Module 2 - What is blockchain

1.1 What Is Blockchain?

1.2 Navigation help

1.3 Objectives

Watch the following video to get an overview of this module.

[Link]

TRANSCRIPT
Hello, and welcome to Module 2, “What is Blockchain?”
While Module 1 provided a basic overview of blockchain and its potential
impact on trade, this module gives an in-depth explanation of the technology
and how it works.
As we’ve seen, distributed ledgers reflect continuously growing databases of
transaction records. Blockchain is a type of these technologies that combines
data into “blocks” that are then “chained” to each other using cryptography -
hence, the name “blockchain”.
As transactions are shared, verified and validated on a peer-to-peer basis,
blockchains can operate without the need for a central authority or trusted
intermediaries.
Thus, to better understand blockchain’s technical underpinnings, this module
further differentiates between blockchain and distributed ledger technology.
It also explores different categories of blockchains, as blockchain platforms
can be public or private and they can be accessible by everyone or restricted.
The module further explains how blockchain transactions and smart contracts
work in practice and introduces complementary technologies, including the
Internet of Things.

The overall objective of this module is to explain what blockchain technology

is and how it works.

In this module, you will learn:

[Link] is blockchain versus distributed ledger technology (DLT)?
[Link] are the different types of blockchains?
[Link] do blockchain and related technologies work?

1.4 What Is (And Isn’t)

1.5 Answer the question

Feedback
The correct answer is: true.
While blockchain is a form of distributed ledger technology (DLT), not all DLTs
are blockchains.
Although blockchain is only one type of DLT, the term is commonly used to
refer to DLT in general.

1.6 The difference between blockchain and DLT

Basic and catchy, the term blockchain is often used to refer to distributed
ledger technology (DLT).
A distributed ledger is a digital ledger of transactions - a list, spreadsheet or
database - that is shared among peers in a distributed network.
However, blockchain is only one type of DLT that compiles data in “blocks”
that are then “chained” to each other using cryptography.
Blockchain is the most well-known and widely tested distributed ledger
technology. Yet an increasing number of DLTs are moving away from the
concept of “blocks” of data or from both the concepts of “blocks” and “chain”.
Note: To facilitate learning, this course will refer to both DLT and blockchain
interchangeably.

BLOCKCHAIN’S “BUILDING BLOCKS”

Like Lego blocks, different components can be assembled in ways that create
distinctive features and types of blockchains.
Ganne (2018)

1.7 Participants

• Blockchain platforms allow users to transact via a network.

• A blockchain is managed by devices, computers or servers, called nodes, on
a peer-to-peer (P2P) basis without need for intermediaries who traditionally
authenticate transactions (e.g. banks).
• Data added to a blockchain is shared with all authorized participants and is
verified and validated by those with appropriate permissions.
• As data is replicated as many times as there are participating nodes,
falsifying data or compromising the whole network would require
compromising a large number of nodes, which is difficult in practice
(although not impossible).
• All participants in a blockchain - or involved in a specific transaction -
 therefore have access to the same information, a trusted ledger, at any time.

1.8 Encryption

The term encryption, often used interchangeably with cryptography, only

refers to one type of cryptographic technique used by blockchain technology
(along with hashing and digital signatures).
If a message sender does not wish participants to see its plain text information
(e.g. data in documents), the sender can encrypt it into ciphertext and render
the data unintelligible to those without authorized access.
Algorithms, instructions performed by a computer, can be used as a key to
encrypt a message, decrypt it (decipher it back into plain text) or both.
Two types of keys can be used in encryption:
1) Symmetric key algorithms (private key cryptography): The same “secret”
key is used to both encrypt and decrypt electronic information.
2) Asymmetric key algorithms (public key cryptography): Different keys are
used to encrypt and decrypt electronic information.

PUBLIC KEY CRYPTOGRAPHY

Public key cryptography involves two keys that work in a paired fashion:
• A public key that is accessible to third parties;
• A private key that is kept secret by the generator of the pair.
This is referred to as public key infrastructure (PKI).
Use of different keys makes public key cryptography more convenient to
implement than private key cryptography, but increases risk of malicious
attack.
To mitigate this risk, an additional layer of security is provided by the
introduction of digital certificates that link a public key to a particular entity or
individual, delivered by trusted certificate authorities.
1.9 Hashing

Transaction data entered onto the blockchain is hashed and encrypted.

