Game‐based Learning

561728-EPP-1-2015-1-ES-EPPKA2-CBHE-JP
 We don‘t stop playing because we grow old – we
grow old because we stop playing.
(Oliver W. Holmes)

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561728-EPP-1-2015-1-ES-EPPKA2-CBHE-JP
 Overview: Day 1
Morning
• ZML‐Innovative Learning Scenarios
• Definitions
• Learning theories
Afternoon
• Play
• Principles of learning embeded in games
• Game taxonomies
• Learning outcomes and the role of the educators

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 Overview: Day 2
Morning
• Play
• Structured reflection of play
• Insights for the design of learning games
Afternoon
• Integration of games in education
• Bariers for the adoption of learning games in education
• Transfer
• Framework for qualifications of the European higher
education area

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 Definitions
• Play
• Game
• Gaming
• Game‐Based Learning (GBL)
• Simulation
• Gamification
• Serious Games
• Edutainment
• Learning

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 Definitions: Play

While playing people, children

and adults alike, are excercising
freedom along five distinct axes:

1. freedom to fail
2. freedom to experiment
3. freedom to fashion identities
4. freedom of effort, and,
5. freedom of interpretation

Reference: Klopfer et al (2009, pp. 4.):

[Link]
content/uploads/2015/01/MovingLearningGamesForward_EdArcade
.pdf

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 Definitions: Game
Computer and videogames are potentially the most engaging experiences:

[Link] are a form of fun. That gives us enjoyment and pleasure.

2. Games are form of play. That gives us intense and passionate involvement.
3. Games have rules. That gives us structure.
4. Games have goals. That gives us motivation.
5. Games are interactive. That gives us doing.
6. Games are adaptive. That gives us flow.
7. Games have outcomes and feedback. That gives us learning.
8. Games have win states. That gives us ego gratification.
9. Games have conflict/competition/challenge/opposition. That gives us
adrenaline.
10. Games have problem solving. That sparks our creativity.
[Link] have interaction. That gives us social groups.
[Link] have representation and story. That gives us emotion.
Reference: Prensky, M. (2001). Digital game‐ based learning. New York: Mc Graw‐HilI, pp 05‐01:
[Link]

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 Definitions: Gaming

Reference: Klopfer et al (2009, pp. 5.):

[Link]
content/uploads/2015/01/MovingLearningG
amesForward_EdArcade.pdf
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 Definitions: Game‐Based Learning
Game-Based learning (GBL) is a type of game play that has defined
learning outcomes.

Reference: Garris, R., Ahlers, R., & Driskell, J. E. (2002). Games, motivation, and learning: A research and practice model.
Simulation & gaming, 33(4), 441‐467. [Link]

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 Definitions: Simulation

Simulation is the imitation of the operation of a

real-world process or system over time. The act of
simulating something first requires that a model
be developed; this model represents the key
characteristics or behaviors/functions of the
selected physical or abstract system or process.

Reference:
[Link]

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 Definitions: Gamification

Gamification takes game elements

(such as points, badges,
leaderboards, competition,
achievements) and applies them to a
non-game setting. It has the potential
to turn routine, mundane tasks into
refreshing, motivating experiences.

Reference:
[Link]

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 Definitions: Serious Games
The focus of the Serious Games movement is most commonly associated with
what may best be described as “Games for Training”.

That is, Serious Games were initially conceived as being designed to train
people for tasks in particular jobs. This might be training army personnel to
better identify enemy combatants, or training insurance salesmen how to close
a deal. These tasks may be physical or cognitive, or a combination of both. But
they are characterized by their specificity and applicability for particular work-
related purposes.

While Serious Games may appeal to people simply interested in playing fun
games, they are typically targeted at a captive audience.

Reference: Klopfer et al (2009, pp. 20-22.)

[Link]

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 Definition: Serious Games
The Taxonomy of
Serious Games
developed by Ben
Sawyer and Peter
Smith, cited in
Klopfer et al (2009,
pp. 21.)
[Link]
du/wp-
content/uploads/2015
/01/MovingLearningG
amesForward_EdArc
[Link]

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 Definitions: Edutainment

Edutainment is an earlier and more broad term, that refers to any type of
content, including video games, television and all other media.

