UNIT 1: PRELIMINARY CONCEPTS AND RECENT ∆ Scope of Assessment

TRENDS​ The chief purpose of assessment is the improvement

of the student. Specifically, it assess the learning
WHAT IS EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT? outcomes of instruction which are:
- According to Evangeline Harris Stefanakis (2002), 1. Cognitive behaviors (knowledge and information
“The word assess comes from the Latin assidere, gained, intellectual abilities);
which means to sit beside. Literary then, to assess 2. Affective behaviors (attitudes, interests,
means to sit beside the learner”. appreciation, and values); and
- Assessment is the systematic collection, review, 3. Psychomotor behaviors (perceptual and motor
and use of information about educational programs skills and abilities in performing tasks).
undertaken for the purpose of improving student
learning and development. ∆ BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EDUCATIONAL
- Assessment is a formative process that focuses on ASSESSMENT
student learning. It involves setting explicit student 1. Assessments should be continuous and an
learning goals or outcomes for an academic integral part of teaching and learning. Continuous
program, evaluating the extent to which students are assessment is necessary to provide regular
reaching those goals, and using the information for feedback to students. This information can also be
program development and improvement. used to modify the purpose of teaching.
- Assessment is defined as a process for 2. Assessments should be valid to give students
documenting, in measurable terms, the knowledge, multiple opportunities to demonstrate what they
skills, attitudes, and beliefs of the learner (Delclos, et know. The strategies should be as diverse as the
al., 1992 & Poehner, 2007). scope of outcomes, and provisions should be made
- Osterhof (2001) defined assessment as “a related to asses more than a solo performance.
series of measures used to determine complex 3. Assessments should be valid. They should
attribute of an individual or group of individuals. It is accurately assess what they are designed to assess.
the process of observing and measuring learning. Problems of invalidity usually arise when
- The most common form of assessment is giving a assessment is based on imprecise statements of
test. educational intent.
4. Assessment should engage the learner. An
The term assessment in education can be effective assessment involves democratic
defined in the following way: relationship between the teacher and the student. It
- Educational assessment seeks to determine how should enhance the students‟ abilities of being self-
well students are learning and is an integrated part of critical and taking responsibility for their own
a quest to improve education. It provides feedback to learning.
students, educators, parents, policy makers, and the 5. Assessments should be diagnostic. The strategies
public about the effectiveness of educational used to assess students should indicate not only the
services 9National Research Council). result but also the processes that resulted in an
- Educational assessment is the process of gathering acceptable performance. Thus, the assessment
information about what students have learned in their should show the students‟ needs, strengths, and
educational environments. weaknesses.
- Educational assessment is an on-going process, 6. Assessment should values teacher judgment.
ranging from the activities that teachers undertake Teacher judgment based on well-defined outcomes
with students in classrooms every day to and classroom experiences is a rich form of student
standardized testing, college theses, and assessment that should not be considered
instruments that measure the success of corporate secondary to formal testing.
training programs. 7. Assessments should be situated. The strategies
used to assess students should be reflections of
∆ Importance of Assessment what they might encounter in the outside world.
Assessment serves three specific purposes. The 8. Assessments should require students to display
results of assessment are generally used to: sensitivity to the “wholes” rather than to discrete
1. Provide essential guide for planning, elements. Methods of assessment should allow the
implementing, and improving instructional programs students to see the larger picture rather than a series
and techniques; of small, finite steps.
2. Monitor student progress; 9. Assessments should have the same meaning for
3. Promote learning by providing positive information all teachers, parents, and students. Teachers need to
like knowledge of results, knowledge of tasks well compare their interpretation of student performance,
done, good grades and praises; and the assessment information should be
4. Measure the outcomes of instruction; and communicated in such a way that it is understood by
5. Provide the parents with information on how well all stakeholders.
their children are doing in school.
∆ TYPES OF CLASSROOM ASSESSMENT § Assessment AS Learning
§ Assessment FOR Learning (Formative - Assessment AS learning develops and supports
Assessment) students‟ metacognitive skills. This form of
The philosophy behind assessment FOR learning is assessment is crucial in helping students become
that, assessment and teaching should be integrated lifelong learners. As students engage in peer and
into a whole. The power of such an assessment self-assessment, they learn to make sense of
doesn‟t come from intricate technology or from using information, relate it to prior knowledge and use it for
a specific assessment instrument. It comes from new learning. Students develop a sense of
recognizing how much learning is taking place in the ownership and efficacy when they use teacher, peer,
common tasks of the school day – and how much and self-assessment feedback to make adjustments,
insight into student learning teachers can mine from improvements, and changes to what they
this material (McNamee & Chen, 2005). understand.
- Assessment FOR learning is an on-going - Assessment AS learning is done for teachers to
assessment that allows teachers to monitor students understand and perform well their role of assessing
on a day- to-day basis and modify their teaching FOR and OF learning. It requires teachers to
based on what the students need to be successful. undergo training on how to assess learning and be
This assessment provides students with the timely, equipped with the competencies needed in
specific feedback that they need to make performing their work as assessors. To assess FOR
adjustments to their learning. and OF learning, teachers should have the needed
- After teaching a lesson, we need to determine skills in assessment. This could be made possible
whether the lesson was accessible to all students through the different forms of capability building.
while still challenging to the more capable, what the
students learned and still need to know, how we can ✓ Assessment for learning: Teachers use
improve the lesson to make it more effective, and, if evidence about students' knowledge, understanding
necessary, what other lesson we might offer as a and skills to inform their teaching. Sometimes
better alternative. This continual evaluation of referred to as
instructional choices is at the heart of improving our „formative assessment', it usually occurs throughout
teaching practice (Burns, 2005). the teaching and learning process to clarify student
- In assessment FOR learning, teachers use the learning​ and
students’ prior knowledge as a starting point of understanding.
instruction. The results of assessment are ✓ Assessment of learning: Use of a task or an
communicated clearly and immediately to the activity to measure, record and report on a student's
students to determine effective ways to teach and level of achievement with regards to specific learning
learn. expectations. These are often known as summative
assessments.
