHz
frequency.

Unit_III - 15
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
10. For the shown circuit, determine the gain.

Given:
OPAMP Configuration: Closed Loop and Non-Inverting
Input: 2Vp-p, 1 KHz
±Vcc: ±15V
Rf = 10 KΩ
R1 = 10 KΩ
Solution:
As OPAMP is used in Closed Loop and Non-Inverting Configuration;
Closed loop gain, Avf = [1 + (Rf/R1)]
= [1 + (10K/10K)]
Hence, the gain, Avf = 2

11. For the shown circuit, determine the output voltage.

Unit_III - 16
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Given:
OPAMP Configuration: Closed Loop and Non-Inverting
Input: 2Vp-p, 1 KHz
±Vcc: ±15V
Rf = 10 KΩ
R1 = 10 KΩ
Solution:
As OPAMP is used in Closed Loop and Non-Inverting Configuration;
Closed loop gain, Avf = [1 + (Rf/R1)]
= [1 + (10K/10K)]
Hence, the gain, Avf = 2
Now, the output voltage, Vo = (Avf) x Vin
=2x2
Thus, the output voltage, Vo = 4Vp-p, 1 KHz
Also, the nature of output signal waveform will be a non-inverted wave of 1 KHz frequency.

12. For the shown circuit, determine the ratio of R f with R1

Given:
OPAMP Configuration: Closed Loop and Non-Inverting
Input: 2Vp-p, 1 KHz
Output: 4Vp-p, 1 KHz
±Vcc: ±15V
Solution:
As OPAMP is used in Closed Loop and Non-Inverting Configuration;
The output of OPAMP, Vo = [1 + (Rf/R1)] x Vin = 4Vp-p
The ratio of Rf / R1 = (Vo / Vin) - 1
= 2-1
Thus, the ratio of Rf / R1 = 1

Unit_III - 17
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
13. Justify with the proof that the shown circuit will work as an Amplifier, Buffer or Attenuator?

Given:
OPAMP Configuration: Closed Loop and Inverting
Input: 1Vp-p, 10 KHz
±Vcc: ±10V
Rf = 1KΩ
R1 = 1KΩ
Solution:
As OPAMP is used in Closed Loop and Inverting Configuration;
Output of OPAMP, Vo = - (Rf/R1) x Vin
= - (1K/1K) x 1
Thus, the output voltage of OPAMP = Vo = -1Vp-p
Now, in this case it is observed that Vin = Vout
Therefore, the given circuit will work as a Buffer

14. Justify with the proof that the shown circuit will work as an Amplifier, Buffer or Attenuator?

Unit_III - 18
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Given:
OPAMP Configuration: Closed Loop and Non-Inverting
Input: 2Vp-p, 1 KHz
±Vcc: ±15V
Rf = 1KΩ
R1 = 500Ω
Solution:
As OPAMP is used in Closed Loop and Non-Inverting Configuration;
Output of OPAMP, Vo = [1 + (Rf/R1)] x Vin
= [1 + (1K/500)] x 2
Thus, the output voltage of OPAMP = Vo = 6Vp-p
Now, in this case it is observed that Vout > Vin
Therefore, the given circuit will work as an Amplifier

15. For the shown circuit, how much will be the maximum possible output voltage?

As discussed in numerical 14th, the maximum possible output voltage of OPAMP = Vo = 6Vp-p

Unit_III - 19
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Previously Asked Questions:
Dec. 2024
A. MCQ
1. What is the purpose of the feedback resistor in a Op-amp circuit? 1M
i. To increase the gain ii. To decrease the gain
iii. To stabilize the gain iv. To reduce the noise
2. Which of the following is a characterizes of an ideal Op-amp? 1M
i. Infinite gain ii. Zero input resistance
iii. Infinite bandwidth iv. All of the given
B. Theory + Numerical
1. For inverting amplifier using op = Amp, if Rf = 100 K, R1 = 10K, Vcc = ±10V, Vi = 2V 3M
i. Calculate output voltage.
ii. Is the result in part (i) practically possible? Justify.
2. Write ideal and Practical Values for 3M
i. Input Resistance
ii. Output Resistance
iii. Bandwidth
3. Draw and Explain the block diagram of OPAMP 4M
4. State and Explain ideal and practical characteristic OPAMP 3M
5. For the shown circuit, how much will be the maximum possible output voltage? 3M

6. Draw the circuit diagram of OPAMP as a non-inverting amplifier and derive the expression for its output
voltage. 4M
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
May 2025
A. MCQ
1. A certain OPAMP non-inverting amplifier has R 1=1KΩ and Rf =100KΩ. The gain of said amplifier will
be – 1M
A] 1K B] 100K
C] -101K D] 101
2. For an ideal OPAMP, value of CMRR is – 1M
A] ∞ B] 0
B. Theory + Numerical
1. Define – 3M
i) CMRR ii) Input offset Voltage iii) Slew Rate of OPAMP
2. Draw and explain block diagram of OPAMP 3M
Unit_III - 20
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
3. The OPAMP is used as an inverting amplifier having R1=1KΏ, Rf=10KΏ, Vcc = ±15V then find its
output voltage for Vin=100mV 4M
4. Write ideal and Practical Values for
i) Input Resistance ii) Output Resistance iii) Bandwidth of OPAMP 3M
5. The OPAMP is used as a non-inverting amplifier having R1=1KΏ, Rf=10KΏ, Vcc = ±12V then find the
output for its Vin=3V. Is the calculated output practically possible? Justify 3M
6. Draw the circuit diagram of OPAMP as a Non inverting Amplifier and derive the expression for its
output voltage 4M
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Dec. 2025
A. MCQ
1. An OPAMP in open-loop configuration is mostly used for: 1M
A) Amplification B) Comparison
C) Filtering D) Oscillation
2. The output of an OPAMP inverting amplifier is: 1M
A) In phase with input B) Out of phase by 90°
C) Out of phase by 180° D) Zero
B. Theory + Numerical
1. Define i) CMRR ii) Input offset Voltage iii) Slew Rate 3M
2. Draw the block diagram of an operational amplifier and explain the function of each block 3M
3. The OPAMP is used as an inverting amplifier having R1=2KΏ, Rf=10KΏ, Vcc=±15V then find the
output for Vin=100Mv 4M
4. Compare any three ideal and practical OPAMP characteristics. 3M
5. Describe an inverting amplifier using OPAMP with a neat circuit diagram and gain derivation 3M
6. The OPAMP is used as non-inverting amplifier having R1=2KΏ, Rf=10KΏ, Vcc= ±12V then find the
output for Vin=3V. Is the result practically possible? Justify 4M
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Unit_III - 21
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Unit – IV _ Logic Gates and Applications
Contents:
Number System: Binary, Decimal, Octal, and Hexadecimal number systems, conversion of Binary to
Decimal and Decimal to Binary numbers, binary addition and subtraction, Basic Logic Gates (AND, OR,
NOT, XOR, XNOR), Universal Gates (NAND, NOR), Boolean laws and expressions, Implement NAND
and NOR gates using basic logic gates (AND, OR, NOT), De- Morgan’s Theorems (I & II), Half adder
and Full adder
Number System:
1. Binary Number System:
 All data in a computer is represented in binary. A base-2 system or binary number system.
 The term ‘bit’ is a contraction of the words ‘binary’ and ‘digit’.
 The base-2 system has exactly two symbols i.e. 0 and 1.
 0 and 1 are logical values, not the values of a physical quantity.
 A string of eight bits (such as 11000110) is termed a byte. A collection of four bits (such as 1011)
is
smaller than a byte, and is termed a nibble.
Weights for different positions for Binary number
system Example: (1101)2
= 1*23 + 1*22 + 0*21 + 1*20

Binary Number formats:

Name Size(bits) Examples

Bit 1 1

Nibble 4 0101

Byte 8 0000 0101

Word 16 0000 0000 0000 0101

Disadvantages:
It required very long string of 1’s and 0’s to represent the decimal number (will be verified during the
conversion of Decimal to Binary number system).

Unit_IV - 1
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

2. Decimal Number System:

 Referred to as the base-10 system.
 The base-10 system is a positional system.
 The base-10 number system has 10 distinct symbols, or digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 & 9)

Weights for different positions for an octal system

Example: (6349)10
= 6*103 + 3*102 + 4*101 + 9*100

3. Octal Number System:

 The base of Octal system is 8.
 Octal number system has 8 digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
and 7) Weights for different positions for an octal system
Example: (3452.321)8
= 3*83 + 4*82 + 5*81 + 2*80 . 3*8-1 + 2*8-2 + 1*8-3
4. Hexadecimal Number System:
 The base of Hexadecimal system is 16.
 Hexadecimal number system has 16 digits (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E
and F) Weights for different positions for a Hexadecimal number system
Example: (A62.C2)16
= A*162 + 6*161 + 2*160 . C*16-1 + 2*16-2
Conversion of Number Systems:
1. Binary to Decimal Conversion:
 Step_1: Note down the given number
 Step_2: Write down the weights corresponding different positions.
 Step_3: Multiply each digit in the given number with the corresponding weight to obtain
product numbers.
 Step_4: Add all the product numbers to get the decimal equivalent.