Hashing is a cryptographic technique that applies a mathematical function - a
hash algorithm -
to convert data into a new digital string of a predefined and fixed length: a
hash.

Source [Link]

Records cannot easily be changed or deleted after validation of transactions

by leveraging hash algorithms and hash pointers.
Hash pointers contain the hash of the data inside the previous block of data
and thus link the respective blocks into a “chain”.

Several properties make hashing an interesting tool to ensure data integrity

and prevent forgery:
• A set of data (input) will always give the same hash (output). This is
important for verifying the integrity of data.
• If a piece of information produces different hashes for the sender and the
receiver, it implies that it has been tampered with during transit.

Hashing is:
• Very efficient - computing an output from an input is a rapid process.
• “Puzzle-friendly” - if an output is obtained by combining two sets of inputs, it
is nearly impossible to identify the value of one of them if the second is
already known.
• “Collision”-resistant - the likelihood that two different inputs would randomly
give the same outputs is extremely limited.

Hashing is often referred to as one-way encryption, as it is extremely difficult

to determine the original input from its hash value. The probability of guessing
it would require a daunting amount of computational power.

A HASH OF THE PREVIOUS BLOCK IS ADDED AFTER THE "GENESIS"

BLOCK.

1.10 Digital signature

A digital signature is a cryptographic technique that securely associates a

signer with a document in a recorded transaction. It is the electronic
equivalent of a person’s physical signature.
Digital signatures are unique to each signer and are produced using a public
key and a private key together.
An encrypted hash provides means of validating the data’s digital signature
(i.e. the hash values match).
When data is transmitted between a sender and a receiver, the use of digital
signatures guarantees:
Authentication: the message was created and sent by the claimed sender.
Data integrity: the message was not altered in transit.
Data integrity: the sender cannot deny having sent the message.

1.11 Consensus

To maintain a single source of truth among peers, blockchain’s distributed

network uses a consensus protocol: an algorithm through which transactions
are validated and blocks are signed into the blockchain. In other words, a
consensus algorithm determines which blocks get added to the chain.
Consensus protocols ensure a common, unambiguous ordering of
transactions and blocks, and guarantee the integrity and consistency of the
blockchain across geographically distributed nodes.
The consensus protocol determines the rules by which the ledger is updated,
which allows participants with no specific trust in each other to collaborate
without reliance on a trusted third party.
Each peer keeps a complete copy of the data (or as close as possible), and
updates are shared with all participants simultaneously.
The consensus protocol used depends on the type of blockchain and the level
of trust and control required.
1.12 Common types of consensus protocols

PROOF OF WORK (POW)

Requires that participants who validate blocks, known as miners, show that
they have invested significant computing power to solve a cryptographic
puzzle (a mathematical problem based
on the consensus rule).
Miners compete with each other to validate (i.e. mine) a block and add it to the
blockchain. They do this by churning out enough random guesses on their
computer to solve the puzzle.
Miners have a financial incentive
to process many transactions as quickly as possible. Once the first miner has
found the solution, it provides the other nodes with the solution.
The solution is then verified and consensus is reached. The miner who
validates the new block is rewarded with Bitcoins. The level of difficulty of the
mathematical problem increases as blocks are mined.
PoW is the consensus protocol used by the Bitcoin blockchain. Though
wasteful in terms of energy expense, PoW makes the blockchain
mathematically very hard to hack (the cost of hacking becomes too high).
Although hacking the system is not impossible, it is economically inefficient
and practically extremely hard.
PROOF OF STAKE (POS)
To overcome PoW’s energy consumption disadvantage, PoS replaces mining
with rewards in proportion to the amount of the validators’ stake
(ownership/assets in the network). This arguably enhances network security.
PoS is best used by organizations that have limited computing power

PROOF OF ELAPSED TIME (POET)

Uses a random leader election model, or lottery-based election, with the
protocol randomly selecting the next leader to finalize the block.

PRACTICAL BYZANTINE FAULT TOLERANCE ALGORITHM (PBFT)

Each node distributes a public key, and messages are signed by each node.
When enough identical responses have been achieved, the transaction is
deemed valid. After PBFT, several Byzantine Fault Tolerance protocols were
developed to improve robustness and performance.