§ Assessment OF Learning (Summative ✓ Assessment as learning: Students are their own
Assessment) assessors. Students monitor their own learning, ask
- Assessment OF learning is the snapshot in time questions and use a range of strategies to decide
that lets the teacher, students, and their parents what they know and can do, and how to use
know how well each student has completed the assessment for new learning.
learning tasks and activities. It provides information
about student achievement. While it provides useful ∆ USERS OF EDUCATIONAL ASSESSMENT
reporting information, it often has little effect on Who are the primary users of educational
learning. assessment? What are their roles in educational
- It refers to strategies designed to confirm what assessment?
students know, determine whether or not they have → Teachers
met curriculum outcomes or the goals of their → Students
individualized programs, or to certify proficiency and → Parents
make decisions about students‟ future programs or → Supervisors
placements. It is designed to provide evidence of → Policy Makers/ Educational Decision-Makers
achievement to parents, other educators, the
students themselves, and sometimes o outside ∆ Purpose of Educational Assessment
groups like other educational institutions. Assessment is used to:
- Assessment OF learning or summative assessment → Inform and guide teaching and learning. A good
is done after instruction. It is used to identify what classroom assessment plan gathers evidence of
students know and can do and the level of their student learning that informs teachers‟ instructional
proficiency and competency. Its results reveal decisions. It provides teachers with information about
whether or not instruction has successfully achieved what students know and can do. To plan effective
the desired curriculum outcome. The information instruction, teachers also need to know what the
from assessment of learning is usually expressed as student misunderstands and where the
grades and is made known to the students, parents, misconceptions lie. In addition to helping teachers
and other stakeholders for better decision making. formulate the next teaching steps, a good classroom
assessment plan provides a road map for students. 2. Determining as set of operations by which the
Students should, at all times, have access to the attribute may be made manifest and perceivable;
assessment so they can use it to inform and guide and
their learning. 3. Establishing a set of procedures or definitions for
→ Help students set learning goals. Students need translating observations into quantitative statement
frequent opportunities to reflect on where their of degree or amount.
learning is at and what needs to be done to achieve
their learning goals. When students are actively McMillan (1997) stated that measurement involves
involved in assessing their own next learning steps using observation, rating scales, or any other non-
and creating goals to accomplish them, they make test device that secures information in a quantitative
major advances in directing their learning and what form. The term measurement can refer to both the
they understand about themselves as learners. score obtained and the process used.
→ Assign report card grades. Grades provide
parents, employers, other schools, government, → Measurement is the process of making empirical
post- secondary institutions and others with observations of some attribute, characteristic, or
summary information about student learning. phenomenon and translating those observations into
→ Motivate students. Research (Davies, 2004 & quantifiable or categorical form according to clearly
Stiggins, et al., 2004) has shown that students will be specified procedures or rules 9Gredler, 1997)
motivated and confident learners when they
experience progress and achievement, rather than → Educational measurement, then, refers to the
the failure and defeat associated with being process of determining a quantitative or qualitative
compared to more successful peers. academic attribute of an individual or group of
individuals.
∆ The Assessment Process
An effective classroom assessment: → One common example of measurement is when a
✓ addresses specific outcomes in the program of teacher gives scores to the test of the students like
studies getting 23 correct answers out of 25 items or getting
✓ shares intended outcomes and assessment 95%in the first quarter exam.
criteria with students prior to the assessment activity
✓ assesses before, during, and after instruction ∆ TESTING
✓ employs a variety of assessment strategies to § Test is a formal and systematic instrument, usually
provide evidence of student learning paper and pencil procedure designed to assess the
✓ provides frequent and descriptive feedback to quality, ability, skill, or knowledge of the students by
students giving a set of questions in uniform manner.
✓ ensures students can describe their progress and ∆ A test is one of the many types of assessment
achievement and articulate what comes next in their procedure used to gather information about the
learning performance of students.
✓ informs teachers and provides insight that can be ∆ A test refers to a tool, technique, or a method that
used. is intended to measure students‟ knowledge or their
ability to complete a particular task. In this sense,
The assessment process starts with planning based testing can be considered as a form of assessment.
on the program of studies learning outcomes and Tests should meet some basic requirements, such as
involves assessing, evaluating, and communicating validity and reliability.
student learning, as shown in the following diagram. § Testing is one of the different methods used to
measure the level of performance or achievement of
∆ COMMON TERMINOLOGIES the learners.
In the field of testing, the terms test, measurement, § Testing also refers to the administration, scoring,
assessment, and evaluation are often used and interpretation of the procedures designed to get
interchangeably. Identifying the nuances in their information about the extent of the performance of
meaning may aid test developers and test users to the students.
design and construct effective tests and use the
results appropriately. ∆ STANDARDIZED TESTING
§ Standardization is the process of trying out the test
∆ MEASUREMENT on a group of people to see the scores which are
Thorndike and Hagen (1986) defined measurement typically obtained. This process provides a mean
as “the process of quantifying observations and/or (average) and standard deviation (spread) relative to
descriptions about quality or attribute of a thing or a certain group.
person”. The process of measurement involves three § A standardized test is a test administered and
steps: scored in a consistent manner. The tests are
1. Identifying and defining the quality or attribute that designed in such way that the questions, conditions
is to be measured; for administering, scoring procedures, and
interpretations are consistent and are administered
and scored in a predetermined, standard manner → High-stakes testing is often associated with public
(Popharn, 2003). reporting of testing results as a way to bring attention
§ Standardized tests also determine a student‟s to the assessment results. For schools with high or
academic level. They become the basis for early improved performance on assessments, there are
tracking, then on-going tracking, reflecting the belief typically rewards (often monetary) and for schools
that homogenous achievement groups facilitate more that underperform, there are often penalties that can
efficient and effective teaching and learning result in the replacement of administrators or
(Perrone, 1991). teachers or retention of students at grade level.