Unit_IV - 2
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Example:
Convert (1011.01)2 = (?)10
= (1*23 + 0*22 + 1*21 + 1*20 . 0*2-1 + 1*2-2)10
= (8 + 0 + 2 + 1 . 0 + 0.25)10
= (11.25)10
2. Decimal to Binary Conversion:
 Integer part Conversion
Step_1: Divide the integer part of given decimal number by the base and note down the remainder.
Step_2: Continue to divide the quotient by the base until there is nothing left, nothing
remainders from each step.
Step_3: List the remainder values in reverse order from the bottom to top to find the equivalent.
 Fractional part Conversion
Step_1: Multiply the given fractional decimal number by the base (radix)
Step_2: Note down the carry generated in this multiplication as MSD.
Step_3: Multiply only the fractional number of the product in step 2 by the base, and note down the
carry as the next bit to MSD.
Step_4: Repeat steps 2 and 3 up-to the end. The last carry will represent the LSD of equivalent i.e.
converted number.
Example:
Convert (49.25)10 into its equivalent binary number

Conversion of Integer part:

2 49
2 24 1 LSB

2 12 0
2 6 0
2 3 0
1 1
2
0 1 MSB
Thus, (49)10 = (110001)2
Conversion of Fractional part:
0.25*2 = 0.50

MSB

Unit_IV - 3
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
0.50*2 = 1.00

LSB
Thus, (0.25)10 = (0.01)2
& hence finally,
(49.25)10 = (110001.01)2
Binary Addition:
Steps to be followed for binary addition Step1: Add the least significant bits (LSB).
Step2: Write the carry digit on top of the next column of bit.
Step3: Add carry with digits in the second column to get the sum
Step4: Write the carry on the top of next column and continue.
Rules:

Cases A B Sum Carry

Case 1 0 + 0 0 0
Case 2 0 + 1 1 0
Case 3 1 + 0 1 0
Case 4 1 + 1 0 1
Example:

Carry 1 1 1 1
1 0 1 1 1
+ 1 1 0 0 1
11 0 0 0 0
Final Ans. 110000

Binary Subtraction:

Cases A B Subtraction Borrow

Case 1 0 - 0 0 0
Case 2 0 - 1 1 1
Case 3 1 - 0 1 0
Case 4 1 - 1 0 0

Unit_IV - 4
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Example:
To remember (10 -1 = 1)

Borrow 0 1 10
1 1 0 0 1
- 1 0 1 1 1
0
Final Ans.

Borrow
1 0 1 10 1
- 1 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 1 0
Final Ans. 00010

Logic Gates: AND, OR, NOT, XOR, XNOR are known as a Basic Logic Gates while NAND & NOR
are called as a Universal Gates.
A Digital Logic Gate is an electronic device that makes logical decisions based on the different
combinations of digital signals (1 & 0) present on its inputs. A digital logic gate may have more than
one input but only has one digital output. Standard commercially available digital logic gates are
available in two basic families or forms, TTL which stands for Transistor-Transistor Logic such as the
7400 series, and CMOS which stands for Complementary Metal-Oxide-Silicon which is the 4000
series of chips.
Classification of Integrated Circuits:
 Small Scale Integration or (SSI) - Contain up to 10 transistors or a few gates within a single
package such as AND, OR, NOT gates.
 Medium Scale Integration or (MSI) - between 11 and 100 transistors or tens of gates within a
single package and perform digital operations such as adders, decoders, counters, flip-flops and
multiplexers.
 Large Scale Integration or (LSI) - between 101 and 1,000 transistors or hundreds of gates and
perform specific digital operations such as I/O chips, memory, arithmetic and logic units.
 Very-Large Scale Integration or (VLSI) - between 1,001 and 10,000 transistors or thousands of
gates and perform computational operations such as processors, large memory arrays and
programmable logic devices.

Unit_IV - 5
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
 Super-Large Scale Integration or (SLSI) - between 10,001 and 1,00,000 transistors within a single
package and perform computational operations such as microprocessor chips, micro-controllers,
basic PICs and calculators.
 Ultra-Large Scale Integration or (ULSI) - more than 1 million transistors - used in computers
CPUs, GPUs, video processors, micro-controllers, FPGAs and complex PICs.
Logic Gates:
1. AND Gate:
A Logic AND (Multiplication) Gate is a type of digital logic gate that has an output -
= “0” i.e. logic “LOW”, when it’s ALL or ANY ONE input is “0” i.e. logic “LOW”
= “1” i.e. logic “HIGH”, when it’s ALL inputs are “1” i.e. logic “HIGH”

Fig. Symbol of AND

gate
Fig. Pin Diagram of AND gate

The Boolean expression for AND gate is –

Y = A.B
The truth table of a two-input AND basic gate is given as-

Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
Implementation of AND Gate using Transistor:
Considerations:
1. When Base terminal (P type) of NPN Transistor is at Logic Low level, it remains OFF & when it is
at Logic High level, it gets turn ON & acts as a Closed Switch.

Unit_IV - 6
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
2. Then Base terminal (N type) of PNP Transistor is at Logic Low level, it gets turn ON & acts as a
Closed Switch & when it is at Logic High level, it remains OFF.

Input Input T1 T2 T3 T4 Output

A B (NPN) (NPN) (PNP) (PNP) Y
0 0 OFF OFF ON ON 0 = Ground
0 1 OFF ON ON OFF 0 = Ground
1 0 ON OFF OFF ON 0 = Ground
1 1 ON ON OFF OFF 1 = Vcc

2. OR Gate:
A Logic OR (Addition) Gate is a type of digital logic gate that has an output -
= “0” i.e. logic “LOW”, when it’s ALL inputs is “0” i.e. logic “LOW”
= “1” i.e. logic “HIGH”, when it’s ALL or ANY ONE input is “1” i.e. logic “HIGH”

Fig. Pin Diagram of OR gate Fig. Symbol of OR gate

The Boolean expression for OR gate is –
Y = A+B

Unit_IV - 7
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
The truth table of a two-input OR basic gate is given as-
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
Implementation of OR Gate using Transistor:

Input Input T1 T2 T3 T4 Output

A B (NPN) (NPN) (PNP) (PNP) Y
0 0 OFF OFF ON ON 0 = Ground
0 1 OFF ON ON OFF 1= Vcc
1 0 ON OFF OFF ON 1= Vcc
1 1 ON ON OFF OFF 1 = Vcc
3. NOT Gate:
A Logic NOT Gate is the most basic of all the logic gates and is sometimes referred to as an
Inverting Buffer or simply a Digital Inverter. It is a single input device.
It is a type of digital logic gate that has an output -
= “0” i.e. logic “LOW”, when it’s Input is “1” i.e. logic “High”
= “1” i.e. logic “HIGH”, when it’s Input is “0” i.e. logic “LOW”

Unit_IV - 8
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

Fig. Symbol of NOT

gate
Fig. Pin Diagram of NOT gate
The Boolean expression for NOT gate
is –

The truth table of a two-input NOT basic gate is given as-

Input Output
A Y
0 1
1 0
Implementation of NOT Gate using Transistor:

Input T1 T2 Output
A (PNP) (NPN) Y
0 ON OFF 1 = Vcc
0 =
1 OFF ON
Ground

4. XOR Gate:
In an XOR (Exclusive OR) gate, is a type of digital logic gate that has an output -
Unit_IV - 9
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
= “0” i.e. logic “LOW”, when it’s ALL Inputs are either “1” i.e. logic “High” or “0” i.e. logic “LOW”
= “1” i.e. logic “HIGH”, when it’s ANY ONE Input is “1” i.e. logic “HIGH”

Fig. Symbol of XNOR gate

Fig. Symbol of XOR gate

Fig. Pin Diagram of XOR gate

The Boolean expression for XOR gate is -

The truth table of a two-input XOR basic gate is given as-

Input Output
A B Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
5. XNOR Gate:
The XNOR (Exclusive + NOT of OR) gate, is a type of digital logic gate that has an output -
= “0” i.e. logic “LOW”, when it’s ANY ONE Input is “1” i.e. logic “HIGH”
= “1” i.e. logic “HIGH”, when it’s ALL Inputs are either “1” i.e. logic “High” or “0” i.e. logic “LOW”

Fig. Pin Diagram of XNOR gate

The Boolean expression for XNOR gate

is -

Unit_IV - 10
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

The truth table of a two-input XNOR basic gate is given as-

Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
6. NAND Gate:
A Logic NAND (NOT of AND) gate, is a type of digital logic gate that has an output -
= “0” i.e. logic “LOW”, when it’s ALL Inputs are “1” i.e. logic “High”
= “1” i.e. logic “HIGH”, when it’s ALL Inputs are either “0” i.e. logic “LOW” or ANY ONE is “1”
i.e. logic “High”

Fig. Symbol of NAND

gate
Fig. Pin Diagram of NAND gate
The Boolean expression for NAND gate

is -
The truth table of a two-input NAND basic gate is given as-
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Unit_IV - 11
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Implementation of NAND Gate using Transistors:

1. NOR Gate:
A Logic NOR (NOT of OR) gate, is a type of digital logic gate that has an output -
= “0” i.e. logic “LOW”, when it’s ALL Inputs are “1” i.e. logic “High” or ANY ONE is “0” i.e.
logic “LOW”
= “1” i.e. logic “HIGH”, when it’s ALL Inputs are “0” i.e. logic “LOW”

Fig. Symbol of NOR

gate
Fig. Pin Diagram of NOR gate
The Boolean expression for NOR gate

is -
The truth table of a two-input NOR basic gate is given as-
Input Output
A B Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0

Unit_IV - 12
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Implementation of NOR Gate using Transistors:

De-Morgan’s Theorem:
We use De-Morgan’s theorems to solve the expressions of Boolean Algebra. It is a very powerful tool
used in digital design.
This theorem explains that the complements of the products of all the terms are equal to the sums of
the complements of each and every term.
Likewise, the complements of the sums of all the terms are equal to the products of the complements
of each and every term
Theorem 1:

The LHS (left-hand side) of this theorem represents the NAND gate that has inputs A and B.
On the other hand, the RHS (right-hand side) of this theorem represents the OR gate that has
inverted inputs.