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 Definitions: Learning

Learning is necessary to distinguish the purpose of games for education rather

than for advertising (advergaming), health (games for health), or social change
(social impact games).

Learning also captures the cognitive change process that results from the
interaction of learner, content, and strategies. (Richard Van Eck, in Print)

„The promise of games is that we can harness the spirit of play to enable
players to build new cognitive structures and ideas of substance“ (Klopfer et al,
2009, pp.5)

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 Learning Theories: Overview
• Behaviorism
• Cognitivism
• Constructivism
• Situated Learning
• Experiential Learning

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 Learning Theories: Behaviorism
“Learning is a change in observable behaviour
caused by external stimuli in the environment.”
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S‐R theory. A reinforcer is anything that
strengthens the desired response.
1. Positive reinforcement
2. Negative reinforcement
3. Adversive reinforcement

A reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response.

– verbal praise,
– a good grade or
– a feeling of increased accomplishment or satisfaction.

Reference: Carlton Reeve, Play with Learning Blog:

[Link]
Instructional Design website: Operant conditioning and further literature
[Link]
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 Learning theories: Behaviorism
Principles of behaviorism
1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur;
intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective
2. Information should be presented in small amounts so
that responses can be reinforced ("shaping")
3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli
("stimulus generalization") producing secondary
conditioning

Instructional Design website: Operant conditioning

[Link]

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 Learning Theories: Behaviorism
Traditional positive reinforcers in computer games
• Points
• Power‐ups
• Bonuses
• Unlocks

Negative (or adversive) reinforcers

• Failure to beat high score
• An increase in obstacles or opponents
• A decline in health

Social reinforcers
• Status
• Leaderboards

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 Learning Theories: Behaviorism
Examples – Drill and Practice
‐ Brain Games (PEAK)
‐ Math Bluster

Critique
‐ Gamification = a simplistic behaviorist approach
‐ “The behaviorist approach to games channels inquiry away from
the harder problems of immersion, cooperation and competition
that is so important to creating successful game experiences.”
‐ “brain training games are no better than even the humble paper
and pen for increasing brain ‘power’”
‐ Learners are seen as passive storer of knowledge

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 Learning Theories: Cognitivism
“Cognitive psychology proposes that learning
comes from mental activity such as memory,
motivation, thinking and reflection. Cognitivists
believe that learning is an internal process that
depends on the learner’s capacity, motivation
and determination”
“learning is demonstrated through a change in
knowledge and understanding”
Carlton Reeve, Play with Learning Blog, Cognitivism and Games
[Link]
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 Learning Theories: Cognitivism
Cognitivism focuses on the transmission of
information from someone who knows (such as an
‘expert’ as opposed to facilitators) to learners who
do not know.
The learners receive it, take it on board, store it,
relate it to existing ideas and information that they
already have, index it (like a filing system) and then
retrieve it, so that they can find it in their memories
later when they need it. In cognitivism, learning is
the process of connecting pieces of knowledge in
meaningful and memorable ways.

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 Learning Theories: Cognitivism
Examples:
‐ Puzzles (e.g. Prof. Layton)
‐ Strategy games (e.g. Age of Empires)

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 Learning Theories: Constructivism
In constructivist theory, the learner takes an active role in
constructing his own understanding rather than receiving
it from someone who knows.

According to constructivists, learners interpret

information from the unique personal perspective of their
previous experience.

They learn through observation, processing and

interpretation: personalising the information into
knowledge
Carlton Reeve, Play with Learning Blog, constructivism and games:
[Link]
Constructivist Theory (Bruner): [Link]
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 Learning Theories: Constructivism
A theory of instruction should address four major
aspects:
(1) predisposition towards learning,
(2) the ways in which a body of knowledge can be
structured so that it can be most readily grasped
by the learner,
(3) the most effective sequences in which to
present material, and
(4) the nature and pacing of rewards and
punishments.
Beothel, M & Dimock, K. V. , (2000), Constructing Knowledge with Technology , Southwest Educational Development
Laboratory, Austin, TX