§ Standardized tests are tools designed to allow
measure of student performance relative to all others Major Theories Underlying test-Based
taking the same test. Accountability on High-stakes Tests:
1. Motivational theory is the predominant theory
→ Types of Standardized Testing underlying test-based accountability. According to
✓ Norm-referenced testing. It measures this concept, the extrinsic rewards and sanctions
performance relative to all other students taking the associated with the high-stakes test serve to
same test. This is the type of test you can use if you motivate teachers to improve their performance. This
want to know how a student is compared to the rest. presumes that educators require external pressure to
This type of testing is the most common found improve their teaching.
among standardized testing. For example, if a 2. The theory of alignment holds that system-wide
student is ranked in the 86th percentile, that means, improvement is most likely to occur if educators align
he/she did better than 86% of others who took the the major components of the educational system
test. (standards, curriculum, and assessments)
surrounding schools so that they reinforce each
✓ Criterion-referenced testing. It measured factual other. Alignment is usually thought of in terms of
knowledge of a defined body of material. synchronizing the surrounding system, but can also
Multiple-choice tests that people take to get their be thought of as alignment between the external
license or a test in fractions are both examples of accountability of schools and schools‟ sense of
this type of testing. internal accountability (Abelmann & Elmore, 2004).
3. Information theory maintains that student
∆ Comparison of Norm-referenced Test and performance data are useful for teachers and
Criterion-referenced Test administrators to make decisions about students and
programs and that providing such data to local
∆ educators and giving them incentives to improve
their performance will guide classroom and
organizational decision-making.
4. Symbolism theory has also contributed to the
growth and prevalence of high-stakes testing. In this
model, the accountability system is seen to signal
important values to stakeholders and, in particular,
the public. This particular theory is manifested in the
notion of “public answerability” – that is, the idea that
the public has a right to expect its resources to be
used responsibly, and that public institutions are
accountable for caretaking the public trust. High-
stakes assessments thus serve as evidence that
public education is, in essence, responsible and
rigorous and further provide symbolic of the system.
HIGH-STAKES TESTING
→ High-stakes tests are tests used to make ∆ EVALUATION
important decisions about students. These include § The verb “evaluate” means to form an idea of
whether students should be promoted, allowed to something to give a judgment about something. The
graduate, or admitted to programs. term comes from the French word “evaluer”,
→ High-stakes tests are designed to measure meaning, “to find the value of”. The origin is from the
whether or not content and performance standards Latin term “valere” meaning “be strong, be well, be of
established by the state have been achieved. value, or be worth”.
→ High-stake testing in schools is based on the § In the educational context, the verb “to evaluate”
premise that student learning will increase if often collocates with terms such as: the
educators and students are held accountable for effectiveness of an educational system, a program, a
achievement. course, instruction, and a curriculum.
→ By definition, testing becomes high stakes when § According to Weiss (1972), evaluation refers to the
the outcomes are used to make decisions about systematic gathering of information for the purpose
promotion, admissions, graduation, and salaries. of making decisions. It is not concerned with the
assessment of the performance of an individual, but
rather with forming an idea of the curriculum and of numerical reasoning, verbal reasoning, speed,
making a judgment about it. This judgment is made accuracy abilities, and more.
based on some kind of criteria and evidence. The → Placement Tests are planned to provide
purpose is to make decisions about the worth of information which will help to place students at the
instruction, a course, or even the whole curriculum. stage of teaching program most appropriate to their
Evaluation is thus larger and may include an analysis abilities.
of all the aspects of the educational system.
§ Evaluation is a process of summing up the results Other Types of Test
of measurements or tests, giving them some 1. Non-standardized test versus Standardized Test
meaning based on value judgments (Hopkins & → Non-standardized test is a type of test developed
Stanley, 1981). by the classroom teachers.
§ Educational evaluation is the process of → Standardized test is a type of test developed by
characterizing and appraising some aspect or test specialists. It is administered, scored and
aspects of an educational process. It is a systematic interpreted using a certain standard condition.
determination of merit, worth, and significance of 2. Objective Test versus Subjective Test
something or someone using criteria against a set of → Objective test is a type of test in which two or
standards. more evaluators give an examinee the same score.
§ Educational evaluation is a professional activity → Subjective test is a type of test in which the
that individual educators need to undertake if they scores are influenced by the judgment of the
intend to continuously review and enhance the evaluators, meaning there is no one correct answer.
learning they are endeavouring to facilitate. 3. Supply Test versus Fixed-response Test
→ Supply test is a type of test that requires the
examinees to supply an answer, such as an essay
∆ TYPES AND DISTINCTION OF TESTS test item or completion or short answer test item.
There are ways of describing classroom tests and → Fixed-response test is a type of test that requires
other assessment procedures. This table is a the examinees to select an answer from a given
summary of the different types of assessment option such as multiple-choice test, matching type of
procedure that was adopted and modified from test, or true/false test.
Gronlund, Linn, & Miller, 2009). 4. Individual Test versus Group Test
→ Individual test is a type of test administered to
student on a one-on-one basis using oral
questioning.
→ Group test is a type of test administered to a
group of individuals or group of students.
5. Mastery Test versus Survey Test
→ Mastery test is a type of test that measures the
degree of mastery of a limited set of learning
outcomes using criterion-reference to interpret the
result.
→ Survey test is a test that measures students‟
general achievement over a broad range of learning
outcomes using norm-reference to interpret the
result.
6. Speed Test versus Power Test
→ Speed test is designed to measure number of
items an individual can complete over a certain
period of time.
→ Power test is designed to measure the level of
performance rather than speed of response. It
contains test items that are arranged according to
→ Diagnostic Test measures the knowledge and increasing degree of difficulty.
skills of the student. It is used to identify students‟
strength and weaknesses in past and present ∆ HIGH QUALITY ASSESSMENT COMPONENTS
learning. Assessment is an integral part of the teaching and
→ Proficiency Tests are designed to measure learning process. To ensure that assessments
people‟s ability in language whether they have any effectively measures student learning, they must be
training in the language or not. designed with careful consideration of several key
→ Achievement Tests are designed to measure components. Here are the essential components of
student‟s performance in specific academic areas high quality assessment:
such as reading comprehension, written or oral
expression, and mathematical computations.