Unit_IV - 13
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Here is a table that shows the verification of the first theorem
LHS RHS

A B A.B A.B’ A’ B’ A’+ B’

0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 1 1 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0

Theorem 2:

The left-hand side of this theorem represents the NOR gate that has inputs A and B.
On the other hand, the right-hand side represents the AND gate that has inverted inputs.

Here is a table that shows the verification of the second theorem

LHS RHS

A B (A+B) (A+B)’ A’ B’ A’. B’

0 0 0 1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 0 0 0

Use De Morgan's theorem to convert the AND-OR-INVERT function into an alternative form
using the four input variables in their complemented forms. Then draw the circuit to produce this
function and the truth tables to prove the same.

Unit_IV - 14
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

LHS RHS
Dec. [(A’+B’).
No. A B C D [(A.B)+(C.D)]’ (A’ + B’) (C’ + D’) (C’+D’)]
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
2 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
3 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
4 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
5 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
6 0 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
7 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0
8 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
9 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1
10 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
11 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0
12 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
13 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0
14 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
15 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Boolean Laws and Expressions:
 Commutative law:
1) A+B = B+A
2) A.B = B.A
 Associative law:
1) A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C
2) (A.B).C = A.(B.C)
 Distributive law:
A.(B+C) =A.B+A.C
Rules of Boolean Algebra:
1) 0+A=A or A+0=A

2) 1+A=1 or A+1=1

3) A+A=A
Unit_IV - 15
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

4) A+A=1

5) 0.A= 0 or A.0 = 0

6) 1.A=A or A.1=A

7) A.A=A

8) A.A = 0

9) A = A

 Other important
laws: A+BC =
(A+B) (A+C)
A+AB = A+B
A+AB = A
+B A+AB =
A A+AB =
A+B
Example:
[(A.B) + (A+B)].(A.B) =A.B

Consider LHS

[(A.B) + (A+B)].(A.B)
= [(A’ + B’) + (A’.B’)].(A.B’) ……….Using De-Morgan’s theorems
= A’.A.B’ + A.B’.B’ + A.A’.B’.B’
= 0 + A.B’ + 0
= A.B’

Hence, LHS = RHS

Implement basic logic gates (AND, OR & NOT) using Universal Gates (NAND & NOR):
The NAND and NOR gates are called as universal gate because it is possible to implement any
Boolean expression with the help of only NAND or only NOR gates.
Therefore a user can build any logical circuit with the help of only NAND gates or only NOR gates.
This is a great advantage because a user will have to make a stock of only NAND or NOR gate ICs
with him.
Unit_IV - 16
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
NAND gate as a Universal Gate
A NAND gate is expressed mathematically as Y= A.B. Hence we have to bring the given Boolean
expression into this form.
1. NOT gate (inverter) using NAND gate:
Fig shows the realization of a NOT gate (Inverter) using a two input NAND gate.

As both the inputs of the NAND are connected together, we can write that, Input = A = B =A
So output is given by,

Y= A.B = A.A Since A=B=A; But A.A=A

Hence, Y= A
2. AND gate using NAND:

 In the first NAND gate, the outcome is the inverse of the logical AND operation between the two
inputs.
 The second NAND gate then inverts the output from the first gate, thus producing the original
AND logic.
 A NAND gate is employed as an AND gate by inverting its inputs and output. The outcome
replicates the behavior of an AND gate, where only when both inputs are 1 does the output
become 0 due to the inversion.

3. OR gate using NAND:

 The first NAND gate produces the inverse of the first input.

 The second NAND gate generates the inverse of the second input.

 The third NAND gate computes the logical OR of the outputs from the first two NAND gates.
Unit_IV - 17
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
 A NAND gate is used as an OR gate by inverting its inputs and output.

 The result is that when both inputs are 0, the NAND gate outputs 1, simulating an OR gate’s behavior

NOR gate as a Universal Gate

The NOR gate is also universal and can be used to create any other kind of logic gate. Below are
the methodologies for implementing fundamental gates using NOR gates
1. AND Gate Using NOR Gate:

Three NOR gates are required to construct an AND gate.

 The first NOR gate’s output is the inverse of the logical OR operation between the two inputs.
The second NOR gate inverts the output of the first NOR gate, resulting in the original AND logic.

2. OR Gate Using NOR Gate:

An OR gate can be created using two NOR gates, as demonstrated.

 The output of the first NOR gate is the complement of each input.

 The second NOR gate computes the logical OR of the outputs from the first NOR gate.

The Half Adder Circuit

1-bit Adder with Carry-Out

Unit_IV - 18
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Symbol Truth Table

A B SUM CARRY

0 0 0 0

0 1 1 0

1 0 1 0

1 1 0 1

Boolean Expression: Sum = A ⊕ B Carry = A.B

From the truth table we can see that the SUM (S) output is the result of the Ex-OR gate and the Carry-
out (Cout) is the result of the AND gate. One major disadvantage of the Half Adder circuit when used
as a binary adder, is that there is no provision for a "Carry-in" from the previous circuit when adding
together multiple data bits.
For example, suppose we want to add together two 8-bit bytes of data, any resulting carry bit would need to
be able to "ripple" or move across the bit patterns starting from the least significant bit (LSB). The most
complicated operation the half adder can do is "1 + 1" but as the half adder has no carry input the resultant
added value would be incorrect. One simple way to overcome this problem is to use a Full Adder type
binary adder circuit.
The Full Adder Circuit

Symbol Truth Table

A B C-in Sum C-out

0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 0

1 0 0 1 0

1 1 0 0 1

0 0 1 1 0

0 1 1 0 1

1 0 1 0 1

1 1 1 1 1
Boolean Expression: Sum = A ⊕ B ⊕ C-in
C-out = A.B + B.C-in + A.C-in

Unit_IV - 19
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
The main difference between the Full Adder and the previous seen Half Adder is that a full adder has
three inputs, the same two single bit binary inputs A and B as before plus an additional Carry-In (C-in)
input as shown in the above diagram.
Full Adder with Carry-In

One method of constructing a full adder is to use two half adders and an OR gate as shown in figure3-
8. The inputs A and B are applied to gates 1 and 2. These make up one half adder. The sum output of
this half adder and the carry-from a previous circuit become the inputs to the second half adder. The
carry from each half adder is applied to gate 5 to produce the carry-out for the circuit.
The 1-bit Full Adder circuit above is basically two half adders connected together and consists of three
Ex-OR gates, two AND gates and an OR gate, six logic gates in total. The truth table for the full adder
includes an additional column to take into account the Carry-in input as well as the summed output and
carry-output.

Unit_IV - 20
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Questions

1) Compare Basic logic gates with their truth table and Boolean expression

2) Implement and explain AND Gate using transistors

3) Implement and explain OR Gate using transistors.

4) Implement and explain NOT Gate using transistors.

