TERMS AND CONCEPTS ONLY
Soils are permeable due to the existence of interconnected voids
________________ through which water can
flow from points of high energy to points of
low energy.
Importance of Hydrogeology in Geotechnical • moving water affects the properties and
Engineering: behavior of soil and can influence both
construction operations and the performance
of completed construction
• permeability and capillary action in soil
relates to the type and manner of water
movement
• drainage, seepage, and frost heave relate to
practical effects of water movement
• soil and groundwater contamination expand
on environmental effects and concern
- the cycle of changes and movements that Hydrologic Cycle
surface water and shallow groundwater
repeatedly passes through.
is the study of the groundwater phase of the Hydrogeology
hydrologic cycle (both surface and
subsurface) related to the effects of
geophysical features of soil and rock
formations.
– snow or rain that reaches the earth's Precipitation
surface tends to either flow over the ground
surface as dictated by gravity or to infiltrate
into the ground
– features of nature that influence the rate of Infiltration
infiltration
Infiltrating water that continues to migrate due • slope of the land
to gravity effects is drawn to the underground • presence or lack of plant life
zone. What affects the way the water • porosity of soil or rock
infiltrates?
– the surface or upper boundary of this Water Table or Phreatic Surface
saturated-with-water zone, groundwater
pressure changes from a negative value to
a positive value.
tends to reflect the surface topography of Water Table or Phreatic Surface
the area, being at higher elevation where the
ground surface is high and at a lower
elevation where the ground surface is low
In water Table or Phreatic Surface, depth or FALSE. IT VARIES EVEN ON SHORT
elevation DO NOT vary even on short DISTANCES.
distances. True or False?
factors affecting the presence of groundwater: ▪ characteristics of the various soil strata in
the soil profile
▪ depth and type of underlying rock
▪ elevation of the soil surface related to the
surrounding terrain
▪ surface water coming to the area
▪ presence of subsurface water in the
adjacent soil and rock deposits
- soil zone above the phreatic surface, vadose zone
pore water pressure vadose zone is? negative
– may be either relatively stationary or mobile Groundwater
(that is, underground flow is occurring)
conditions for stationary groundwater: • phreatic surface is at similar elevation
over a large area or when adjacent to a large
body of water
• where the top boundary of a subsurface soil
or rock layer restricts the entry of water and
creates a buried basin in which the collected
groundwater is prevented from escaping via
movement through the buried soil or rock
(perched water table)
the top boundary of a subsurface soil or rock perched water table
layer restricts the entry of water and creates a
buried basin in which the collected
groundwater is prevented from escaping via
movement through the buried soil or rock.
What is this called?
groundwater tends to be mobile where strata porous
of soil or rock have what? characteristics,
moving primarily under the effect of gravity
One of the major physical parameters of a hydraulic conductivity, otherwise known as
soil that controls the rate of seepage the coefficient of permeability.
through
Bernoulli’s equation is the total head at a pressure, velocity, and elevation heads.
point in water under motion can be given by
the sum of the ?
If Bernoulli’s equation is applied to the flow of because the seepage velocity is
water through a porous soil medium, small
the term containing the velocity head can be
neglected. Why?
Open standpipes called ? piezometers
In general, the variation of the velocity, v, with 1. Laminar flow zone (Zone I)
the hydraulic gradient, i, is divided into three 2. Transition zone (Zone II)
zones: 3. Turbulent flow zone (Zone III)
H. Darcy performed experiments to study the soil area normal to the direction of flow and
flow of water through sands, it was found that the difference in water levels, and inversely
the quantity of water flowing through the proportional to the length of soil through
soil in a given period was proportional to the which flow took place.
In 1856, Darcy published a simple equation v = ki
for the discharge velocity of water through
saturated soils, which may be expressed as
It is a physical property which measures the Hydraulic conductivity
ability of the material to transmit fluid through
pore spaces and fractures in the presence of
an applied hydraulic gradient.
The hydraulic conductivity of soils depends 1. Fluid viscosity,
on several factors: 2. pore size distribution,
3. grain-size distribution,
4. void ratio,
5. roughness of mineral particles, and
6. degree of soil saturation.
The hydraulic conductivity of unsaturated degree of saturation
soils is lower and increases rapidly with the
_______________.
the ability of water (or other fluid) to flow Permeability, K
through a soil by traveling through the
void spaces.
1 darcy is equal to 9.88 x 10-13 m2 or 1.062 x 10-11 ft2
it reflects the effect of the size, shape, and The equation for permeability can be
number of flow channels, and is independent
expressed as
of any fluid properties
flow is occurring through the void spaces Permeability, K
between particles and not actually
through the particles themselves
Factors affecting flow: • the pressure difference existing between
two points where flow is occurring
• the density and viscosity of the fluid
• the size, shape, and number of pore
openings
• the mineralogical, electrochemical or other
pertinent properties of the fluid and the soil
particles, which affect the attraction between
the two materials
It is one of the main properties that control hydraulic radius
the amount of fluid discharge of a channel
and its ability to move sediments.
