Introduction to Programming for Managerial Sciences

Dr. Öğr. Üyesi Fahrettin Çakır

February 13, 2026

Contents
1 Introduction to R 2
1.1 What is R? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Why Learn R? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 The R Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 R and Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Using R and RStudio Interactively . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Executing Scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.7 Data Permanency and Removing Objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.8 Comments in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.9 Working Directory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.10 Saving Work and Exiting R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.11 Scripts in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.12 Exercise: Using the Help System in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.13 Exercise: Creating and Assigning Variables in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.14 Exercise: Removing Variables from the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

2 Understanding R Syntax 16

3 Basic Operators in R 17
3.1 Arithmetic, Comparison, and Logical Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

4 Objects in R 18
4.1 Managing Objects in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.2 Types of R Objects (Data Structures) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.3 Types of R Objects (Matrices) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.4 Types of R Objects (Lists) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.5 Types of R Objects (Data Frames) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
4.6 Types of R Objects (Factors) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

5 Objects, Their Modes, and Attributes in R 26

5.1 Changing the Length of an Object . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
5.2 Getting and Setting Attributes in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
5.3 The Class of an Object in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
5.4 Mode vs. Class in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

6 Vectors in R 32
6.1 Sequences, Repetition, Sorting, and Lengths in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
6.2 Sequences with seq() in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
6.3 Repetition with rep() in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
6.4 Sorting with sort() in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
6.5 Subsetting and Element Extraction in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
6.6 Removing Elements with Negative Indexing in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
6.7 Indexing with Vectors of Indexes in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
6.8 Modifying Elements in a Vector in R . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41

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1 Introduction to R
1.1 What is R?
R is a programming language and environment for statistical computing and graphics. It is:
• Open-source and widely used in data science, statistics, and machine learning.

• Maintained through the CRAN (Comprehensive R Archive Network).

• Developed by Ross Ihaka and Robert Gentleman in the early 1990s.

1.2 Why Learn R?

R is widely adopted due to:
• Free and open-source availability.
• Powerful data visualization and statistical capabilities.
• Active community support.

• Usage by companies such as Google, Facebook, and Airbnb.

1.3 The R Environment

R is an integrated suite of software facilities for data manipulation, calculation, and graphical display. Among other
things, it has:

• An effective data handling and storage facility.

• A suite of operators for calculations on arrays, particularly matrices.
• A large, coherent, integrated collection of intermediate tools for data analysis.

• Graphical facilities for data analysis and display, either directly at the computer or on a hard copy.
• A well-developed, simple, and effective programming language (called ’S’), which includes conditionals, loops,
user-defined recursive functions, and input and output facilities.

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1.4 R and Statistics
R is widely used as a statistical computing system. It provides:
• Statistics: While R was not initially introduced as a statistics system, many users adopt it for statistical
analysis.

• Classical and Modern Techniques: R serves as an environment where both classical and modern statistical
methods are implemented.
• Built-in and Package-based Functionality: Some statistical functions are built into the base R environment,
while many others are supplied through packages.
• Extensive Package Repository: Around 25 standard and recommended packages come with R, and many more
are available through the CRAN network ([Link]
• [Link]
• Comprehensive Methodology: Most classical statistical methods and the latest methodologies are accessible in
R, though users may need to explore available packages to find specific techniques.

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How R Code Runs
Packages
(e.g., dplyr)

Write Code Check & Translate Load into Memory Run on Computer
(your R script) (R understands it) (data & functions ready) (CPU executes)

Basic view: You write R code → R checks and translates it → R prepares everything in memory → the
computer runs it. Packages are extra tools you can bring in at the “check & translate” stage.

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Live R Demos (using Shiny)
Quick Crowd-Pleasers
• Movie Explorer – filter thousands of films, ratings, and genres.
• Bus Dashboard – real-time style dashboard illustrating inputs, KPIs, and charts.

Public Data Examples

• Animated NYC Metro Traffic – animated ridership through time.
• Crime Watch (UK Police API) – map and bar charts from live police data.

• ScotPHO Profiles Tool – health indicators dashboard.

Fun / Ed-Tech Apps

• Radiant – a full stats/ML environment built in Shiny.
• LEGO Mosaic Creator – upload an image to generate a LEGO mosaic.