5) Why NAND and NOR gate is called universal gates with explain with suitable example

6) Compare Exclusive logic gates with their truth table and Boolean expression

7) Implement Basic gates using NOR gate

8) Implement Basic gates using NAND gate

9) State and explain De-Morgan’s theorem(I and II)

10) Design half adder using logic gates

11) Design Full adder using logic gates

12) Design Full adder using two half adder

Unit_IV - 21
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Numerical
*Conversions Binary to Becimal
1. (1011.01)2
2. (101111.11)2
3. (110111.111)2
4. (000111.10)2
Solution:
1. (1011.01)2 = (?)10
= (1*23 + 0*22 + 1*21 + 1*20 . 0*2-1 + 1*2-2)10
= (8 + 0 + 2 + 1 . 0 + 0.25)10
= (11.25)10
2. (101111.11)2 = (?)10
= (1*25 + 0*24 + 1*23 + 1*22 + 1*21+ 1*20. 1*2-1 + 1*2-2)10
= [32 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 2 + 1.(0.5 + 0.25)]10
= (47.75)10
3. (110111.111)2 = (?)10
= (1*25 + 1*24 + 0*23 + 1*22 + 1*21+ 1*20. 1*2-1 + 1*2-2+ 1*2-3)10
= [32 + 16 + 0 + 4 + 2 +1.(0.5 + 0.25 + 0.125)]10
= (55.875)10
4. (000111.10)2 = (?)10
= (0*25 + 0*24 + 0*23 + 1*22 + 1*21+ 1*20. 1*2-1 + 0*2-2)10
= [0 + 0 + 0 + 4 + 2 +1.(0.5 + 0)]10
= (7.5)10
Decimal to binary
1. (45.95)10
2. (49.19)10
3. (2567.89)10
4. (1212.50)10

Unit_IV - 22
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Solution:
1. (45.95)10 = (?)2
Conversion of Integer part:

2 45
2 22 1
2 11 0
2 5 1
2 2 1
1 0
1
Thus, (45)10 = (101101)2
Conversion of Fractional part:
0.95*2 = 1.9
MSB
0.9*2 = 1.8
LSB
Thus, (0.95)10 = (0.11)2
& hence finally,
(45.95)10 = (101101.11)2
2. (49.19)10 = (?)2
Conversion of Integer part:

2 49
2 24 1
2 12 0
2 6 0
2 3 0
1 1
1
Thus, (49)10 = (110001)2
Conversion of Fractional part:
0.19*2 = 0.38

MSB
0.38*2 = 0.76
0.76*2 = 1.52
LSB
Unit_IV - 23
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Thus, (0.19)10 = (0.01)2
& hence finally,
(49.19)10 = (110001.01)2
3. (2567.89)10 = (?)2
Conversion of Integer part:

2 2567
2 1283 1
2 641 1
2 320 1
2 160 0
2 80 0
2 40 0
2 20 0
2 10 0
2 5 0
2 2 1
1 0
1
Thus, (2567)10 = (101000000111)2
Conversion of Fractional part:
0.89*2 = 1.78

MSB
0.78*2 = 1.56

LSB
Thus, (0.89)10 = (0.11)2
& hence finally,
(2567.89)10= (101000000111.11)2

Unit_IV - 24
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
4. (1212.50)10 = (?)2
Conversion of Integer part:

2 1212
2 606 0
2 303 0
2 151 1
2 75 1
2 37 1
2 18 1
2 9 0
2 4 1
2 2 0
1 0
1
Thus, (1212)10 = (10010111100)2
Conversion of Fractional part:
0.50*2 = 1.00

MSB
0.00*2 = 0.00

LSB
Thus, (0.50)10 = (0.10)2
& hence finally,
(1212.50)10= (10010111100.10)2
Binary Addition
1. 1011111+100011
2. 1011+1111
3. 1110000+11101
4. 111111+111111

Unit_IV - 25
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Solution:

1. 1011111+100011

Carry 1 1 1 1 1 1

1 0 1 1 1 1 1
+ 1 0 0 0 1 1
10 0 0 0 0 1 0
Final Ans. 10000010
Thus, (1011111+100011)2 = (10000010)2
2. 1011+1111

Carry 1 1 1
1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1
+
11 0 1 0
Final Ans. 11010
Thus, (1011+1111)2 = (11010)2
3. 1110000+11101

Carry 1 1
1 1 1 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 1
+
10 0 0 1 1 0 1
Final Ans. 10001101
Thus, (1110000+11101)2 = (10001101)2
4. 111111+111111

Carry 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
+
11 1 1 1 1 0
Final Ans. 1111110

Thus, (111111+111111)2 = (1111110)2

Unit_IV - 26
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Binary Subtraction:
1. 111011-111010

Borrow
1 1 1 0 1 1
- 1 1 1 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
Final Ans. 000001
Thus, (111011-111010)2 = (000001)2
2. 11011-11000

Borrow
1 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0
-
0 0 0 1 1
Final Ans. 00011
Thus, (11011-1100)2 = (00011)2
3. 110111-110011

Borrow
1 1 0 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 1 1
-
0 0 0 1 0 0
Final Ans. 000100
Simplify the Boolean Expression
1) Y = [(A + B).C]’
Sol :
Y = [(A + B).C]’
Applying De Morgan’s law (A . B)’ = A’+ B’

Y = (A + B)’ + C’

Applying De Morgan’s law (A + B)’ = A’. B’

Y = A’. B’ + C’
2) X = [(A + B)’ + C]’
Sol
X = [(A + B)’ + C]’

Unit_IV - 27
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Applying De Morgan’s law (A + B)’ = A’. B’

X = [(A + B)’]’ . C’
X = (A + B). C’
Prove the following using the Boolean algebraic theorems
1) A+A’.B+A.B’=A+B
2) A.B+A’.B+A’.B’=A’+B
3) A’BC+AB’C+ABC’+ABC=AB+BC+CA

Prove the following using De Morgan’s theorems

AB+CD =[Link]

(A+B).(C+D) = ( A+B)+(C+D)

Unit_IV - 28
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Previously Asked Questions:
Dec. 2024
A. MCQ
1. What is the output of an AND gate when both inputs are 1? 1M
i. 0 ii. 1
iii. Invalid iv. Depends on the gate
2. What is the logic circuit for half adder 1M
i. AND gate and OR gate ii. NAND gate and NOR gate
iii. XOR gate and AND gate iv. XNOR gate and OR gate
B. Theory + Numerical
1. Implement NOT and OR gate using NOR gate 3M
2.
i. (111011.11 + 100100.01)2 = ( ? )2 ii. (49.25)10 = ( ? )2 3M
iii. (1011.01)2 = ( ? )10
3. Implement Half Adder circuit using logic gates, truth table and Logic Expression for sum and Carry 4M
4. State and prove both De-morgans theorem 3M
5. What is the fundamental difference between an AND gate and OR gate? 3M
6. Why NAND and NOR are known as universal logic gates? 4M
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
May 2025
A. MCQ
1. The binary equivalent of the decimal number 43 is …… 1M
A] 011011 B] 100111
C] 101011 D] 101001
2. Which of the following law states that A.(B+C) =A.B+A.C 1M
A] Commutative law B] Distributive law
C] Associative law D] None of the given
3. For the 2- input EXNOR gate, if A = B = 1, the output will be –
A] 1 B] 0
B. Theory + Numerical
1. State and Prove both De-Morgan’s Theorems 3M
2. i) (130)10 = ( ? )2 3M
ii) (1011011)2 = ( ? )10
iii) Perform the Addition of (11001100) 2 and (11011010) 2
3. Implement Half Adder circuit using Logic Gates, Truth table and Logic Expression for Sum and Carry
4M
4. Implement AND & OR Logic Gates using NAND Gate 3M
5. Write expression for Commutative Law, Associative Law and Distributive law 3M
6. Implement Full Adder using Gates, Truth table and Logic Expression for Sum and Carry 4M
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Dec. 2025
A. MCQ
1. The output of a NAND gate is LOW when: 1M
A) All inputs are HIGH B) All inputs are LOW
C) One input is LOW D) One input is HIGH
Unit_IV - 29
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
2. Which gate is known as a universal gate? 1M
A) XOR B) NAND
C) OR D) AND
B. Theory + Numerical
1. State and Prove De Morgan Theorem 3M
2. Convert 3M
i) (156)10=( )2
ii) (11011011.101)2=( ) 10
and perform addition of (11001111) 2 and (11011011)2
3. Draw the logic diagram and truth table of a half adder. Also write its expression for its output 4M
4. Implement AND, OR Logic Gate using NAND Gate 3M
5. Write expression for Commutative Law, Associative Law and Distributive law 3M
6. Implement Full Adder using Gates, Truth table and Logic Expression for Sum and Carry 4M
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Unit_IV - 30
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Unit – V: Sensors and IoT
Contents:
Active & Passive Sensors, Selection Criteria of Sensor, temperature sensors (RTD), Mechanical
sensors (Strain Gauge), and Biosensors. Wheatstone Bridge with RTD in balanced and
unbalanced conditions. Introduction to IoT, Introduction to Microprocessor and Microcontroller.
Sensors:
A sensor is a device that detects and responds to physical, chemical, biological or environmental
changes and converts the information into an electrical signal or other forms of output. Sensors are widely
used in various applications to measure properties such as temperature, pressure, light intensity, motion,
humidity, proximity, and more. Few examples of sensors are as given below.