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 Learning Theories: Constructivism
Examples
• The game process encourages learners to consider how
new ideas, actions they take and experiences make
sense of their own mental models
• provide primary sources of information, simple
elements and raw data for players to experiment with
and manipulate.
• Open‐ended God‐games where every instance of the
game is a unique creation by the player.
• constructionism, that is, “learning by making.”
Papert, S. & Harel, I., (1991), Constructionsim, Ablex Publishing Corporation, Norwood, New Jersey

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 Learning Theories: Experiencial
Learning
People learn from experience.
Learning follows a cycle of stages:
1. Concrete experience
2. Observation and reflection
3. Abstract conceptualisation
4. Testing concepts in new situations
Carlton Reeve, Play with Learning Blog, Experiential Learning and Games:
[Link]
Kolb, D. A., (1984), Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice
Hall, New Jersey

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 Learning Theories: Experiencial
Learning
• Typical experiential games include task‐based simulations
(such as SimCity) or role‐play (e.g. The Sims) where players
have a given or a chosen goal and must act consistently “in
character” to achieve it. The beauty of these “open‐ended
sandboxes” is that players can experiment and “fail softly.”
• The simulation describes environmental processes through
graphics, animations and other dynamic media, portraying
complex abstract relationships in a more recognisable and
intuitive way.
• And that is where simulations offer most education value,
not product but process: the articulation of rules and
relationships – the basis of experiential learning.

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 Learning Theories: Situated Learning
• Lave argues that learning as it normally occurs is a
function of the activity, context and culture in which it
occurs (i.e., it is situated).

• Social interaction is a critical component of situated

learning ‐‐ learners become involved in a "community
of practice" which embodies certain beliefs and
behaviors to be acquired.

• Situated learning is usually unintentional rather than

deliberate.
Instructional Design website: Situated Learning (j. Lave)
[Link]

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 Learning Theories: Situated Learning

Examples
– Games in which players activity takes place in an
authentic context.
– Games in which progress requires social interaction
and collaboration.

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 Learning Principles in Videogames
James Paul Gee says:
• … schools, workplaces, families, and academic
researchers have a lot to learn about learning from
good computer and video games
• games incorporate a whole set of fundamentally sound
learning principles
• the learning principles that good games incorporate
are all strongly supported by contemporary research in
cognitive science
• Bereiter, C. & Scardamalia, M. Surpassing Ourselves: An Inquiry Into the Nature and Implications of Expertise.
Chicago: Open Court, 1993.
• diSessa, A. A. Changing Minds: Computers, Learning, and Literacy. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2000.
• Gee, J. P. What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy. New York: Palgrave/Macmillan, 2003.
• Gee, J. P. Good videogames and good learning.
[Link]
• Gee, J. P. What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy. ACM Computers in Entertainment, Vol.
1, No. 1, October 2003, BOOK01 [Link]
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 Learning Principles in Videogames
Identity
– no deep learning takes place unless learners make an
extended commitment of self for the long haul
– take on a new identity: to make a commitment
Interaction
– books were passive …. games do talk back
– nothing happens until a player acts and makes decisions
Production
– Players are producers, not just consumers ‐ “writers” not
just “readers”
– players co‐design games by the actions they take and the
decisions they make

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 Learning Principles in Videogames
Risk taking
– in a game, failure is a good thing – players can start again
– Players are encouraged to take risks, explore, and try new things
Customization
– Players can customize a game to fit with their learning and
playing styles
– games allow players to solve problems in different ways
Agency
– players feel a real sense of agency and control because of the
last 5 principles
– They have a real sense of ownership over what they are doing.

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 Learning Principles in Videogames
Well‐Order Problems
– Problems in video games are ordered (different levels, etc)
– players form hypotheses that work well for later, harder
problems
Challenge and Consolidation
– Learners develop skills to solve problems in a level, then
the game throws a new class of problem at the players
– “Cycle of Expertise” (Bereiter & Scardamalia 1993)
“Just in Time” and “On Demand”
– Games give verbal information either “just in time” or “on
demand”

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 Learning Principles in Videogames
Situated meanings
– Games situate the meanings of words in terms of the
actions, images, and dialogues they relate to
– They show how they vary across different actions, images
and dialogues
Pleasantly Frustrating
– good games stay within, but at the outer edge, of the
player’s “regime of competence” (diSessa 2000)
– This is a highly motivating state for learners
System thinking
– Games encourage players to think about relationships, not
isolated events, facts, and skills