FEDERATED BYZANTINE AGREEMENT

Uses a federated voting process that is a variant of the Byzantine Fault
Tolerance consensus model.
1.13 Incentives

Certain blockchains (e.g. public blockchains, explored in the next lecture)

must ensure that participants are financially incentivized to reach consensus.
• Fees charged in return on users differ significantly between platforms.
On the Bitcoin blockchain, achieving a reward for its transaction verification
process requires the performance of complex mathematical problems.
• Mining is the process by which transactions are verified and added to the
Bitcoin blockchain. It is also the means through which new bitcoins are
released.
• The miner (or validator) who first solves a mathematical problem gets to
place the next block on the blockchain and claim rewards.
• A nonce is a random sequence of numbers that miners have to find in order
to validate a block.
• Rewards, to incentivize mining, consist of both transaction fees associated
with the transactions placed in the block and newly released Bitcoins.
• Anyone with the appropriate means (electricity, internet access and suitable
hardware) can participate in mining.

THE BREAKTHROUGH FEATURE: IMMUTABILITY

While the various techniques (digital signatures, hashing and encryption) have
been mainstays of information technology (IT) security for several decades,
their resistance to malicious attacks has been constantly challenged.
Improvements were made, with no major breakthroughs until the arrival of
blockchain technology.
Blockchain’s breakthrough feature was that it dovetailed the properties of
several technologies and introduced alterations to deliver a higher level of
security.
Distributed and tamper-proof, when a block is validated and added to the
chain, timestamping provides a secure proof of the exact time at which the
data was added and existed.
Immutability (the fact that records cannot easily be changed or deleted after
validation) is achieved through hashing. Also of importance is the fact that
blockchains are decentralized and distributed by nature, making tampering
extremely difficult.
As hash pointers in the blockchain contain the hash of the data inside the
previous block, a change in data in one block will cause all the previous
blocks to change.
This one small tweak is at the heart of blockchain’s immutability feature. It
makes it extremely reliable.

1.14 The breakthrough feature: immutability

The breakthrough feature: immutability

While the various techniques (digital signatures, hashing and encryption) have
been mainstays
of information technology (IT) security for several decades, their resistance to
malicious attacks has been constantly challenged. Improvements were made,
with no major breakthroughs until the arrival of blockchain technology.
Blockchain’s breakthrough feature was that it dovetailed the properties of
several technologies and introduced alterations to deliver a higher level of
security.
Distributed and tamper-proof, when a block is validated and added to the
chain, timestamping provides a secure proof of the exact time at which the
data was added and existed.
Immutability (the fact that records cannot easily be changed or deleted after
validation) is achieved through hashing. Also of importance is the fact that
blockchains are decentralized and distributed by nature, making tampering
extremely difficult.
As hash pointers in the blockchain contain the hash
of the data inside the previous block, a change
in data in one block will cause all the previous
blocks to change.
This one small tweak is at the heart of blockchain’s immutability feature. It
makes it extremely reliable.

1.15 Answer the question

The correct answer is: False.

Not all DLTs take a “blocks” and/or “chain” approach.
1.16 Answer the questions

Feedback
Asymmetric key algorithm
Different keys are used to encrypt and decrypt information (a public key and a
private key).
Hashing
Converting data into a new digital string of a predefined and fixed length.
Digital signature
Securely associates a signer with a document in a recorded transaction.
Immutability
The fact that records cannot easily be changed or deleted after validation.
Consensus protocol
Determines which blocks get added to the chain.
1.17 Answer the question

The correct answer, a PoW consensus algorithm, makes a public blockchain

(e.g. Bitcoin) very hard to hack (it is economically inefficient and technically
difficult to do so).

1.18 The Different Types

1.19 Answer the question

Feedback
The correct answer is - there are several ways to classify the different types of
blockchains.
1.20 The different types of blockchains

Blockchain platforms are often classified as:

Public vs private (degree of centralization):
• Public: no specific entity manages the blockchain;
• Private: the platform is controlled by a single entity or managed by a
consortium of companies.
The distinction between public and private blockchains is linked to:
• The management of the platform (who manages it);
• User authentication (level of anonymity of participants).
The different types distinguish themselves by their degree of decentralization.
Permissionless vs permissioned (extent to which access to the platform is
restricted):
• Permissionless: the blockchain is open to everyone;
• Permissioned: restrictions can be imposed on who can read and/or write on
the blockchain.