Fig. Various Types of Sensors

Key Characteristics of Sensors:
1. Input Signal: A sensor detects a specific type of input, like light, heat, sound, or movement.
2. Output Signal: It generates an output signal, often in the form of an electrical or digital signal,
which can be interpreted by other devices.
3. Sensitivity: This measures how effectively a sensor detects small changes in the measured
parameter.
4. Range: The span of values a sensor can measure accurately.
5. Accuracy: The closeness of the sensor's output to the true value of the measured quantity.
Unit_V - 1
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Examples of Sensors:
 Temperature Sensors: Thermocouples, RTD, thermistors.
 Pressure Sensors: Barometers, piezoelectric sensors.
 Proximity Sensors: Infrared sensors, ultrasonic sensors.
 Light Sensors: Photodiodes, phototransistors.
 Motion Sensors: Accelerometers, gyroscopes.
 Biosensors: Glucose Monitors, DNA Sensors, Immune sensors.
 Strain gages: to measure strain on an object, e.g. pressure, tension, weight, etc.,
 Load cells: for measuring weight
 LVDT sensors: LVDTs are used to measure displacement in distance
 Accelerometers: measuring vibration and shock
 Microphones: for capturing sound waves
 Current transducers: for measuring AC or DC current
 Voltage transformers: for measuring high voltage potentials
 Optical sensors: used to detect light, transmit and receive data
 Camera sensors: used to capture single and continuous 2D images
 Digital sensors: used for discrete on/off counting, linear and rotary encoding, position
measurements, etc.
 Positioning sensors (GPS): (Global Positioning System) used to capture the longitudinal,
latitudinal position of an object, GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System), and other
satellite positioning systems. Different GPS sensors with different accuracy are available.
Active & Passive Sensors:
Active Sensors:
Active sensors emit energy in the form of electromagnetic radiation towards the target and measure
the reflected or scattered energy. The energy can be in the form of microwaves, radio waves, or laser
beams. Active sensors generate their own energy and emit it towards the target, and then measure the
energy that is reflected or scattered back.
Active sensors are devices that require an external power source to operate. They generate an output
signal by interacting with the environment, either by emitting energy and analyzing the return or by using
other forms of excitation. The power supply provides the necessary energy to enable the sensor to function.
Characteristics of Active Sensors
External Power Requirement: Needs a power source for operation.
Signal Amplification: Often capable of amplifying the output signal directly.
Energy Emission: Some active sensors emit energy (light, sound, electromagnetic waves) to detect
Unit_V - 2
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
changes.
Sensitivity: Typically more sensitive to changes in environmental parameters.
Examples:
LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging): Emits laser pulses to measure distances by analyzing the reflected
light.
Ultrasonic Sensors: Emit ultrasonic waves and measure the reflection to detect distances or objects.
Infrared Sensors: Emit infrared radiation and detect its reflection or absorption.
Radar: Emits microwaves and measures the time delay and intensity of the reflected signal to determine the
location, shape, and composition of the target.
SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging): Used for detecting underwater objects and their positions.
Applications of Active Sensors
Proximity (Closeness) sensing
Object detection and tracking
Environmental monitoring
Security systems (e.g., motion detection)
Passive Sensors:
Passive sensors do not emit energy towards the target but measure the natural energy that is
reflected or emitted by the target. The energy can be in the form of visible light, infrared radiation, or
thermal radiation.
Passive sensors do not require an external power source to operate. They rely on the energy from
the environment, such as thermal energy, light, or mechanical energy, to generate a measurable output
signal.
Characteristics of Passive Sensors
No External Power Requirement: Operates using energy from the measured parameter.
No Emission: They do not emit any energy but detect and measure existing signals or changes.
Sensitivity: Comparatively less sensitive than active sensors, as they rely solely on ambient energy.
Examples:
Thermocouples: Generate a voltage in response to temperature differences.
Photovoltaic Cells: Convert light into electrical energy.
Passive Infrared Sensors (PIR): Detect infrared radiation naturally emitted by objects.
Strain Gauges: Detect deformation in materials by changing resistance.
Cameras: For capturing visible light.
Multispectral sensors: For capturing images in different spectral bands.

Unit_V - 3
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Applications of Passive Sensors
Temperature measurement
Light intensity monitoring
Structural health monitoring
Human presence detection
Selection Criteria of Sensor:
1. Measurement Requirements
Type of Measurement: Define the parameter to be measured, such as temperature, pressure, humidity, light
intensity, motion, or position.
Range: Ensure the sensor covers the required range (e.g., 0°C–100°C for temperature measurement).
Accuracy: Determine the precision needed, such as ±1°C or ±0.1°C.
Resolution: Check the smallest detectable change by the sensor.
Sensitivity: Ensure the sensor can detect immediately minor changes in the measured variable.
Response Time: The time it takes for the sensor to react to a change in the parameter.
2. Environmental Conditions
Operating Temperature Range: The sensor should work efficiently within the expected temperature limits.
Humidity: Judge whether the sensor can tolerate high or low humidity.
Mechanical Stress: If the sensor will face vibration, shock, or wear, it should be robust enough to handle
such conditions.
Chemical Resistance: For harsh environments, ensure the sensor materials are resistant to chemicals, dust,
or corrosive substances.
Ingress Protection (IP) Rating: For outdoor or rugged environments, verify the IP rating for dust and water
resistance (e.g., IP67).
3. Electrical Properties
Power Requirements: Calculate the power supply specifications, such as voltage, current, or whether it’s
battery-operated.
Signal Type: Determine whether the sensor output is analog or digital.
Output Signal Level: Ensure compatibility with the connected devices such as, microcontroller or data
acquisition system.
4. Application-Specific Factors
Size and Weight: Consider dimensions and weight, especially for portable or compact applications.
Mounting: Ensure compatibility with the mounting or installation method.
Interface Requirements: Verify connectivity options, such as wired, wireless, or plug-and-play.
Maintenance and Calibration: Check whether the sensor requires frequent calibration and how easy it is to
Unit_V - 4
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
maintain.
5. Cost and Availability
Initial Cost: Compare the price with the budget while considering the required performance.
Life Cycle Cost: Include maintenance, replacement, and calibration costs.
Availability: Check for ease of finding and replacement parts in case of failure.
6. Reliability and Durability
Long-Term Stability: Evaluate how the sensor's performance degrades over time.
MTBF (Mean Time Between Failures): Look for sensors with higher reliability ratings.
Warranty: Consider the manufacturer's warranty terms for assurance of quality.
7. Standards and Certifications
Compliance: Ensure the sensor fulfills with industry standards like ISO, CE, or RoHS.
Safety: For critical applications, select sensors with necessary safety certifications.
8. Integration with the System
Compatibility: Check whether the sensor integrates effortlessly with the existing systems.
Calibration Needs: Confirm if the sensor is pre-calibrated or requires additional calibration.
Signal Conditioning: Judge whether additional components like amplifiers or filters are needed.
9. Dynamic Range and Linearity
Dynamic Range: The range over which the sensor can operate without saturation or damage.
Linearity: Select a sensor with a linear relationship between input and output for simplicity in processing.
10. Response to Environmental Changes
Temperature Coefficient: Check how changes in temperature affect sensor accuracy.
Hysteresis: Ensure minimal hysteresis, which causes output variation under increasing versus decreasing
input.
Temperature sensors (RTD):
Temperature is measured using temperature sensors. There is several temperature sensors used for this.
Most commonly used temperature sensors are:
Thermocouple sensors
RTD sensors
Thermistor (NTC, PTC)
Temperature Scales & Units:
Fahrenheit [°F] = 9/5 x [°C] + 32
Celsius [°C] = ([°F] − 32) x 5/9
Kelvin [K] = [°C] + 273.15
Rankine [°R] = [°F] + 459.67
Unit_V - 5
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
RTD sensors:
RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) is a sensor whose electrical resistance changes as its temperature
changes. RTDs follow a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) because their resistance increases as
temperature increases. Metals like platinum, nickel, or copper are commonly used because of their stable
and predictable resistance-temperature relationship.
Resistance-Temperature Relationship:
𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼0𝑇)
where,
𝑅𝑇 = Resistance at temperature T
𝑅0 = Resistance at 0° C
𝛼0 = Temperature coefficient of resistance
𝑇= Temperature

Fig. RTD Construction

Construction of RTD:
Element Material: Platinum is preferred for its excellent linearity, stability, and wide temperature range (-
200°C to 850°C).
Encapsulation: The RTD element is encapsulated to protect it from environmental factors. Common
encapsulations include glass, ceramic, and polymer.
Lead Wires: Wires connected to the RTD element transmit resistance readings. Number of leads can vary
(2-wire, 3-wire, or 4-wire configurations).
Shield: RTDs are often enclosed in protective covers (stainless steel or other materials) to withstand harsh
environments.
Common RTD Types
Platinum RTDs:
Most commonly used due to high stability and accuracy.
Standardized as PT100 (100Ω at 0°C) or PT1000 (1000Ω at 0°C)
Unit_V - 6
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Wide temperature range (-200°C to 850°C)
Temperature coefficient (𝛼) is typically 0.00385 Ω/Ω/°C.
Nickel RTDs:
Lower cost than platinum.
Limited temperature range (up to 300°C).
More non-linear response compared to platinum.
Copper RTDs:
Excellent linearity but limited temperature range (up to 150°C).
High sensitivity to oxidation, making them less durable.
Applications of RTD
Industrial Processes: Monitoring and controlling temperature in chemical plants, power plants, and food
processing.
HVAC Systems: Ensuring temperature control for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning.
Laboratory Research: Used in experiments requiring high precision and stability.
Automotive Industry: Monitoring engine and exhaust temperatures.
Application of RTD to Detect the Temperature Variations:

Fig. RTD to Detect the Temperature Variations

The above circuit can be used to detect even if there is a small variation in temperature. RTD PT100 is used
as a temperature sensor. As discussed above, PT100 offers good sensitivity, accuracy and wide temperature