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 Learning Principles in Videogames
Explore, Think Laterally, Rethink Goals
– Not moving as fast and efficiently to your goal as possible
– But: Games encourage players to explore thoroughly
before moving on too fast
– And: to think laterally and not just linearly
– And: to use such exploration and lateral thinking to
reconceive one’s goals from time to time
Smart Tools and Distributed Knowledge
– The characters and other aspects of the game world one
manipulates in a game are “smart tools”
– In a multi‐player game the knowledge needed to play the
game is distributed among a set of real people and their
smart virtual characters

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 Learning Principles in Videogames
Cross‐Functional Teams
– in multi‐player games people play in teams in
which each player has a different set of skills
– people are affiliated by their commitment to a
common endeavor
Performance Before Competence
– Players can perform before they are competent,
supported by the design of the game
– They are supported by the “smart tools” and/or
other, more advanced players
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 To sum up
GBL can be effective, but not as a means for making
learning “fun” or for “tricking” students into
learning;
“GBL can be effective because it supports powerful
learning strategies such as situated learning,
authentic environments, and optimized challenge
and support (scuffolding).” (R.N. Van Eck, 2015,
pp.2)
Available from: Richard Van Eck, Dec 15, 2015
[Link]
based_learning_Still_restless_after_all_these_years

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 Game Taxonomies
We differ 3 main groups of games

• Games of exercise (0 – 2)
• Symbolic Games (2 – 7)
• Games with rules (from 7 on)

Claudio Dondi, Behnn Edvinsson, Michela Moretti – Games Classification, Papst Science Publishers, Germany cited in
In Maja Pivec, Anni Koubek, Claudio Dondi (Eds). (2004) Guidelines for Game-Based Learning

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 Game Taxonomies
Groups of videogames
 Arcade
 Shooting games
 Platform games
 Simulations
 Flight Simulators
 Sim City
 Adaptions
 Once real games adapted into video games

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 Game Taxonomies
Categories of games by Marc Presnky (2001)

 Action games
 Adventure games
 Fighting games
 Puzzler games
 Role‐playing games
 Simulation games
 Sports games
 Strategic games
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Classification from a content perspective

 Facts
 Skills
 Judgement
 Behaviours
 Theories
 Reasoning
 Process
 Procedures
 Creativity
 Language
 Systems
 Observations
561C728ommunication 46
 Learning Outcomes while playing
Videogames
Video games support the aquisition and practice
of skills needed in a high‐risk global VUCA
world:
Volatile
Uncertain
Complex
Ambiguous
Johansen, B. (2007). Get there early: sensing the future to compete in the present. San Francisco, CA: Berett-Koehler
Publishers, cited in In James Paul Gee´, Video Games: What Are They Good For? Unpublished ms., Arizona State
University, 2014
[Link]

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 Learning Outcomes while playing
videogames
21 century Skills Other skills

• critical thinking, • systems thinking,

• problem solving,
• collective
• collaboration, intelligence,
• effective • participation,
communication,
• motivation, • storytelling,
• persistence, • analysis,
• learning to learn • leadership
In Klopfer et al (2015, appendix A): [Link]
content/uploads/2015/01/MovingLearningGamesForward_EdArcade.pdf
In James Paul Gee´, Video Games: What Are They Good For? Unpublished ms., Arizona State University, 2014
[Link]
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 Role of educators
• Facilitation is about creating and providing space
for learners to
– try out something new,
– reflect on their experiences,
– arrive at new conclusions and
– think about how they would apply these conclusions
in their work and life.
• In this view people learn for themselves with a
bit of help and assistance, rather than have it
done to or for them.