→ Aptitude Tests are mainly to assess intelligence
or knowledge. Aptitude test most commonly consists
§ CLEAR PURPOSE → It minimizes subjectivity and personal biases in
Why Assessment Purpose Matters? scoring.
✓ Assessment should have a clear and well-defined ✓ Benefits of Objectivity
purpose. It answers the question, what do we want → Objective assessment results in fair and equitable
to achieve with this assessment?” evaluations for all students.
✓ Purposes can vary, including diagnosing learning → It enhances the reliability and credibility of
needs, measuring progress, evaluating teaching assessment data.
effectiveness, or certifying achievement.
∆ Additional Consideration
∆ Benefits of a Clear Purpose Feedback: High-quality assessments often include
→ A well-defined purpose guides the design and feedback mechanisms that provide students with
implementation of the assessment. constructive information about their performance.
→ It ensures that the assessment aligns with specific Ethical Consideration: Ethical principles should guide
educational goals and objectives. assessment practices, ensuring fairness, equity, and
confidentiality.
1. CLEAR AND APPROPRIATE TARGETS
✓ Setting Clear Targets ∆ CRITERIA FOR HIGH QUALITY ASSESSMENT
→ Assessment targets, also known as learning 1. Assessment of Higher-Order Cognitive Skills:
outcomes or objectives, specify what students are Most of the tasks students encounter should tap the
expected to know or do as a result of the kinds of cognitive skills that have been characterized
assessment. as “higher-level” – skills that support transferable
→ Targets should be clear, measurable, and aligned learning, rather than emphasizing only skills that tap
with curriculum standards or educational goals. rote learning and the use of basic procedures. While
✓ Benefits of Clear and Appropriate Targets there is a necessary place for basic skills and
→ Clear targets provide a roadmap for assessment procedural knowledge, it must be balanced with
development and student learning. attention to critical thinking and applications of
→ They facilitate the alignment of assessment knowledge to new contexts.
content with instructional content. 2. High-Fidelity Assessment of Critical Abilities:
2. APPROPRIATE METHODS In addition to key subject matter concepts,
✓ Choosing Assessment Methods assessments should include the critical abilities
→ High quality assessment use appropriate methods articulated in the standards, such as communication
that align with the assessment‟s purpose and (speaking, reading, writing, and listening in
targets. multi-media forms), collaboration, modelling,
→ Assessment methods can include tests, quizzes, complex problem solving, planning, reflection, and
projects, observations, portfolio, and more. research. Tasks should measure theses abilities
→ Methods should be chosen based on their ability directly as they will be used in the real world, rather
to provide valid and reliable data. than through a remote proxy.
Benefits of Appropriate Methods: 3. Standards that are Internationally
→ Using suitable methods enhances the students‟ Benchmarked: The assessments should be as
validity, ensuring that it measures what it intends to rigorous as those of the leading countries, in terms of
measure. the kind and content and tasks they present, as well
→ It allows for varied and engaging assessment as the level of performance they expect.
experiences that cater to diverse learning styles. 4. Use of Items that are Instructionally Sensitive
3. ADEQUATE SAMPLING and Educationally Valuable: The tasks should be
✓ Sampling Student Work designed so that the underlying concepts can be
→ Adequate sampling refers to the selection of a taught and learned, rather than reflecting students‟
representative sample of a student‟s work or differential access to outside-of-school experiences
performance. (frequently associated with their socio-economic
status or cultural context) or depending on tricky
→ Sampling should cover a range of content or skills interpretations that mostly reflect test-taking skills.
to provide a comprehensive view of a student‟s Preparing for and participating in the assessments
abilities. should engage students in instructionally valuable
✓ Benefits of Adequate Sampling activities, and results from the tests should provide
→ Adequate sampling reduces the risk of drawing instructionally useful information.
inaccurate conclusions based on a limited sample. 5. Assessments that are Valid, Reliable, and Fair:
→ It provides a more accurate assessment of a In order to be truly valid for a wide range of learners,
student‟s over-all performance. assessments should measure well what they purport
4. OBJECTIVITY to measure, accurately evaluate students‟ abilities,
✓ Objective Assessment and do so reliably across testing contexts and
→ Objectivity in assessment means that the scoring scores. They should also be unbiased and
or evaluation process is fair, unbiased, and accessible and used in ways that support positive
consistent. outcomes for students and instructional quality.
∆ RECENT TRENDS AND FOCUS field‟ that must precede a genuinely fair assessment
→ Recent trends in classroom assessment have situation.
emerged. Heavy objective testing at the end of an → Fairness assessment can be achieved in different
instruction is being replaced by alternative ways, with some conditions or strategies being more
assessments that may be done during the teaching important in some situations than others, depending
process. Alternative assessments include authentic on the purpose of the assessment and the
assessment, performance-based assessment, individuals assessed.
portfolios, exhibitions, demonstrations, journals, and
other forms of assessment that allow students to Conditions for Fairer Educational
construct their original responses. Assessment
1. Opportunity to learn. It can simply mean
1. ACCOUNTABILITY AND exposure to test content or refer more broadly to the
FAIRNESS/ACCOUNTABILITY AND PURPOSE alignment between curriculum and assessment. It
→ Accountability is a more encompassing term than can also refer to a gamut of socio-economic and
assessment. It can include more than the collection educational factors that enable learning, including
of data from tests, record reviews, and other the availability and quality of resources (i.e.,
performance assessments. teachers, learning materials, technology, etc.) and
→ A system is accountable for all students when it students‟ ability to use them within an environment
makes sure that all students count (or participate) in or system. While ensuring opportunity to learn for
the evaluation program of the education system. every student in the fullest sense is a social justice
Counting all students does not mean that all students issue beyond the scope of any one assessment, it
can take the same tests. Rather, it means that all should be considered in planning and interpreting
students‟ learning progress are accounted for and results in both classroom and external assessment.