Unit_V - 7
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
range, hence it is preferred. The change in resistance due to change in temperature can calibrated by
converting it into change in voltage. For this propose, a Wheatstone Bridge is preferred. In the shown
bridge, resistors R1, R3 & R4 are selected as fixed and equal value resistors i.e. R1 = R3 = R4 = R. While,
one arm of the bridge is replaced by RTD PT100 which offers 100Ω resistance at 0 0C and it is a PTC
(Positive Temperature Coefficient) type resistor i.e. increase in temperature increases the resistance above
100Ω & vice-versa. The shown bridge is powered by a constant DC voltage source, Vs. Thus, the node
voltage at node C is obtained by using resistors R1 & RTD by using Voltage Divider Rule as -
VC = (Vs * R1) / (R1 + R of RTD) ------- i.e. dependent on R of RTD
Similarly, the node voltage at node D is obtained by using resistors R3 & R4 by using Voltage Divider
Rule as –
VD = (Vs * R4) / (R3 + R4) ----------- i.e. constant as R3 & R4 are equal and constant
Now, when R1 = R3 = R4 = R of RTD; the Wheatstone bridge is called as a Balanced Bridge
because voltage at node C is equals to voltage at node D i.e. V D-C = VD – VC = 0V.
When R1 = R3 = R4 ≠ R of RTD; the Wheatstone bridge is called as a Un-Balanced Bridge
because voltage at node C is not equals to voltage at node D i.e. V D-C = VD – VC ≠ 0V.
For the shown bridge, VD-C = Positive if temperature of RTD < 00C i.e. R of RTD < 100Ω. (VD > VC)
Similarly, VD-C = Negative if temperature of RTD > 00C i.e. R of RTD > 100Ω. (VD < VC)
Thus, there is very small change in output voltage of bridge i.e. in mV only. So, to convert it into
detectable value, there is need of Signal Conditioning Circuit. Thus, as shown in the circuit diagram, the
OPAMP is used as a Differential Amplifier to amplify the difference voltage of bridge. The output of
OPAMP will be now,
Vo = (-RF/R5)*VD-C (V)
Hence, Vo >> VD-C
Thus,
 Vo = 0V; when bridge will be balance i.e. R of RTD is 100Ω i.e. V C = VD i.e. temperature is at 00C.
 Vo = Positive; when bridge will be unbalance i.e. R of RTD is > 100Ω i.e. V D-C is negative i.e.
VC > VD i.e. temperature is > 00C (increased)
 Vo = Negative; when bridge will be unbalance i.e. R of RTD is < 100Ω i.e. V D-C is Positive i.e.
VC < VD i.e. temperature is < 00C (decreased)
Mechanical Sensors (Strain Gauge):
Mechanical sensors are devices that detect and measure physical quantities, such as force, pressure,
displacement, torque, or motion, by utilizing mechanical principles. These sensors operate by converting a
mechanical input (like force, pressure, or movement) into a measurable signal, typically electrical, for
monitoring, control, or data acquisition.
Unit_V - 8
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Strain Gauge
A Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force. It converts force, pressure, tension,
weight, etc., into a change in electrical resistance. Stress is defined as the object's internal resisting forces,
and strain is defined as the displacement and deformation that occur. Strain gauges can be used to measure
expansion as well as contraction.

Fig. Construction of Strain Gauge

Working Principle
The strain gauge operates based on the relationship between strain and electrical resistance:
Strain: Strain (𝜀) is the deformation per unit length of a material when subjected to stress:

Resistance Change: The electrical resistance (𝑅) of the strain gauge changes due to strain, as given by:

Gauge Factor (GF): The sensitivity of a strain gauge is defined by the gauge factor:
Unit_V - 9
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)

Construction of a Strain Gauge

A typical strain gauge consists of -
Resistive Element: Made of thin wires, foil, or semiconductor material.
Common materials: Constantan (i.e. Copper - Nickel alloy), silicon (for semiconductor strain gauges).
Backing Material: Provides mechanical stability and insulation. Often made of flexible plastic or polymer.
Adhesive: Used to bond the strain gauge to the surface of the object being measured.
Lead Wires: Connect the strain gauge to the measurement circuit.
Types of Strain Gauges
Foil Strain Gauges: Made from thin metal foil. Commonly used due to their accuracy and ease of use.
Wire Strain Gauges: Use thin wire as the sensing element.
Semiconductor Strain Gauges: Use semiconductor materials. Higher sensitivity (higher gauge factor) but
less stable over a time.
Piezoelectric Strain Gauges: Use piezoelectric materials to generate a voltage under strain.
Applications of Strain Gauge Sensors
Load Measurement: Used in load cells to measure weight or force.
Stress Analysis: Monitor stress and strain in structures like bridges, buildings, and aircraft.
Torque Measurement: Embedded in shafts to measure torque.
Pressure Sensors: Convert pressure into strain in a diaphragm, which is measured by a strain gauge.
Industrial Monitoring: Monitor mechanical components for wear and tear.
Biomedical Applications: Used in devices like prosthetics and force-measuring surgical instruments.

Unit_V - 10
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Biosensors:
A biosensor is an analytical device that integrates a biological sensing element with a physical transducer
to detect and measure chemical substances or biological molecules. Biosensors are widely used in
healthcare, environmental monitoring, agriculture, and biotechnology due to their specificity, sensitivity,
and rapid response.

Basic Structure of a Biosensor

A biosensor typically consists of three main components:
Biological Recognition Element: The core of the biosensor which is responsible for specific detection of
the target analyzes.
Examples: Enzymes, Antibodies, Nucleic acids (DNA/RNA), Microorganisms, Cells or tissues
Transducer: Converts the biological interaction into a measurable signal (electrical, optical, thermal, etc.).
Types of transducers:
Electrochemical: Measures current, potential, or impedance.
Optical: Measures changes in light absorption, fluorescence, or refraction.
Piezoelectric: Detects changes in mass or acoustic waves.
Thermal: Monitors heat changes during reactions.
Signal Processor: Amplifies, conditions, and processes the signal from the transducer into a readable
output. Typically includes a microprocessor and a display unit.
Working Principle of a Biosensor
Recognition: The biological element interacts with the target, forming a specific binding or catalyzing a
reaction.
Unit_V - 11
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Transduction: This interaction generates a physical or chemical change (e.g., electron transfer, heat, or
optical property change).
Signal Processing: The transducer converts the change into an electrical signal, which is processed and
displayed.
Types of Biosensors
Electrochemical Biosensors: Based on measurements of current, potential, or conductivity changes.
Example: Glucose sensors for diabetes monitoring (enzyme-based).
Optical Biosensors: Detect changes in light properties such as fluorescence, absorbance, or Surface
Plasmon Resonance (SPR).
Example: DNA microarrays for genetic analysis.
Thermal Biosensors: Measure heat changes generated by biochemical reactions.
Example: Enzyme-based calorimetric biosensors.
Piezoelectric Biosensors: Detect mass changes through frequency shifts in acoustic waves.
Example: Sensors for detecting pathogens in water.
Magneto-resistive Biosensors: Use magnetic particles and detect changes in magnetic properties.
Example: Magnetic immunoassays.
Applications of Biosensors:
Healthcare and Diagnostics:
Monitoring blood glucose levels (glucose biosensors).
Detecting infectious diseases (e.g., COVID-19 rapid tests).
Measuring biomarkers in blood for early disease detection.
Environmental Monitoring:
Detection of pollutants (e.g., heavy metals, pesticides).
Monitoring water and air quality.
Food and Agriculture:
Quality control in food processing (e.g., pathogen detection).
Monitoring pesticide residues on crops.
Biotechnology and Research:
Drug discovery and development.
Real-time monitoring of cellular processes.
Defense and Security:
Detecting bioterrorism agents.
Monitoring toxic substances in critical environments.

Unit_V - 12
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Examples of Popular Biosensors
Glucose Biosensors:
Widely used in diabetes management.
Based on enzymes like glucose oxidase or glucose dehydrogenase.
DNA Biosensors:
Detect genetic sequences for diagnostics and forensic applications.
Use complementary DNA (cDNA) strands as recognition elements.
Immune sensors:
Utilize antibodies to detect antigens (proteins, toxins, pathogens).
Common in rapid tests for diseases like COVID-19 or malaria.
Lab-on-a-Chip (LOC):
Miniaturized systems integrating multiple biosensing functions.
Used in portable diagnostic devices.
Introduction to IoT
IoT stands for Internet of Things. The Internet of Things (IoT) is a network of physical objects (things),
that are embedded with sensors, software, and other technologies for the purpose of connecting and
exchanging data with other devices and systems over the internet.