Hydraulic conductivity is a physical property hydraulic gradient
which measures the ability of the
material to transmit fluid through pore spaces
and fractures in the presence of an applied
_________________.
Hydraulic radius, this is a measure of channel flow efficiency
________________, is defined as the ratio
of the cross-sectional area of fluid flow, A,
to the length of the wetted perimeter.
Two standard laboratory tests are used to 1. the constant-head test
determine the hydraulic conductivity of 2. the falling-head test
soil—
Why is it called a “constant-head” test? ✅ Answer:
Because the difference in water level (head)
between the inlet and outlet is kept constant
throughout the test, ensuring a steady flow of
water
What fundamental law is the constant-head ✅ Answer:
test based on? Darcy’s Law, which states that the discharge
velocity of water through a porous
medium is proportional to the hydraulic
gradient.
For what types of soils is the constant-head ✅ Answer:
permeability test most suitable? It is best suited for coarse-grained soils
such as sand and gravel, where water can
flow easily and quickly reach steady-state
conditions.
In constant head test,
Why is it called a “falling-head” test? ✅ Answer:
Because the head of water (h) in the
standpipe gradually decreases (falls) over
time as water flows through the soil
specimen.
What law is used as the basis for the falling- ✅ Answer:
head test? Darcy’s Law, which relates flow rate to
hydraulic gradient and permeability:
– indicates that adjacent paths of water Laminar Flow
particles are parallel, even when changing
direction, and the paths never cross.
– indicates a disorderly random path for Turbulent Flow
moving water particles with lines of
movement crossing and frequently moving at
an angle or contrary to the general direction
of flow.
for i ≤ 5, flow is turbulent or laminar? laminar
coarser soils have greater values of k than True
fine-grained soils. True or False
the variation in flow is caused by the ______ friction
developed at the ________ and the conduit wall
____________ developed in the moving fluid viscous friction
for fine-grained soils: lines of flow are low
physically close to the "wall of the conduit"
and therefore only low or fast? velocity flows
occur
for clays: flow is further hampered because True
some of the water in the voids is held, or
adsorbed, to the clay particles, reducing the
flow area and further restricting flow. True or
False.
1 mm/sec = 0.2 ft/min = 86.4 m/day.
– the action or method of removing Drainage
subsurface water by means of channels,
pipes or geosynthetics to render the area or
structure useful.
What are the purposes of drainage? a. To handle subsurface water encountered
Purposes: during construction sequence.
b. To handle subsurface water after
construction so that the completed facility is
not damaged nor its usefulness impaired.
Benefits of drainage a. During construction: • better working conditions for workers and
equipment
• proper construction can be achieved
Benefits of drainage b. After construction: • protection of structure from erosive effects
of flowing groundwater like rendering
foundation unstable
• maintaining usability of interior portions of
structure located below groundwater
elevation.
– it is understood that excavations extend Drainage During Construction
below water table thus dewatering
procedures will be required to keep the work
area dry.
– the procedure used to remove water from Dewatering
construction area, such as pumping from an
excavation or location where water covers the
planned working surface;
What is the method for a. Dewatering Shallow open drainage or interceptor ditches
Excavations Type of soil: coarse
– the lowering of the level of the groundwater Drawdown
table that occurs in the vicinity of a water well
(on dewatering equipment) when it is
pumped.
the procedure used to lower the groundwater Drawdown
table to obtain a “dry” area in the vicinity of an
excavation that would otherwise extend below
water.
– small excavation or pit provided in the floor Sump
of the structure, or in the earth, to serve as a
collection basin for the surface water and
near-surface underground water.
Soil strength is ________ as subsurface reduced
water flows in an upward direction into an
excavation area being dewatered because of
seepage force.
Change in strength should be considered in
designing excavation bracing and
foundations.
Where is this applied? Dewatering Intermediate Depths
Type of soil: coarse grained to silty
Depth: more than 1 meter or a few feet below
groundwater level
– the perforated end section of a well pipe Well points
that permits the groundwater to be drawn into
the pipe for pumping.
In wellpoints, the Depth: 9 meters. How is its in drilled holes or by jetting
Installation?
Procedure by jetting: 1. Water is pumped through the riser and
discharges through special openings at the tip
of the well point.
2. Soil below is displaced by jetting action at
the well point.
3. This is continued until the desired depth is
achieved.
For dewatering purposes: 1. A series of well points is installed around
the perimeter of the area
2. Spacing of well points is according to the
soil type and depth of dewatering (1 – 3
meters)
3. Each well riser (50 mm ɸ) is connected by
hose or pipe to a horizontal header or
collector pipe (150 – 300 mm ɸ)
- serves as protection or filter to prevent soil Screen
particles from clogging the well point
perforations
When is screen provided? For medium sand and coarser materials
surrounding the well point;
For finer soils; _________ is necessary sand filter
Benefits of sand filter: 1. it acts to increase the size of the well point,
permitting easier and greater flow into the
well point.