included when reporting on the education system. 2. Constructive environment. It is one that
→ The reporting of test results represents the respectfully encourages students to fully participate
simplest form of accountability. and disclose their knowledge and learning through
→ Stronger incentives for educational change are assessment. This requires an extent of buy- in,
provided by accountability mechanisms that use meaning that an assessment must be perceived as
information from assessments to make worthwhile, or at least necessary. Interactions
consequential decisions about students, teachers, or between students, teachers, principals, and parents
schools. can affect the environment for external assessments
→ Assessment and accountability policies can and hence the quality results. For classroom
provide clear direction for teachers and principals in assessment to genuinely and openly serve learning,
terms of student outcomes and can become a high levels of trust and respect must be nurtured, not
positive impetus for instructional and curricular only between teachers and students but also
changes (Goertz, 2000, Kelley, et al., 2000, O‟Day & between classroom peers.
Smith, 1993, Popham, 2000). 3. Evaluative thinking. This involves asking
→ When assessments are aligned with learning questions, identifying assumptions, seeking evidence
goals, accountability systems can motivate and considering different explanations, or in brief,
classroom instruction to focus on those outcomes critically evaluating assessment practices. In external
(Stecher, et al., 1998). assessment, evaluative thinking should be part of a
Policy makers and educators in many states view formal process (i.e., panel reviews, DIF). In
assessment linked with accountability as a powerful classroom assessment, teachers‟ self-evaluation
strategy for ensuring that all students are held to the about assessment tools, tasks, and interactions
same set of high standards (Grissmer & Flanagan, should be part of reflective practice. Reflection is
1998, Massell et al., 1997, Olson, 2001). particularly important for recognizing assumptions or
→ Fairness is closely related to, but distinct from, the beliefs that might lead to bias, and for receptivity to
societal concepts of equality, equity, and justice and the knowledge and learning of diverse students,
the measurement concepts of bias, reliability, and even when it diverges from the expected. Most
validity. importantly, all educational assessments benefit from
→ Differences in performance on a test may be due the acceptance of responsibility for fairness and
to differing access to learning, or because the test is thoughtful planning administration and interpretation.
biased in favor of one group.
→ Wood (1987) described these different aspects of 1. ACCOUNTABILITY AND PURPOSE
fairness as the opportunity to acquire talent (access
issues) and the opportunity to show talent to good ✓ Accountability in Education
effect (fairness in the assessment). → Accountability has become a central theme in
→ Fairness in assessment cannot be considered in education, emphasizing the need for schools,
isolation from access issues in the curriculum and teachers, and institutions to take responsibility for
the educational opportunities offered to the students: student outcomes and performance.
fairness in access opportunities both to schooling
and to the curriculum provides the „level playing
→ It involves measuring and evaluating educational § Standards-based education, therefore, involves
processes and outcomes to ensure that schools are using pre-determined standards to plan the scope
meeting specific goals and standards. and sequence of instruction, as well as what
✓ Purpose-Driven Education activities and materials will be used to achieve the
→ Purpose-driven education focuses on aligning goals of each standard. Assessments are used in
educational goals with a clear sense of purpose and standards-based education to determine the
direction on-going progress of students, which will drive
It encourages students to connect their learning instruction choices and to document that students
experiences with personal and societal goals. have reached mastery of the standards for each
→ Emphasizes the importance of understanding the grade.
“why” behind education to motivate and engage
students. § In schools that use standards-based approaches to
✓ Key Takeaways educating students, learning standards – i.e.
→ Accountability ensures that educational concise, written descriptions of what students are
institutions are held responsible for student success. expected to know and be able to do at a specific
→ Purpose-driven education connects learning with stage of their education – determine the goals of a
a sense of meaning and direction, motivating lesson or course, and teachers then determine how
students to excel. and what to teach students so they achieve the
✓ Trend learning expectations described in the standards.
→ Increased emphasis on accountability in
education, with a focus on clear educational goals § Most standards-based approaches to educating
and outcomes. students use state learning standards to determine
academic expectations and define “proficiency” in a
2. STANDARDS-BASED EDUCATION given course, subject area, or grade level.
→ An educational or learning standard is a written
description of what students are expected to know or § The general goal of standards-based learning is to
be able to do by a certain time in their educational ensure that students are acquiring the knowledge
career. Standards do not indicate the curriculum or and skills that are deemed to be essential to success
materials to be used to meet student goals. in school, higher education, careers, and adult life. If
→ Standards-based refers to systems of instruction, students fail to meet expected learning standards,
assessment, grading, and academic reporting that they typically receive additional instruction, practice
are based on students demonstrating understanding time, and academic support to help them achieve
or mastery of the knowledge and skills they are proficiency or meet the learning expectations
expected to learn as they progress through their described in the standards.
education.
✓ What is Standards-Based Education? ∆ Importance of Standards-Based Education
→ Standards-Based Education involves designing 1. Students are completely aware of what they are
curricula and assessments around clear learning expected to know or be able to do. The standards
standards and objectives. are clear and precise, often written in kid-friendly
→It defines what students should know and be able language. Many teachers post the standards for
to do at each grade level or educational stage each content area so students see how each lesson
✓ Benefits of Standards-Based Education fits into bigger plan.
→ Provides consistency and uniformity in education, 2. By adopting and following standards, and
ensuring that all students receive a similar education informing students of their goals, administrators can
regardless of location. hold teachers and students accountable for
→ Facilitates the assessment of student progress classroom progress.
and helps identify areas where additional support 3. Standards-based instruction guides planning and
may be needed. instruction and helps teachers keep their focus on
✓ Challenge the learning target. Teachers aware of what materials
→ Critics argue that a strict focus on standards can were taught in previous years and what will be taught
lead to “teaching to the test” and limit educators‟ in years to come. They are free to concentrate on the
creativity and flexibility. limited number of skills and concepts included in
✓ Key Takeaways their grade-level standards.