Fig. Example of IoT

IoT devices also known as “smart objects” can range from simple “smart home” devices like smart
thermostats, wearable smart-watches and RFID-enabled clothing, to complex industrial machinery and
transportation systems.
IoT enables these smart devices to communicate with each other and with other internet-enabled
devices. This can include:
Monitoring environmental conditions in farms
Managing traffic patterns with smart cars and other smart automotive devices
Unit_V - 13
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Controlling machines and processes in factories
Tracking inventory and shipments in warehouses
Key Components of IoT
a. Things (Devices): Physical devices, sensors, or actuators equipped with electronics and software.
Examples: Smart thermostats, wearable devices, home appliances, industrial machines, vehicles.
b. Sensors and Actuators
Sensors: Collect data from the environment (e.g., temperature, humidity, motion).
Actuators: Perform actions based on data or commands (e.g., turning on a light, opening a valve).
c. Connectivity: IoT devices communicate via:
Wired technologies: Ethernet.
Wireless technologies: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Zigbee, Cellular (4G, 5G).
d. Data Processing: Data collected by devices is processed locally (edge computing) or in the cloud.
Real-time processing enables instant decision-making.
e. User Interface: Allows users to interact with the system, monitor data, and control devices.
Examples: Mobile apps, web dashboards, voice commands.
Working of IoT
Data Collection: Sensors collect data from the environment.
Transmission: Data is sent to cloud servers or local systems using connectivity technologies.
Processing: Data is analyzed and processed to derive insights or trigger actions.
Action: Based on analysis, actuators may perform specific tasks, or users are notified through alerts or
dashboards.
Applications of IoT
a. Smart Home: Devices like smart thermostats, lighting systems, and security cameras.
Example: A smart thermostat adjusts the temperature based on occupancy.
b. Industrial IoT (IIoT): Used in manufacturing, supply chain management, and predictive maintenance.
Example: Monitoring machinery for early detection of faults.
c. Healthcare: Remote health monitoring, fitness trackers, and connected medical devices.
Example: Wearable devices track vital signs and alert doctors during emergencies.
d. Agriculture: Precision farming with soil sensors, weather monitoring, and automated irrigation.
Example: Soil moisture sensors activate irrigation systems when needed.
e. Smart Cities: Traffic management, waste management, energy optimization.
Example: Smart traffic lights adapt to real-time traffic conditions.
f. Transportation and Logistics: Fleet tracking, predictive maintenance, and autonomous vehicles.
Example: GPS trackers monitor the location and status of goods in transit.
Unit_V - 14
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Introduction to Microprocessor and Microcontroller:
Microprocessor:
A microprocessor is a central unit of a computer system that performs most of the processing tasks. It is an
integrated circuit (IC) that functions as the brain of the computer, executing instructions to carry out
operations. Microprocessors are used in a wide range of devices, from personal computers to smartphones,
embedded systems, and appliances.

Fig. Block Diagram of Microprocessor

Types of Microprocessors
8-bit Microprocessors: These processors can process 8 bits of data in one cycle.
Examples: Intel 8080, Zilog Z80.
16-bit Microprocessors: Capable of processing 16 bits of data in one cycle.
Examples: Intel 8086, 80186.
32-bit Microprocessors: These processors can handle 32 bits of data per cycle, supporting larger memory
and faster operations.
Examples: Intel 80386, ARM-based processors.
64-bit Microprocessors: The most advanced type, capable of processing 64 bits at once, allowing for very
large memory access and faster data processing.
Examples: Intel Core i7, AMD Ryzen.
Key Features of a Microprocessor:
Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU is the heart of the microprocessor, responsible for fetching,
decoding, and executing instructions. It typically consists of several components, such as the Arithmetic
and Logic Unit (ALU), Control Unit (CU), and Registers.

Unit_V - 15
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Registers: Registers are small, fast storage locations within the microprocessor used to hold data,
instructions, or memory addresses.
Examples include the Accumulator, Program Counter, Instruction Register, and Status Register.
Clock: The microprocessor operates based on a clock signal that synchronizes its actions. The clock speed,
usually measured in Hertz (Hz), determines how many operations the processor can perform per second.
Higher clock speeds lead to faster processing capabilities.
Bus Interface Unit: Microprocessors interact with memory and other peripherals via buses. These include
the data bus, address bus, and control bus. The data bus carries the data being processed, the address bus
carries memory addresses, and the control bus sends control signals to coordinate actions between different
components.
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA): The ISA is a set of instructions the microprocessor can execute. This
can be Reduced Instruction Set Computing (RISC) or Complex Instruction Set Computing (CISC)
architecture. RISC processors have simpler instructions, whereas CISC processors support a wide range of
complex instructions.
Basic Functions of a Microprocessor:
Fetch: The microprocessor retrieves the next instruction from memory (RAM).
Decode: It decodes the instruction into a form that can be understood by the microprocessor.
Execute: The microprocessor performs the operation, such as arithmetic or logical operations, moving data,
or interacting with I/O devices.
Store: The result is stored in memory or registers.
Microprocessor Applications:
Embedded Systems: Microprocessors are widely used in embedded systems like automotive control
systems, home appliances, medical devices, and more.
Computers and Servers: In personal computers, laptops, and servers, microprocessors perform general
computing tasks, running operating systems, and applications.
Communication Devices: Mobile phones, routers, and networking devices use microprocessors for signal
processing, data handling, and system control.
Consumer Electronics: Microprocessors are used in televisions, gaming consoles, and home appliances to
control various functions and processes.
Microcontroller:
A microcontroller is a compact integrated circuit designed to perform a specific operation in an embedded
system. Unlike a microprocessor, which typically serves as the CPU of a general-purpose computer, a
microcontroller includes not only the CPU but also memory, input/output (I/O) ports, and peripherals all on
a single chip. This integration makes microcontrollers ideal for applications requiring dedicated
Unit_V - 16
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
functionality.
Microprocessor is a CPU (Central Processing Unit ) on a single chip, designed for general-purpose
computing tasks and requires external peripherals.
A Microcontroller is an integrated chip with CPU, memory, I/O ports, and peripherals for specific
embedded tasks.
Structure of a Microcontroller:

Fig. Block Diagram of Microcontroller

A microcontroller integrates several components to perform its tasks efficiently:
Central Processing Unit (CPU): The CPU fetches, decodes, and executes instructions. It acts as the brain of
the microcontroller.
Memory: RAM (Random Access Memory): Used as temporary storage for data and instructions being
processed.
ROM (Read-Only Memory): Stores the program code permanently.
Flash Memory: A type of non-volatile memory used to store firmware (the embedded software running the
microcontroller).
Input / Output (I/O) Ports: Allow the microcontroller to interface with external devices, such as sensors,
switches, displays, and actuators.
Timers and Counters: Used for time-based operations, such as generating delays, measuring pulse widths,
or creating periodic interrupts.
Serial Communication Interfaces: Includes protocols like UART, SPI, and I2C for communication with
external devices like sensors, memory, or other controllers.
Analog-to-Digital Converters (ADC): Convert analog signals from sensors (e.g., temperature, light) into
digital signals the microcontroller can process.

Unit_V - 17
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Digital-to-Analog Converters (DAC): Convert digital signals back into analog for devices like motors or
speakers.
Power Supply Unit: Provides the necessary voltage and current to the microcontroller. Many operate on
low voltages like 3.3V or 5V.
Clock System: A clock source (internal or external) provides the timing necessary for the microcontroller’s
operations.
Microcontroller Features
Low Power Consumption: Microcontrollers are designed for efficient operation, making them suitable for
battery-powered devices.
Embedded Peripherals: Built-in peripherals such as ADCs, DACs, timers, and communication modules
reduce the need for external components.
Compact Size: All components are integrated into a single chip, making microcontrollers ideal for compact
designs.
Cost-Effective: Their integration and functionality make them a cost-effective choice for many
applications.
Ease of Programming: Microcontrollers can be programmed using various languages like Assembly, C, or
C++.
Types of Microcontrollers
Based on Architecture:
8-bit Microcontrollers: Process 8-bit data (e.g., Intel 8051, PIC16).
16-bit Microcontrollers: Handle 16-bit data (e.g., MSP430).
32-bit Microcontrollers: Designed for more complex applications (e.g., ARM Cortex-M series).
Based on Application:
General-Purpose Microcontrollers: Used in various industries.
Special-Purpose Microcontrollers: Optimized for tasks like automotive control, industrial
automation, or medical devices.
Based on Memory:
Volatile Memory Controllers: Use RAM for temporary data storage.
Non-Volatile Memory Controllers: Use Flash or EEPROM for data that needs to be retained after
power-off.
How Microcontrollers Work
Microcontrollers function by executing a pre-written program stored in their memory. The steps include:
Input: Sensors or external devices provide input to the microcontroller through I/O ports.
Processing: The CPU processes the input based on the program instructions.
Unit_V - 18
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Output: The processed data generates an output to control actuators or communicate with other systems.
Applications of Microcontrollers
Consumer Electronics: Washing machines, microwaves, and television remotes.
Automotive: Engine control units (ECUs), anti-lock braking systems (ABS), and infotainment systems.
Industrial Automation: Robotics, process controllers, and data acquisition systems.
Medical Devices: Pacemakers, blood pressure monitors, and portable diagnostic devices.
IoT (Internet of Things): Smart home devices, wearable technology, and environmental sensors.
Communication Systems: Modems, routers, and networked embedded systems.
Popular Microcontrollers
8051: One of the earliest microcontrollers, widely used in simple embedded systems.
AVR: Used in Arduino boards, known for ease of use and affordability.
PIC Microcontrollers: Popular in industrial and consumer applications.
ARM Cortex-M: Powerful and versatile, widely used in automotive and IoT applications.
Difference between Microprocessors and Microcontrollers:
Feature Microprocessor Microcontroller
Definition A microprocessor is a CPU on a single A microcontroller is an integrated chip with
chip, designed for general-purpose CPU, memory, I/O ports, and peripherals for
computing tasks. specific embedded tasks.
Components Requires external components like Includes CPU, RAM, ROM/Flash, I/O ports,
RAM, ROM, I/O ports, and peripherals timers, and peripherals on the same chip.
to function.
Focus Focuses on computational power and Focuses on controlling specific tasks in
speed. embedded systems.
Cost Higher cost due to the need for external Lower cost as all components are integrated.
components.
Power Consumes more power because of Consumes less power, ideal for battery-
Consumption external components and higher operated devices.
performance.
Speed Generally faster due to higher clock Slower, optimized for energy efficiency and
speeds and focus on performance. task-specific operations.
Memory No built-in memory; relies on external Built-in RAM, ROM, and sometimes Flash
RAM and ROM. memory for program storage.
Size Larger size due to the need for external Compact size as all components are
peripherals. integrated.
Programming Supports complex applications requiring Easier to program for specific tasks using
advanced software and operating simpler software.
systems.
Applications Used in personal computers, servers, Used in embedded systems like home
smartphones, and high-performance appliances, automotive controls, and IoT