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 Overview: Day 2
Morning
• Play
• Structured reflection of play
• Insights for the design of learning games
Afternoon
• Integration of games in education
• Bariers for the adoption of learning games in education
• Transfer
• Framework for qualifications of the European higher
education area

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 Balanced Design
• Learning design approach

• based on fundamental structures of Evidence‐Centered

Design (ECD)

– focuses on measurable evidence of student’s learning

– offers a methodology for collecting and analyzing evidence from

tasks performed by students

• helping game designers to better align the learning goals

with the game mechanics (Jennifer Groff et al)
Groff, Jennifer, Clarke‐Midura, Jody, Owen, V. Elisabeth, Rosenheck, Louisa and Beall, Michael (2015): Better Learning in
Games. A Balanced Design Lens for a New Generation of Learning Games, Learning Games Network, MIT Education Arcade.
[Link]
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 Need of Balanced Design
to understand
• what a game is targeting
• how that situates into learning
• how we know what was learned from the
game

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 Part of the Evidence Centred Design
(ECD) Framework
• Content Model (Student Model): defines
knowledge/skills/abilities targeted
• Evidence Model: describes potential
observations and behaviors of students that
would give evidence of their ability
• Task Model: describes aspects of situations
that are likely to evoke and provide such
evidence

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 Balanced Design: A Design Lens for
learning with games
• Content: What knowledge, skills, abilities will
players improve in playing the game?
• Evidence: How do I know that players
mastered that content?
• Task: What tasks do players do to engage with
that content in the game and elicit the
evidence we need?

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 Integration of digital games in
education

Like all technologies, video games can be good,

bad, or indifferent: It all depends on how they
are used (Gee 2007, 2014; Shaffer 2007)

In James Paul Gee´, Video Games: What Are They Good For? Unpublished ms., Arizona State University, 2014
[Link]

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 Games are highly educational when…

… integrated with
a) other tools and technologies,
b) forms of participation and social interaction,
c) and various curricular activities

In James Paul Gee´, Video Games: What Are They Good For? Unpublished ms., Arizona State University, 2014
[Link]

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 Integration of digital games in
education
• Use an existing Commercial Out of The Shelf
(COTS) game or learning game
• Let students design their own game
• Design your own game for your students

COTS: Commercial Out of The Shelf games

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 Integration of Games: COTS
• Find a learning game that suits your educational
aims and objectives
– E.g. on the project site “Play the learning game” you
can find games that have been evaluated and marked
as educational.
• Play and evaluate it for use in the classroom.
• Integrate it in the learning process
• Plan reflection and feedback session

Project PlayIT: [Link]/

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 Integration of Games: COTS
• "Teachers should be encouraged to take training
from their students. The students who are
playing the games will be expert at the rules and
content of those games. By encouraging students
to educate their teachers, they have
opportunities to demonstrate expertise to
themselves, their classmates and their teachers."
(Klopfer et al, 2009, pp.50)
Teaching with Games: Using commercial off‐the‐shelf computer games in formal education Richard Sandford, Mary
Ulicsak, Keri Facer and Tim Rudd Research Report, January 2006 [last accessed 05.01.2016]:
[Link]

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 Integration of Games: COTS
Games are seen as a catalysator for learning

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 Integration of Games: Let your
students design a game
Mostly recommended for those with interest in
programming or those teaching programming.

A sophiophilosophical movement supports this approach

called the "maker movement", which has a lot in common
with Problem Based Learning (PBL), is very popular
especially in science.

Students learn to create products in a process that

requires learning related skills.

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 Integration of Games: Let your
students design a game
Process
• students are grouped and tasks are allocated
according to interests and competences.
• Students
– support each other with programming,
– write the naratives and instructions,
– design logos and artwork,
– perform mathematical calculations and
– collaborate in the whole creation process,
– while learning the educational content of the
game in order to embed it in the game.

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 Integration of Games: Let your
students design a game
Tools for game design
Scratch, Game Maker, Gamestar Mechanic, Alice,Adventure
Maker
3D worlds: Second Life, Active Worlds, MinecraftEdu
Also for young ages: Tynker and Pixel Press.