The difference between a permissionless and a permissioned blockchain

Permissionless: a blockchain that is open to anyone with a device (e.g.
computer), with no restrictions imposed on who can access the platform and
validate transactions
Permissioned: a blockchain in which access is restricted. Access can be
restricted at various levels depending on the specificities of the platform, in
particular whether it is a public, consortium or private platform: to read data,
to propose a new transaction or to validate transactions.
Many blockchain use cases for international trade are based on permissioned
blockchains.

These classifications are sometimes conflated by associating public with

permissionless and private/consortium blockchains with permissioned
blockchains.
Reality is more complicated: some public blockchains can be permissioned.
The actual design of a blockchain depends on the objectives being sought
and on how much decentralization and privacy are desired.
The world of blockchain is fast-changing. As the technology matures and new
models are developed, definitions and classifications continue to evolve and
are not cast in stone.

1.21 The different types of blockchains

PUBLIC BLOCKCHAIN

Public blockchains are highly decentralized.

• No specific entity/entities manage(s) a public blockchain platform,
transactions are public and individual users can maintain anonymity.
• No user is given special privileges on any decision. It relies on the nodes to
come to a consensus before any data is stored on the ledger.

Most public blockchains are permissionless and open to everyone:

• Any individual can download the required software onto their device without
permission and start running a public node, validating transactions and
thereby participating in the consensus protocol that determines which blocks
get added to the chain.
• Anyone can send transactions through the network.
• Any individual can read and write relevant data on the blockchain.
Public blockchain platforms need to ensure that users are financially
incentivized to reach consensus.
• Cryptocurrencies, Bitcoin in particular, are the most typical illustration of
public permissionless blockchains.
• However, some public blockchains are permissioned, with restricted access.

Due to their highly decentralized nature, public blockchains are considered

particularly secure and resistant to malicious attacks, with no single point of
failure, but they face issues of scalability.

PRIVATE BLOCKCHAINS
Permissions to validate and write data onto a private blockchain are controlled
by an entity that is highly trusted by other users, and participants are identified.
• The right to read may be public or restricted to the participants to provide a
greater level of privacy - a feature not available in public blockchains.
• The entity in control has the power to change the rules of the private
blockchain and may decline transactions based on its established rules and
regulations.
• Verification of the transactions is carried out by a restricted number of nodes,
which allows for greater efficiency and much faster processing of
transactions than public blockchains, while requiring much less computing
power.

Permissioned consortium blockchains are widely used in the field of

international trade.
• The use of such platforms is often motivated by the potential to enhance
cooperation and improve processes among institutions: banks, companies
and government agencies.

CONSORTIUM BLOCKCHAINS
Sometimes considered a type of blockchain, there is a sub-type of private
blockchain called a consortium or federated blockchain.
• A consortium blockchain operates under the leadership of a group (rather
than a single entity) in which participants are identified.
• It is a partially decentralized system that, instead of allowing anyone with an
internet connection to participate in the transaction verification process or a
single entity having full control, selected nodes are predetermined.
• These nodes control the consensus process. They can read and/or write the
data and can decide who has access to the blockchain ledger.
• The right to read the blockchain may be public or restricted to the
participants.
Transaction fees may apply for validation (depending on the blockchain’s
rules).
The more centralized nature of these networks makes them less resilient to
outside attacks and there is a greater risk of human tampering of data.

As private and consortium blockchains are usually permissioned blockchains,

they afford participating institutions a degree of control and privacy.

A PRACTICAL EXAMPLE OF A CONSORTIUM BLOCKCHAIN

A consortium blockchain could be formed by 10 companies, each operating a

device connected to the blockchain network.
If Company 2 only trades and shares its invoices with Companies 3, 4 and 5, it
could be decided that permissions to read the shared data be given only to
these companies.
1.22 Answer the question

The correct answer, a consortium blockchain, is partially decentralized.

Instead of allowing anyone to participate in the transaction verification
process or a single entity having full control, selected nodes
are predetermined.

1.23 Answer the question

The correct answer is: True.

As opposed to a permissioned blockchain, a permissionless blockchain
imposes no restrictions on who can access the platform and validate
transactions.