→ Standards-Based Education sets clear 4. Well-written standards include not only what
expectations for learning outcomes. students will be able to do and what they will know
→ Balancing standards with innovative teaching but also the expected time in their education they
methods is essential for a well-rounded education. should have mastered the skill or concept. Students
✓ Trend can set their own goals and track their own progress.
→ Adoption of educational standards that define
what students should know and be able to do at ∆ The Benefits of Standards-Based Education
each grade level. ✓ Improved Feedback
✓ Student Ownership of Learning
✓ More Relevant Instruction
✓ Emotional Safety and Lessen Fear of Testing the strategies, processes, techniques, and other
✓ Accurate Measurement of Learning ways can be put into place to achieve the goal.
✓ Learning Provides Intrinsic Motivation
§ Outcome-Based Education means clearly focusing
3. OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION (OBE) and organizing everything in an educational system
→ Outcomes are clear learning results that we want around what is essential for all students to be able to
students to demonstrate at the end of significant do successfully at the end of their learning
learning experiences. They are not values, beliefs, experiences. This means starting with a clear picture
attitudes, or psychological states of mind. Instead, of what is important for students to be able to do, the
outcomes are what learners can actually do with organizing curriculum, instruction, and assessment
what they know and have learned they are tangible to make sure this learning ultimately happens.
application of what has been learned. This means
that outcomes are actions and performances that ✓ The keys to having an outcome-based system
embody and reflect learner competence in using are:
content, information, ideas, and tools successfully. 1. Develop a clear set of learning outcomes around
Having learners do important things with what they which all of the system‟s components can be
know is a major step beyond knowing itself. focused; and;
2. Establishing the conditions and opportunities
§ What is Outcomes-Based Education (OBE)? within the system that enable and encourage all
→ OBE shifts the focus from what is taught to what students.
students can demonstrate as a result of their
learning. - For example, the possible outcome “explain the
→ It emphasizes defining clear learning outcomes major causes of inflation in capitalist economies”
and assessing whether students have achieved implies that to be successful, the learner will be
them. expected to develop both the competence of
✓ Key Principles of OBE explaining and the knowledge of the major causes of
→ Clearly Defined Outcomes: Learning Outcomes inflation in capitalist economies.
are specific, measurable, and relevant to real- world
skills and knowledge. - Since outcome-based systems expect learners to
→ Assessment-Centered: Assessment methods earn out the processes defined within an outcome
align with the defined outcomes. statement, they are careful to build those processes
Continuous Improvement: OBE promotes on-going directly into the outcome through demonstration
evaluation and adjustment of curricula. verbs. Therefore, one key to recognizing a
✓ Benefits of OBE well-defined outcome is to look for the demonstration
→ Ensures that education is relevant and prepares verb or verbs that define which processes the learner
students for real-life challenges. is expected to carry out at the end.
→ Facilitates student-centered learning, allowing
learners to take ownership of their education. 4. ITEM RESPONSE THEORY
✓ Challenge ✓ What is Item Response Theory?
→ Designing and assessing clear learning outcomes → Item Response Theory (IRT) is a statistical
can be complex and time-consuming. framework used in educational assessment to
✓ Key Takeaways analyse the performance of test items and the
→ OBE focuses on the practical application of abilities of test takers.
knowledge and skills. → It models the relationship between a person‟s
→ It encourages students to become active ability and their likelihood of responding correctly to
participants in their learning journey. individual test items.
✓ Trend ✓ Key Concepts in IRT
→ Shifting the focus from what is taught to what → Item Parameters: IRT calculates item difficulty and
students actually learn and can demonstrate through discrimination parameters, which help determine
measurable outcomes. how well an item discrimination between high and
low-ability students.
§ Outcome-Based Education (OBE) is a process that → Person Parameters: It estimates a person‟s ability
involves the restructuring of curriculum, assessment level based on their responses to multiple items.
and reporting practices in education to reflect the ✓ Benefits of IRT
achievement of higher order learning and mastery → IRT provides more precise and informative
rather than the accumulation of credit limits (Tucker, measures of student ability.
2004). Thus, the primary aim of OBE is to facilitate → It allows for computerized adaptive testing,
desired changes within learners, by increasing tailoring test questions to an individual‟s ability level.
knowledge, developing skills and/or positively ✓ Challenge
influencing attitudes, values and judgment. OBE → Implementing IRT requires specialized knowledge
embodies the idea that the best way to learn is to in statistics and psychometrics.
first determine what needs to be achieved. Once the
end goal (product/outcome) has been determined,
✓ Key Takeaways the resulting scores are representatives of the total
→ IRT enhances the accuracy and fairness of performance in the areas measured.
educational assessment. 3. Use appropriate test items. The test items
→ It has the potential to revolutionize the way constructed must be appropriate to measure learning
standardized tests are designed and administered. outcomes.
✓ Trend 4. Make test valid and reliable. The teacher must
→ Implementing of advanced assessment methods, construct a test that is valid so that in can measure
such as IRT, to improve the accuracy and fairness of what is supposed to measure from the students. The
testing. test is reliable when the scores of the students
remain the same or consistent when the teacher
§ Psychometric theory offers two approaches in gives the same test for the second time.
analysing test data: the Classical Test Theory (CTT) 5. Use test to improve learning. The test scores
and the Item Response Theory (IRT). should be utilize by the teacher properly to improve
learning by discussing the skills or competencies on
WEEK 4 the items that have not been learned or mastered by
the learners.
∆ Designing and Developing Assessments

∆ Characteristics of Quality Assessment Tools

→ Assessment tools are techniques used to
measure a student’s academic abilities, skills, and/or
fluency in a given subject or to measure one’s
progress toward academic proficiency in a specific
subject area.