Example of students designing and building a game for learning

chemistry using the software MinecraftEdu:
[Link]
Vladimir Propp's characters might be helpful to start spark
cerativity of the students in defining the story

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 Integration of Games: Design your
own Game

Groff, Jennifer, Clarke‐Midura, Jody, Owen, V. Elisabeth,

Rosenheck, Louisa and Beall, Michael (2015): Better Learning
in Games. A Balanced Design Lens for a New Generation of
Learning Games, Learning Games Network, MIT Education
Arcade, pp. 7. [Link]
content/uploads/2015/07/[Link]

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 Bariers to the adoption of learning
games
• Attidutes of parents and Kids
– Parents: violence in videogames
– Kids: Chocolate‐broccoli problem
• Logistics: 45min classes
• Support for teachers lacking experience in integrating
games
• Frameworks for assessment of higher order skills
– Understanding
– Analysis
– Evaluation
– Creation
Klopfer et al (2009, pp. 21.)
[Link]

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 Bariers to the adoption of learning
games
• Evidence for effective learning through games
• Use of games: examples of how games can be
integrated into curiculum
• Limited view: of the variety of games
available, which narrows expectations of the
viability of games to engage students
• Social and cultural structures: around
education, school, learning and play

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Bariers to design and development
• High development costs: creation and
maintainace
• Development process: involve learning
scientists and teachers
• Playtesting at schools: often difficult
• Sources of funding: past experiences of
loosing investments

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 Bariers to sustainability
• Shelf‐life of a game:
– replayability factor
– preference of gamers
• Speed of technology change
• Maintainance and support: especialy for
networked games

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 Bariers to innovation
• Limited data: reporting on educational game play
• Limited pedagogical paradigms: educational
institutions need to rethink their pedagogies and
the role of teachers
• Limited research:
– Games as learning environments
– Effective play patterns
– Combination of play patterns with kinds of learning
• Limited ambition of funded projects

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 Framework for Qualifications of the
European Higher Education Area
• The Framework's aim is to organise national higher
education qualifications into an overarching European‐
wide qualifications framework.
• Within this Framework, qualifications are defined
according to levels of complexity and difficulty.
Why is this interesting?
• [Link]
_Bachelor.27s_level
• [Link]

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 Structure of Framework
The framework is structured in three cycles:
1. First cycle - Bachelor's level
2. Second cycle - Master's level
3. Third cycle - PhD

And in 5 categories of learning objectives

1. Knowledge and understanding
2. Application of knowledge and understanding
3. Ability to make judgements
4. Ability to communicate
5. Learning skills
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knowledge and understanding ..

1st cycle.. [that is] supported by advanced text books

[with] some aspects informed by knowledge at
the forefront of their field of study ..
2nd cycle .. provides a basis or opportunity for originality
in developing or applying ideas .. often in a
research context ..
Doctorates .. [includes] a systematic understanding of their
field of study and mastery of the methods of
research* associated with that field ..

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application of knowledge and understanding ..

1st cycle .. [through] devising and sustaining arguments

2nd cycle .. [through] problem solving abilities in new or
unfamiliar environments within broader (or
multidisciplinary) contexts ..
Doctorates.. [through the] ability to conceive, design,
implement and adapt a substantial process of
research* with scholarly integrity ..
[that has] made a contribution that extends the
frontier of knowledge by developing a substantial body
of work some of which merits national or international
peer‐reviewed publication .

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ability to make judgements ..

1st cycle .. [through] gathering and interpreting

relevant data ..
2nd cycle .. the ability to integrate knowledge and
handle complexity, and formulate
judgments with incomplete data ..
Doctorates.. [through] critical analysis, evaluation
and synthesis of new and complex
ideas..

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ability to communicate ..

1st cycle .. information, ideas, problems and

solutions ..
2nd cycle .. their conclusions and the underpinning
knowledge and rationale to specialist
and nonspecialist audiences ..
Doctorates.. with their peers, the larger scholarly
community and with society in general
about their areas of expertise ..

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learning skills ..
1st cycle .. needed to study further with a high level
of autonomy ..
2nd cycle .. to study in a manner that may be
largely selfdirected or autonomous..
Doctorates.. expected to be able to promote, within
academic and professional contexts,
technological, social or cultural
advancement ..

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 Reflection / отражение
Take a look at the agenda ‐ взглянуть на повестку дня
and reflect the 2 days ‐ и отражают 2 дня

• What was new? ‐ Что было нового ?

• What was fun? ‐ Что было интересно ?
• What was difficult? ‐ Что было трудно ?

Discuss your experiences ‐ Обсудите свои переживания

And collect them on cards ‐ И собрать их на карточках

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