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1.5 Using R and RStudio Interactively
• Starting RStudio: RStudio is an integrated development environment (IDE) for R that provides an easier
way to write, debug, and visualize R scripts.
– Download and install R from [Link]
– Download and install RStudio from [Link]
– Open RStudio by clicking the application shortcut.
• Running R Code in RStudio:
– The RStudio interface includes four main panels:
∗ Console: Directly enter and execute R commands.
∗ Source Editor: Write and save scripts (‘.R‘ files).
∗ Environment/History: View variables and command history.
∗ Plots/Packages/Help: Visualize graphs and manage packages.
– You can execute commands by typing them into the console:
> x <- c (1 , 2, 3, 4, 5)
> mean (x)

– To run lines from a script, highlight them and press:

Ctrl + Enter ( Windows / Linux )
Cmd + Enter ( Mac )

• Managing Packages in RStudio:

– Install packages using:

install . packages (" ggplot2 ")

– Load an installed package:

library ( ggplot2 )

– View installed packages via:

Tools > Install Packages

• Quitting RStudio and Saving Work:

– To quit RStudio, go to:

File > Quit Session

– RStudio will prompt you to save your workspace and scripts.

– Next time you open the project, it will restore the session.
• Restarting R in RStudio:
– To restart the R session without closing RStudio:
Session > Restart R

– This clears all objects and reloads the session.

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1.6 Executing Scripts
• Running an External R Script:
– If commands are stored in an external file, such as ‘commands.R‘ in the working directory ‘work‘, they
can be executed at any time in an R session using:
source (" commands .R")

– On Windows, you can also run an external script using:

File > Source

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1.7 Data Permanency and Removing Objects
• Understanding Objects in R:
– R creates and manipulates objects, which can be variables, arrays, numbers, character strings, functions,
or more complex structures.
– During an R session, objects are created and stored by name in what is called the workspace.

• Listing Objects in the Workspace:

– To display the names of currently stored objects, use:
objects ()

– Alternatively, you can use:

ls ()

• Removing Objects from the Workspace:

– To remove objects from the workspace, use the ‘rm()‘ function:
rm (x , y , z , ink , junk , temp , foo , bar )

– This permanently deletes the specified objects from the session.

• Saving and Reloading Objects in R:

– At the end of each R session, you can save all objects for future use.
– If saved, objects are stored in a file called ‘.RData‘ in the working directory.
– Command history is also saved in a file called ‘.Rhistory‘.
– When restarting R in the same directory, the workspace is reloaded automatically. Or you can load with:
load (" name_of_file . RData ")

• Best Practices for Workspace Management:

– It is recommended to use separate working directories for different analyses.
– Common object names like ‘x‘ and ‘y‘ should be used cautiously to avoid confusion when switching
between different analyses.

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1.8 Comments in R
• Using Comments in R:
– Comments in R are used to annotate code and improve readability.
– To create a comment, use the hash symbol (‘#‘), and everything after it on the same line is ignored by
the interpreter.
• Example of a Comment:
# This is a comment in R ...

• Inline Comments:
– Comments can also appear after valid R commands.

1 + 1 # This works out the result of one plus one !

Output:
[1] 2

• Why Use Comments?:

– Comments help document the code for future reference.
– They improve code readability for both yourself and others.
– They are useful when writing complex scripts or functions.

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1.9 Working Directory
• Understanding the Working Directory:
– An active R session always has a working directory associated with it.
– Unless a file path is explicitly specified, R uses the working directory by default when saving or importing
files.
– To check the current working directory, use:
getwd ()

Output:
[1] "/ Users / fcakir "

• Changing the Working Directory:

– File paths must be enclosed in double quotation marks.
– R uses forward slashes (/) instead of backslashes (\) for folder paths.
– To change the working directory, use:
setwd ("/ folder1 / folder2 / folder3 /")

• Best Practices for Working Directories:

– You can specify file paths relative to the current working directory or absolute paths from the root
drive.
– R is case-sensitive, so folder names must match exactly.
– If a full and correct file path is provided when reading or writing files, files can reside anywhere on the
computer.

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1.10 Saving Work and Exiting R
• Saving Work in R:
– When finishing an R session, you need to ensure that any objects created and stored in the session, as
well as R script files written in an editor, are saved properly.