→ It is the instrument (form, test, rubric, etc.) that is
used to collect data for each outcome. The actual
product that is handed out to students for the
purpose of assessing whether they have achieved a 1. Objective Test. It requires student to select the
particular learning outcome(s). correct response or to supply a word or short phrase
→ Assessments can be either formal or informal. to answer a question or complete statement. It
Informal assessments are often inferences an includes true-false, matching type, and
educator draws as a function of unsystematic multiple-choice questions. The word objective refers
observations of a student’s performance in the to the scoring, it indicates that there is only one
subject matter under consideration. Formal
assessments are objective measurements of a correct answer.
student’s abilities, skills, and fluency using 2. Subjective Test. It permits the student to organize
screening, progress monitoring, diagnosis, or and present an original answer. It includes either
evaluation. Both types of assessments are important;
short answer questions or long general questions.
however, only formal assessments are research, or
evidence-based. This type of test has no specific answer. Hence, it is
usually scored on an opinion basis, although there
→ Educators use assessment tools to make will be certain facts and understanding expected in
informed decisions regarding strategies to enhance
student learning. the answer.
3. Performance Assessment. Is an assessment in
which students are asked to perform real-world tasks
that demonstrate meaningful application of essential
knowledge and skills. It can appropriately measure
learning objectives which focus on the ability of the
students to demonstrate skills or knowledge in
real-life situations.
4. Portfolio Assessment. It is an assessment that is
based on the systematic, longitudinal collection of
student work created in response to specific, known
instructional objectives and evaluated in relation to
the same criteria. Portfolio is a purposeful collection
1. Measure all instructional objectives. When a
of students’ work that exhibits the students’ efforts,
teacher constructs test items to measure the learning
progress and achievements in one or more areas
progress of the students, they should match all the
over a period of time. It measures the growth and
learning objectives posed during instruction. That is
development of students.
why the first step in constructing a test is for the
5. Oral Questioning. This method is used to collect
teacher to go back to the instructional objectives.
assessment data by asking oral questions. The most
2. Cover all the learning tasks. Teacher should
commonly used of all forms of assessment in class,
construct a test that contains a wide range of
assuming that the learner hears and shares the use
sampling of [Link] this case, the teacher can
of common language with the teacher during
determine the educational outcomes or abilities that
instruction. The ability of the students to
communicate orally is very relevant to this type of 7. Administrability means the test should be
assessment. This is also a form of formative administered uniformly to all students so that the
assessment. scores obtained will not vary due to factors other
6. Observation Technique. This is a method of than differences of the students’ knowledge and
collecting assessment data. The teacher will observe skills. There should be a clear provision for
how students carry out certain activities either instruction for the students, proctors and even the
observing the process or product. There are two one who will check the test.
types of observation techniques: formal and informal 8. Practicality and Efficiency refers to the teacher’s
observations. Formal observations are planned in familiarity with the methods used, time required for
advance like when the teacher assess oral report or the assessment, complexity of the administration,
presentation in class while informal observation is ease of scoring, ease of interpretation of the test
done spontaneously, during instruction like observing results and the materials used must be at the lowest
the working behavior of students while performing a cost.
laboratory experiment.
7. Self-report. The responses of the students may ∆ Types of Teacher-made Tests
be used to evaluate both performance and attitude.
Assessment tools could include sentence § Selection-type or Objective Test Items
completion, Likert scales, checklists, or holistic
scales. ✓ Multiple-choice Test
→ A multiple-choice test is used to measure
knowledge outcomes and other types of learning
outcomes such as comprehension and applications.
It is the most commonly used format in measuring
student achievements at different levels of learning.
Multiple-choice item consists of three parts: the
stem, the keyed option and the incorrect options or
alternatives. The stem represents the problem or
question usually expressed in completion form or
questions form. The keyed option is the correct
1. Validity refers to appropriateness of score-based answer. The incorrect options or alternatives also
inferences; or decisions made based on the called distracters or foil.
students’ test results. The extent to which a test
measured what is supposed to measure. ✓ Guidelines in Constructing Multiple-choice
2. Reliability refers to the consistency of Test
measurement; that is, how consistent test results or 1. Construct each item to assess a single written
other assessment results from one measurement to objective
another. A test is reliable when it can be used to 2. Base each item on a specific problem stated
predict practically the same scores when the test clearly in the stem.
administered twice to the same group of students 3. Include as much of the item as possible in the
and with a reliability index of 0.61 above. stem, but do not include irrelevant material.
3. Fairness means the test item should not have any 4. State the stem in positive form (in general).
biases. It should not be offensive to any examinee 5. Word the alternatives clearly and concisely
subgroup. A test can only be good if it is fair to all the 6. Keep the alternatives mutually exclusive
examinees. 7. Keep the alternatives homogeneous in content.
4. Objectivity refers to the agreement of two or 8. Keep the alternatives free from clues as to which
more raters or test administrators concerning the response is correct.
score of a student. If the two raters who assess the ​ 8.1 Keep the grammar of each alternative
same student on the same test cannot agree on the consistent with the stem
score, the test lacks objectivity and neither of the ​ 8.2 Keep the alternatives parallel in form.
score from the judges is valid. Lack of objectivity ​ 8.3 Keep the alternatives similar in length.
reduces test validity in the same way that the lack of ​ 8.4 Avoid textbook, verbatim phrasing.
reliability influence validity. ​ 8.5 Avoid the use of specific determiners.
5. Scorability means that the test should be easy to ​ 8.6 Avoid including keywords in the
score, direction for scoring should be clearly stated alternatives.
in the instruction. Provide the students an answer ​ 8.7 Use plausible distracters.
sheet and the answer key for the one who will check 9. Avoid the alternatives “all of the above” and “none
the test. of the above” (in general).
6. Adequacy means that the test should contain a 10. Use as many functional distracters as are
wide range of sampling of items determine the feasible.
educational outcomes or abilities so that the resulting 11. Include one and only one correct or clearly best
scores are representatives of the total performance answer in each item.
in the areas measured.
12. Present the answer in each of the alternative Guidelines in Constructing True or False Test
positions approximately an equal number of times, in 1. Avoid writing a very long sentence statement.
a random order. Eliminate unnecessary word(s) in the statement.