1.24 How Does Blockchain Work?

1.25 Answer the question

Feedback
The correct answer is: False.
This statement is false. A blockchain transaction can involve practically any
type of asset.
1.26 How does a blockchain transaction work?

How does a blockchain transaction work?

A blockchain transaction can involve any type of asset:
Digital (e.g. cryptocurrency or a digital image);
Tangible (e.g. a transfer of property/funds, or exchange of
documents such as for customs);
Intangible (e.g. provision of a service that is exchanged between
participants in a network).
A token is the digital asset used in a blockchain transaction, whether a
natively digital asset or a digital representation of an “off-chain” tangible or
intangible asset.

Note: Blockchains can prevent fraud on a ledger of transactions, yet the

tamper-resistance of the technology cannot prevent false information from
being fed into the ledger.
TRANSACTION STEPS
There are four steps in a typical blockchain-based transaction.
1. Transaction submitted or requested
• Can involve documents, contracts, cryptocurrenty, etc.
• The data are hashed and encrypted.
• Possibility to encrypt documents.

2. The transaction data is broadcast to the peer-to-peer network.

3. Validation (by authorized nodes only in the case of permissioned
blockchains).
Validating nodes take the transaction from the transaction pool and combine it
with other transactions in a block. Block validated based on the consensus
protocol of the blockchain.
4. Validated block added to the chain
It is linked to the previous block in a permanent and unalterable way.
Ganne (2018)

1.27 Transaction steps

STEP 1: TRANSACTION SUBMITTED OR REQUESTED

The sender submits or requests a transaction via message. When a
transaction is submitted, processes guarantee the security of the transaction.
• The sender generates a “key pair”, a public key and a private key.
The public key is made available to the receiver.
• The sender then hashes the data to be sent (converting it into
a new digital string of a predefined and fixed length using
a mathematical function).
• The resulting hash value is encrypted using the sender’s private key. The
encrypted hash forms the data’s digital signature.
If the sender does not wish other participants in the network to see the
message itself, they may encrypt the message.
STEP 2: BROADCAST OF TRANSACTION DATA
• Once the digital signature has been generated and the message has been
hashed and encrypted, they are transmitted to participants in the peer-to-
peer network.
Data is added to an unvalidated pool of transactions.
STEP 3: VALIDATION
The validation process differs depending on the type of blockchain and the
specific consensus protocol.
• With permissioned blockchains, authorized nodes validate the transaction
using the sender’s public key to decrypt the transaction.
• A successful decryption confirms that the transaction originates from the
claimed sender.
• The receiver can then verify the integrity of the data by comparing the
decrypted hash value sent by the sender with the hash value they computed
when applying the same hash algorithm on the plain data transmitted by the
sender.
• If both hash values coincide, the receiver has the guarantee that the data
were not altered in transit.
• The transaction can then thus be validated.
Validated transactions are first combined with other transactions to create a
block that is then validated based on the consensus protocol of the
blockchain. However, some DLTs do not group transactions in blocks.
If validated, the new block/transaction is linked to the chain as the “true state
of the ledger”.
COMPOSITION OF A BLOCK
Each block contains several transactions. A block is composed of a block
header and records of transactions.
The block header contains the following elements:
• The block number;
• The current timestamp (that captures the date and time to ensure a record of
the chronological sequence);
• The hash of the previous block (the hash pointer that links the blocks
together);
• The hash of what is called the Merkle Root, which allows easy comparison
and verification
of large data sets of transactions without the need to include the complete
set of data of every transaction in the block header, thereby making the size
of blocks more manageable.
For public blockchains (e.g. Bitcoin), the block header also includes a nonce:
a random sequence of numbers that miners have to find in order to validate a
block.
[Link]
25
STEP 4: VALIDATED BLOCK ADDED TO THE CHAIN
Once a block is validated (for DLTs that do not group transactions in blocks,
once a transaction has been validated), it is time-stamped
and linked to the preceding blocks/transactions with a hash of the previous
block/ transaction (hash pointer), thereby forming a chronological chain of
blocks/transactions.
Transactions are then confirmed and the block/transaction cannot be altered
or removed, thus the block/
transaction is immutable.
Each time a block/transaction is added to the chain,
the digital ledger is updated on all the participating nodes. The systematic
update of the ledger on all the nodes
is an efficient way to ensure that there are no divergent versions of the ledger
in the participating nodes.
This approach is particularly useful for automating processes through smart
contracts where trusted information is required to allow for a transaction to
proceed.
1.28 What is a smart contract?