• Workspaces:
– The GUI menu (e.g., under File in Windows or Workspace in macOS) allows saving and loading of
workspace image files.
– A workspace image contains all objects in the R session at the time of exit and is saved as an .RData file.
– This file includes:
∗ All assigned objects within the session.
∗ Any objects loaded from a previous workspace file.
– Loading a stored ‘.RData‘ file allows you to resume your work from where you left off.
• Listing Workspace Objects:
– At any time in an R session, you can list all stored objects using:
ls ()

• Saving and Loading Workspaces Using Commands:

– R provides the following commands for handling workspace ‘.RData‘ files:
save . image (" path / to / workspace . RData ") # Save the current
workspace
load (" path / to / workspace . RData ") # Load a previously
saved workspace

– These functions take a file argument specifying the folder location and name of the ‘.RData‘ file.
• Important Considerations:
– Saving a workspace image does not retain loaded packages.
– When restarting R, you must reload necessary packages using:
library ( package_name )

• Quick Exit Command:

– The quickest way to exit R is by entering the following command:
q ()

• Saving the Workspace on Exit:

– When exiting, R prompts you with a dialog asking if you’d like to save the workspace image.
– If you choose to save, R does not open a file browser but instead creates (or overwrites) a default ‘.RData‘
file in the working directory.

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1.11 Scripts in R
• Importance of Saving Scripts:
– For complex tasks, it is best to work in R’s built-in code editor.
– Saving R scripts is as important as saving a workspace, if not more so.

• Saving and Opening Scripts:

– Scripts are saved as plain-text files with an ‘.R‘ extension.
– This allows operating systems to associate them with R by default.
– To save a script from the built-in editor:
∗ Navigate to File → Save.
– To open a previously saved script:
∗ Navigate to File → Open Script.
• Scripts vs. Workspaces:

– You often don’t need to save a workspace (‘.RData‘) if your script files are saved.
– Running commands from a saved script in a new R console recreates the objects.
– This avoids accidental overwrites in the default workspace.
– Keeping scripts separate makes it easier to manage multiple projects.
• Additional File Saving Options:

– R provides options to save individual objects, such as datasets and plot images, to disk.

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1.12 Exercise: Using the Help System in R
Objective: Practice writing code in the script editor and sourcing it into the R console while exploring the help
system.
Instructions:
1. Open the R script editor and write a command to display the help file for the function mean.

2. Use the following command in your script:

help ( ’ mean ’) # Opens the documentation for the mean function

3. Save the script and source it into the R console.

4. Observe that the help file appears in the bottom-right window of RStudio (or click on the ‘Help’ tab if not
visible).
5. Explore different sections of the help file, especially the examples provided at the end.

Discussion Questions:
• What information is provided in the help file for the mean function?
• What other ways can you access function documentation in R?
? mean # Another way to access the help file
?? mean # Searches for " mean " across all help pages
apropos (" mean ") # Lists functions related to " mean "

• Try running an example from the help file by using:

example ( mean ) # Runs example usage of the mean function from the
documentation

Bonus Challenge:
• Find help documentation for any function related to data manipulation (e.g., sum, median, or sd).
help ( ’ sum ’) # Displays documentation for the sum function
help ( ’ median ’) # Displays documentation for the median function
help ( ’sd ’) # Displays documentation for the standard deviation function

• Identify the arguments of the function and explain how they work.

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1.13 Exercise: Creating and Assigning Variables in R
Objective: Practice creating variables and assigning values in R while exploring the RStudio Environment tab.
Instructions:
1. Create a numeric variable named first_num and assign it the value 42.
first_num <- 42

2. Click on the Environment tab (top-right window in RStudio) to check if the variable appears with its assigned
value.

3. Create another variable called first_char and assign it a character string.

first_char <- " my first character "

4. Verify that the variable first_char appears in the Environment tab, displaying both its value and its class
(chr for character).
Discussion Questions:
• What happens when you assign a number without quotes?

• How does R differentiate between numeric and character variables?

• What happens if you reassign first_num to a character value?
first_num <- " Now I am text "

• Try running the following command:

class ( first_num )
class ( first_char )

Bonus Challenge:
• Create a logical (Boolean) variable and check its class in the Environment tab.
my_bool <- TRUE
class ( my_bool )

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1.14 Exercise: Removing Variables from the Environment
Objective: Practice removing variables from the R environment and verifying their removal.
Instructions:
1. Remove the variable first_num from your environment using the rm() function.
rm ( first_num ) # Removes first_num from the environment

2. Check the Environment tab to confirm that first_num has been removed.
3. Alternatively, use the ls() function to list all objects currently in your environment.
ls () # Lists all objects in the environment

Discussion Questions:

• What happens when you try to print first_num after removing it?
print ( first_num )

• What command would you use to remove multiple variables at once?

rm ( var1 , var2 , var3 ) # Removes multiple variables

• How can you remove all objects from the environment at once?
rm ( list = ls () ) # Clears all variables from the environment

Bonus Challenge:

• Try removing all objects and checking if the environment is completely empty.
rm ( list = ls () )
ls ()

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