13. Lay out the items in a clear and consistent 2. Avoid trivial questions.
manner 3. It should contain only one idea in each item except
14. Use proper grammar, punctuation, and spelling. for statement showing the relationship between
15. Avoid using unnecessarily difficult vocabulary. cause and effect.
16. Analyze the effectiveness of each item after each 4. It can be used for establishing cause and effect
administration of the test. relationship.
5. Avoid using negative or double negatives.
✓ Matching Type Test Construct the statement positively. If this cannot be
→ Matching type item consists of two columns. avoided, bold negative words or underline it to call
Column A contains the descriptions and must be the attention of the examinees.
placed at the left side while column b contains the 6. Avoid using opinion-based statement, if it cannot
options and placed at the right side. The examinees be avoided, the statement should be attributed to
are asked to match the options that are associated somebody
with the descriptions. 7. Avoid specific determiner such as “never,”
“always,” “all,” “none,” for they tend to appear in the
Guidelines in Constructing Matching Type Test statements that are false.
1. The descriptions and options must be short and 8. Avoid specific determiner such as “some,”
homogeneous. “sometimes,” and “may” for they tend to appear in
2. The descriptions must be written at the left side the statements that are true.
and marked it with Column A and the options must 9. The number of true items must be the same with
be written at the right side and marked it with the number of false items.
Column B to save time for the examinees. 10. Avoid grammatical clues that lead to correct
3. There should be more options than descriptions or answer such as the article 9a, an, the).
indicate in the directions that each option may be 11. Avoid statement directly taken from the textbook.
used more than once to decrease the chance of 12. Avoid arranging the statements in a logical order
guessing. such as (TTTTTFFFFF, TFTFTFTFTF, etc.).
4. Matching directions should specify the basis for 13. Directions should indicate where or how the
matching. Failure to indicate how matches should be students should mark their answer.
marked can greatly increase the time consumed by
the teacher in scoring.
5. Avoid too many correct answers. § Supply type or Subjective type of Test Items
6. When using names, always include the complete
name (first name and surname) to avoid ambiguities. ✓ Completion type or Short Answer Test
7. Use numbers for the descriptions and capital → Completion or Short Answer Test is an alternative
letters for the options to avoid confusions to the form of assessment because the examinee needs to
students that have a reading problem. supply or create the appropriate word(s), symbol(s)
8. Arrange the options into a chronological order or or number(s) to answer the question or complete a
alphabetical order. statement rather than selecting the answer from the
9. The descriptions and options must be written in given [Link] are two ways of constructing
the same page. completion type of test: question form or complete
10. A minimum of three items and a maximum of the statement form.
seven items for elementary level and a maximum of
seventeen items for secondary and tertiary levels. Guidelines in Constructing Completion type or
Short Answer Test
✓ True or False Type 1. The item should require a single word answer or
→ In this type of test, the examinees determine brief and definite statement. Do not use indefinite
whether the statement presented is true or false. statement that allows several answers.
True or false test item is an example of a 2. Be sure that the language used in the statement is
“force-choice test” because there are only two precise and accurate in relation to the subject matter
possible choices in this type of test. The students are being tested.
required to choose the answer true or false in 3. Be sure to omit only key words; do not eliminate
recognition to a correct statement or incorrect so many words so that the meaning of the item
statement. This type of test is appropriate in statement will not change.
assessing the behavioral objectives such as 4. Do not leave the blank at the beginning or within
‘identify,” “select,” or “recognize.” It is also suited to the statement. It should be at the end of the
assess the knowledge and comprehension level in statement.
cognitive domain. This is appropriate when there are 5. Use direct question rather than incomplete
only two plausible alternatives or distracters. statement. The statement should pose the problem
to the examinee.
6. Be sure to indicate the units in which to be Guidelines for Writing Problem-solving Test
expresses when the statement requires numerical Items
answer. 1. Clearly identify and explain the problem.
7. Be sure that the answer the student is required to 2. Provide directions which clearly inform the student
produce is factually correct. of the type of response called for.
8. Avoid grammatical clues. 3. State the directions whether or not the student
9. Do not select textbook sentences. must show his/her work procedures for full or partial
credit.
✓ Essay Items 4. Clearly separate item parts and indicate their point
→ It is appropriate when assessing students’ ability values.
to organize and present original ideas. It consists of 5. Use figures, conditions, situations which create a
a few number of questions wherein the examinee is realistic problem.
expected to demonstrate the ability to recall factual 6. Ask questions that elicit response on which
knowledge; organize his knowledge; and present his experts could agree that one solution and one or
knowledge in logical and integrated answer. more work procedures are better than others.
Extended response essay and restricted response 7. Work through each problem before classroom
essay are the two types of essay test items. administration to double-check accuracy.
Extended Response Essay allows the students to
determine the length and complexity of the response.
It is very useful in assessing the synthesis and
evaluation skills of the students. When the objective
is to determine whether the students can organize
ideas, integrate and express ideas, evaluate
information in knowledge, it is best to use extended
response essay test. Restricted Response Essay is
an essay item that places strict limits on both content
and the response given by the students. This type of
essay, the content usually restricted by the scope of
the topic to be discussed and the limitations on the
form of the response is indicated in the question.

Guidelines in Constructing Essay Test Items

1. Construct essay question used to measure
complex learning outcomes only.
2. Essay questions should relate directly to the
learning outcomes to be measured.
3. Formulate essay questions that present a clear
task to be performed.
4. An item should be stated precisely and it must
clearly focus on the desired answer.
5. All students should be required to answer the
same question.
6. Number of points and time spent in answering the
question must be indicated in each item.
7. Specify the number of words, paragraphs or the
number of sentences for the answer.
8. The scoring system must be discussed or
presented to the students.

✓ Problem-Solving Test
→ Problem-solving test or computational test is a
type of subjective test that presents a problem
situation or task and required demonstration of work
procedures and correct solution, or just a correct
solution. Teacher can assign full of partial credit to
either correct or incorrect solutions depending on the
quality and kind of work procedures presented.