Unit_V - 19
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
systems. devices.
I/O Limited I/O ports, requires external Rich in I/O ports and interfaces for direct
Capability interfacing components. sensor/actuator control.
Complexity More complex system design due to the Simple system design as everything is
need for multiple external components. integrated on the chip.
Examples Intel Core i7, AMD Ryzen, ARM Arduino (ATmega328), PIC microcontrollers,
Cortex-A processors. ARM Cortex-M series.
Operating Typically runs a full operating system Runs firmware or embedded operating
Systems (e.g., Windows, Linux). systems like FreeRTOS.
 Microprocessors are suited for general-purpose computing and applications requiring high

computational power.
 Microcontrollers are tailored for specific control-oriented tasks in embedded systems where cost,
size, and power efficiency are critical.
Questions
1. Compare Active and Passive Sensors
2. Compare Microprocessor and Microcontroller OR Write a short note on Microprocessor OR Write
a short note on Microcontroller
3. Explain the principle of operation of RTD with suitable diagram. State its advantages and
applications OR Write a short note on RTD
4. Mention the factors to be considered while selecting a sensor for an application
5. Explain the principle of operation of Strain gauge with suitable diagram. State its advantages and
applications. OR Write a short note on RTD
6. Explain the IoT with suitable example OR Write a short note on IoT
7. Explain operation of Bio-Sensor with one application OR Write a short note on Biosensors
8. Explain with suitable diagram of Wheatstone Bridge with RTD in balanced and unbalanced
conditions

Unit_V - 20
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Numerical
0
1. Convert 172.9 F to degree Celsius.
Soltn. :
0
F= 9/5 x 0C + 32
0
F–32= 9/5 x 0C
5/9 x (0F–32) = 0C
Therefore, 0C = 5/9 x (0F–32)
= 5 x(172.9 – 32)
=78.3
Thus, 172.9 0F = 78.3 0C
2. Convert 144.5 0C to 0F
Soltn. :
0
F = 9/5 x 0C + 32
= 9/5 x 144.5 + 32
= 292.1
Thus, 144.5 0C = 292.1 0F
3. Platinum RTD has a resistance of 100Ω at 0 0C and it increases to 139.5Ω when temperature increases to
1000C. When it is used to measure the temperature inside an oven, it shows a resistance of 290.5Ω. What is
the temperature inside the oven?
Soltn. :
As, we have, 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼0𝑇)
139.5 = 100 (1 + 𝛼0 * 100)
Therefore, 𝛼0 = 0.00395
Now, using the same equation, we have,
290.5 = 100 (1 + 0.00395*T)
Thus, T = 482.27 0C
4. For the shown circuit –
If R2 = 100Ω; the Wheatstone bridge is balanced or unbalanced? Justify your answer. Also, calculate the
output of OPAMP, Vo.
Soltn. :
For the given bridge with R2 =100Ω,
VC = (Vs*R2) / (R1 + R2)
= (5*100) / (200)
Thus, VC = 2.5V

Unit_V - 21
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Similarly,
VD = (Vs*R4) / (R3 + R4)
= (5*100) / (200)
Thus, VD = 2.5V
Hence, the output of bridge = VD-C = VD – VC = 0V. i.e. the bridge is at Balanced Condition
Now, the output of OPAMP i.e.-
Vo = (-RF/R5)* VD-C = 0V.

5. For the shown circuit, if OPAMP output is +2V,

i. Find the output of Bridge
ii. Justify that temperature is increased or decreased w.r.t. 00C
iii. How much will be the resistance offered by RTD?
iv. If α = 0.00395 for the used RTD, how much will be the temperature
Soltn. :
As the OPAMP output = Vo = +2 = (-R F/R5)*VD-C
Therefore, VD-C = 2 / (-RF/R5)
= 2 / (-10)
= - 0.2V
Thus, the output of bridge = VD-C = - 0.2V
That is, VC > VD by 0.2V; means R of RTD > 100Ω
Hence, the temperature is increased above 00C
As, VC = (Vs*R of RTD) / (R1 + R of RTD)
Unit_V - 22
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
= 2.7V
2.7 = (5* R of RTD) / (100 + R of RTD)
Therefore, R of RTD = 117.39Ω
Now, as, we have, 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼0𝑇)
117.39 = 100(1 + 0.00395*T)
Therefore, T = 44.02 0C
6. For the shown circuit, if OPAMP output is -2V,
i. Find the output of Bridge
ii. Justify that temperature is increased or decreased w.r.t. 00C
iii. How much will be the resistance offered by RTD?
iv. If α = 0.00395 for the used RTD, how much will be the temperature
Soltn. :
As the OPAMP output = Vo = -2 = (-R F/R5)*VD-C
Therefore, VD-C = -2 / (-RF/R5)
= -2 / (-10)
= 0.2V
Thus, the output of bridge = VD-C = 0.2V
That is, VC < VD by 0.2V; means R of RTD < 100Ω
Hence, the temperature is decreased below 00C
As, VC = (Vs*R of RTD) / (R1 + R of RTD)
= 2.3V
2.3 = (5* R of RTD) / (100 + R of RTD)
Therefore, R of RTD = 85.19Ω
Now, as, we have, 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼0𝑇)
85.19 = 100(1 + 0.00395*T)
Therefore, T = - 37.49 0C

Unit_V - 23
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
Previously Asked Questions:
Dec. 2024
A. MCQ
1. What is the primary difference between a microprocessor and microcontroller 1M
i. Microcontroller have more processing power
ii. Microcontroller have more memory
iii. Microcontroller have integrated peripherals
iv. Microcontroller are more expensive
2. What is the role of sensors in IOT application? 1M
i. To process data ii. To store data
iii. To convert physical parameters into electrical signals
iv. To control input/output operations
B. Theory + Numerical
1. Compare Active and Passive Sensor 3M
2. Mention the Factors to be considered while selection a sensor for an application? 3M
3. Explain principle of operation of Mechanical sensor (Strain Gauge) & state its advantages? 4M
4. Compare Microprocessor and Microcontroller 3M
5. Explain the IoT with suitable example 3M
6. Explain operation of Bio-Sensor with one application 4M
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
May 2025
A. MCQ
1. When a RTD (PT100) is used in a Wheatstone Bridge, an increase in temperature causes the bridge –
1M
A] Balanced Bridge B] Unbalanced Bridge
2. The resistance of a RTD (PT-100), with increase in temperature, it’s resistance – 1M
A] Increases B] Decreases
C] No effect D] Increases as well decreases
B. Theory + Numerical
1. Explain any three selection criteria of sensors. 3M
2. Write a short note on Microprocessor 3M
3. Explain the principle of operation of RTD with suitable diagram and State its applications. 4M
4. Write short note on microcontroller 3M
5. Write short note on a biosensor 3M
6. Explain the principle of operation of Strain Gauge with suitable diagram and state its applications. 4M
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Dec. 2025
A. MCQ
1. Every sensor is a transducer but every transducer is not a sensor 1M
A) True B) False
2. In an unbalanced Wheatstone bridge with RTD, the output voltage is: 1M
A) Zero B) Maximum
C) Depends on temperature D) Negative
B. Theory + Numerical
1. Write short note on Microprocessor 3M
2. Mention any two real-world applications of IoT. 3M
3. Draw and explain the working of a temperature measurement system using the RTD sensor 4M

Unit_V - 24
 MVPS’s KBTCOE, Nashik [Link].
Fundamentals of Electronics Engineering (100103)
4. Write short note on microcontroller 3M
5. Write short note on a biosensor 3M
6. Explain the principle of operation of Strain Gauge with suitable diagram and state its applications. 4M
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

Unit_V - 25