Smart contracts have no “smart” component!

Smart contracts are not:
“Smart” - there is no cognitive or artificial intelligence component. Smart
contracts only involve the automatic execution of a predefined task when
specific conditions are met.
Contracts - obligations don’t reflect a contract
in a legal sense.
Yet smart contracts provide some of the most interesting possibilities for
blockchain technology in the context of international trade.
1.29 THE GOALS OF SMART CONTRACTS

THE OBJECTIVES OF SMART CONTRACT DESIGN ARE:

• To satisfy contractual conditions (e.g. payment of terms, liens, confidentiality,
and even enforcement);
• To minimize exceptions (both malicious and accidental);
• To minimize the need for trusted intermediaries.

RELATED ECONOMIC GOALS OF SMART CONTRACTS INCLUDE:

• Reducing loss due to fraud;
• Eliminating arbitration and enforcement costs;
• Lowering other transaction costs.

HOW DO SMART CONTRACTS WORK?

Smart contracts are computer programmes that:
• State the obligations of each party to the “contract”, as well as the benefits
and penalties that may be due to either party under different circumstances.
• Take data/information as an input, process it through rules set out in the
contract, and make any agreed action/transaction as a result.
• Automatically enforce themselves (self-execute) without the intervention of a
third party when specific conditions are met by data (based on “if... then...”
logic (e.g. if the goods are unloaded at Port X, then funds are transferred).
• Smart contract applications run exactly as programmed without fraud, third-
party interferences or delay. Automating transactions in this way is one of the
most valuable functions of blockchain for trade.
• Many blockchain platforms offer smart contract capabilities. Smart contracts
can also exist outside of blockchain, but they then retain the same potential
problems as centralized databases.

THE INTERNET OF THINGS (IOT)

• While blockchain creates the possibility to use smart contracts that self-
execute upon fulfilment of certain conditions, they usually work in
conjunction with other technologies, including the Internet of Things (IoT).
• The IoT represents the networks of sensors and “smart” devices connected
to the internet that can send and receive data.
• Using oracles, smart contracts can use data generated from the IoT to trigger
actions.

ORACLES
• An oracle is a digital mechanism that provides smart contracts with external
information. Oracles serve as bridges between blockchains and the outside
world.
• Oracles can integrate with physical systems (e.g. RFID sensors) and
technologies, providing real-world data for smart contracts. Such oracles are
called hardware oracles, as opposed to software oracles, which retrieve
online data from external programmes and web application processing
interfaces (APIs) (such as market prices, flight status and weather data).
• Information is fed into a smart contract by oracle data feeds (provided by
third-party service providers) on the predefined conditions foreseen in the
smart contract.
• Conditions can be any external data, such as temperature, payment
completion or price fluctuations.
• For example, a smart insurance contract could have as an oracle a sensor
placed in a refrigerated container. If the temperature goes above a certain
level, insurance pay-outs could automatically trigger and a request for
inspection be sent.
• As blockchains cannot access data outside their network, oracles are the
only way for smart contracts to “interact” with data outside the blockchain
environment.
1.30 Answer the question

Feedback
The correct answer is, in the case of public blockchains, that the block header
includes a nonce. This is a random sequence of numbers that miners have to
find in order to validate a block.
1.31 Answer the question

The correct answer is: True.

This statement is true! Smart contracts aren’t a type of blockchain. Smart
contracts are a functionality of some blockchain platforms that enables the
automation of processes when specific criteria are met.
1.32 Module summary

Module summary
• The “building blocks” of blockchain include participants, encryption,
hashing, consensus and incentives.
• Blockchains can be public, private or managed by a consortium of
companies, and they can be accessible by everyone or restricted.
• A typical blockchain transaction involves four steps.
• The validated block/transaction added to the chain.
• The blockchain validation process differs depending on the type of
blockchain and the specific consensus protocol.
• Smart contracts are neither “smart” nor contracts, yet have significant
potential to automate trade processes and reduce costs.
• An oracle, a digital mechanism that provides smart contracts with
external information, can be used in conjunction with the IoT to trigger
smart contract executions when predefined conditions are met.
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