Factors affecting the horizontal extent to 1. depth of the well point
which the surrounding soil will show the 2. permeability of the soil – as permeability
lowering of the groundwater table: increases so is the horizontal distance
Factors affecting the depth of dewatering: 1. type of pumping equipment
2. proper assembly of the piping system
In a single line of well points, the depth of 6 – 7 meters
dewatering is usually about
– the application of vacuum to the piping Vacuum dewatering
system to satisfactorily dewater silty soils
because capillary forces tend to hold the pore
water.
When is vacuum dewatering used? Type of soil: silt
Height of lift: 5 – 6 meters
To attain vacuum:
1. The vacuum dewatering system requires
that the well point and the riser be surrounded
to within a few feet of the ground surface with
filter sand
2. Then the top few feet be sealed or capped
with an impervious soil or other material
3. With the pump maintaining a vacuum
pressure, the hydraulic gradient for flow to the
well points is increased.
Multistage dewatering is necessary due to True
limited height of lift for deeper excavation.
True or False.
What method is employed when: Electro – Osmosis
Type of soil: fine silts, clay, or coarse-grained-
fine-grained mixtures 25% (+ 0.002 mm)
A well or well point is made the cathode, pore Electro – Osmosis
water will then migrate toward the negative
electrode (cathode). Collected water drained
from the soil can be removed by pumping as
with the conventional well-point system.
- are conditions where excavations extend Deep Drainage
deep below groundwater table or penetrate
through a deep permeable stratum
Solution to deep drainage Deep wells or deep well pumps are used
These are frequently large diameter (600 Deep wells
mm) drilled holes with perforated protective
casing installed
– a subsurface drainage of fine-grained soils Consolidation Drainage
achieved by imposing a surface load onto
an area resulting to decrease in water
content followed by increase in shear
strength.
– refers to the process by which compression Consolidation
of newly stressed clay soil occurs
simultaneously with the expulsion of water
present in the soil void spaces.
Three conditions that take place 1. reduction in volume
simultaneously in consolidation: 2. expulsion of water in the void spaces
3. transfer of load from water to soil particles
Disadvantage in consolidation is rate of d.1. Sand drains
drainage is quite slow in clay soils because of d.2. Wick drains
low coefficient of permeability
What are the Methods to accelerate
consolidation:
Why should dewatering methods used during ✅ Answer:
construction not be continued after the project Because maintaining dewatering systems
is completed? long-term is too expensive, impractical, and
the equipment may interfere with the use or
appearance of the finished structure.
What are desirable features of subaqueous ✅ Answer:
(below-water or underground) structures? They should be built to prevent water
leakage, meaning:
Seams and joints must have water stops, or
The structure should be built monolithically
(as one solid piece) to avoid joints altogether.
What are two methods of waterproofing - Adding admixtures to the concrete mix
concrete aside from monolithic to reduce permeability.
construction? - Applying chemical coatings or
waterproof membranes on the surface
✅ Answer: of the concrete.
Why is drainage still necessary even after a
structure is completed? ✅ Answer:
Because groundwater or surface water can
still cause seepage, leaks, or hydrostatic
pressure, leading to cracks, corrosion, and
structural damage if not properly drained.
- conventionally placed around the building Foundation Drains
exterior at footing level and adjacent to the
footing
Installed drain consists of pipes or synthetic perforations
composite provided with __________ or
installed with open joints so that groundwater
can enter the pipe
- a blanket or layer of filter material placed Blanket Drains
beneath the floor slab to provide a highly
permeable drainage path for removal of
groundwater acting against the bottom of the
slab
Purpose of blanket drains To reduce uplift pressure and the possibility
for seepage to occur through the floor.
- are interceptor trench drains located parallel Interceptor Drains
to the shoulder of paved highways and airfield
runway.
If the velocity of the water flowing through the a toe drains or an underdrain blanket that
structure is too great, erosion and instability consists of course materials
of the downstream side will result
▪ To counter this effect, ___________ is
placed
– localized underground flow that occurs Underground Springs
through seams or a stratum of pervious soil
presents a potential seepage problem for the
structure
– are a pictorial method of studying the path Flow nets
that moving water flows.
– lines representing the path the water flows Flow lines
– are composed of flow lines and Flow nets
equipotential lines drawn together that form
mesh strands
– lines connecting points in the flow lines that Equipotential lines
are of equal total energy head.
Conditions requiring flow nets: a. where the zones of flow or directions of
flow are irregular
b. where water enters and escapes from a
permeable zone of soil by traveling a short
distance
c. where the flow boundaries are not well
defined (a boundary being the separation
between where flow does and does not
occur)
– In seepage analysis, flow nets can be
drawn
It can be defined as difference in one soil Flow in Anisotropic Soil
physical property along different
direction.
It does not have the same physical properties Anisotropic soil
when direction of measurement is changed.
Note that when flow nets are drawn in orthogonal
transformed sections (in anisotropic soils),
the flow lines and the equipotential lines are
___________. However, when they are
redrawn in a true section, these lines are not
at right angles to each other.