Crop Protection

If agriculture fails; every thing else will fail

- M.S Swaminathan
(Father of Indian Green Revolution)

Dr. Mamoni Banerjee

Assistant Professor
RMSoEE
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Kharagpur
 Overview
• Chemical pesticides
• Classification of pesticides based on
chemical nature, Mode of action and
Toxicity:
Organochlorines (OCs)
Organophosphates (Ops)
Carbamates
Pyrethroides
Fungicides
Herbicides
 Chemical Pesticides
• Pesticides are a group of chemicals used for the
destruction of insects, weeds, fungi, bacteria, etc. They
are generally called insecticides, fungicides,
bactericides, herbicides or rodenticides.
• Most of the pesticides have the ability to destroy a
wide variety of pests or weeds, but some are developed
against specific pests or pathogens.
• Most of these chemicals are designed in such a way as
to disturb the physiological activities of the target
organism, leading to dysfunction and reduced vitality.
• The greater use of pesticides for high agricultural
Accumulation of chemical pesticides in
production has led to increased pollution of environment
environmental compartments soil, water and air.
• The characteristics of pesticides, such as high
lipophilicity, bioaccumulation, long half-life and
potential of long range transport, have increased the
chances of contaminating the air, water and soil, even
after many years of application.
 Classification of pesticides based on
chemical nature
1. Organochlorines: DDT,DDD, Dicofol, Eldrin, Dieldrin,
Chlorobenziate, Lindane, BHC, Methoxychloro Aldrin,
Chlordane, Heptaclor, Endosufan, Isodrin, Isobenzan,
Toxaphene, Chloro propylate
2. Organophosphates: Dimefox, Mipafox, Methyl Organochlorines
Parathion, Ronnel, enitrothion, Bidrin, Phorate, Fenthion,
caumphos, Abate, Dichlorovas, Diptrex, Phosphomidon,
Demetox, Oxydemeton-methyl, Malathion, Dimethoate,
Trichlorofan
3. Carbamates :
✔ Methyl
Carbaryl, Carbanolate, Prupoxur, Dimethan,
Dimetilan, Isolan, Carbofuran, Pyrolan, Aminocarb, Organophosphates
Aldicarb,
✔ Thio
Vernolate, Pebulate, Diallate, Monilate, Butylate,
Cycloate, Trillate, Thiourea
✔ Dithio
Methan, Thiram, Ferban, Amoban, Naban, Zineb, Carbamates
Maneb, Ziram Polyran, Dithane M- 45
 Classification of pesticides based on chemical
nature
4. Pyrethroids : Allethrin, Bonthrin, Dimethrin,
Tetramethrin, Ptrethrin, CyclethrinFurethrin,
Fenevelerate, Alphamethrin, Decamethrin, Cypermethrin
5. Phenyl amides (Fungicide):
Carbanilates
Barban, Carbetamide, Chlororprofan, Prophan, Phenyl
Urea, Fenuron, Monuron, Diuron,Flumeturon, Pyrethroids
Chloroxuron, Neburon, Bromuron
Acylanalide
Propanil, Solan, Dicryl, Karsil, Propachlor, Alachlor,
Butachlor
Toluidines
Trifluralin, Dipropanil, Benefin, Oryzalin, Isopropanil,
Nitralin Benzamide

Acetamide
Diphenamid
 Classification of pesticides based
on chemical nature
6. Phenoxyalkonates (Herbicide): 2,4-D(2,4 Dichloro phenoxy acetic acid),2,4,
5 T(2,4 5 Trichloro Phenoxy acetic acid), Dichloroprop, Mecoprop, Erbin,
Sesone

7. Trazines (Herbicide): Atrazine, Simazine, Ametryn, Atratone, Chlorazine,

Cynazine, Cyprazine, Metribuzin, Propazine, Turbutryn, Simetryn

8. Benzoic acid (Herbicide): Dicamba, Dichlorobenil, Chloroambin, Tricamba,

Neptalan, Bromoxynil

9. Phtalimides (Fungicide): Captan, Diflotan, Folpet

10. Dipyrids (Herbicide): Paraquat, Diaquat

11. Others :Pentachlorophenol, Floroacetate, Phenyl mercuric acetate, Ethyl

mercuric Phosphate,Methyl mercuric chloride, Sodium arsenate, Calcium
arsenate, Lead arsenate, Cacodylic acid, Aluminium phosphide, Zinc phosphide
 Organochlorines (OC)
• Organochlorines (OC) are a group of chlorinated compounds
widely used as pesticides. These chemicals belong to the class of
persistent organic pollutants (POPs) with high persistence in
the environment.
• OC insecticides were earlier successfully used in control of
malaria and typhus, yet they are banned in most of the advanced
countries. The review statistics on the use of different pesticides
shows that 40% of all pesticides used belong to the
organochlorine class of chemicals.
• Due to their low cost and the need against various pests,
organochlorine insecticides such as DDT, hexachlorocyclohexane
(HCH), aldrin and dieldrin are among the most widely used
pesticides in developing countries of Asia.
• The basic characteristics of organochlorine pesticides are high
persistence, low polarity, low aqueous solubility and high lipid
solubility.
• Organochlorine pesticides can enter the environment after
pesticide applications, polluted wastes discarded into landfills,
and discharges from industrial units that synthesize these
chemicals.
• They are volatile and stable; some can adhere to the soil and air,
thus increasing the chances of high persistence in the
environment, and are identified as agents of chronic exposure to
animals and humans.
 Organochlorines (OC)
They have a related chemical structure,
showing chlorine substituted aliphatic or
aromatic rings. Due to their structural
resemblances, these compounds share
certain physicochemical characteristics
such as persistence, bioaccumulation and
toxicity.
One basic character that they share across
the spectrum is persistence, where
persistence is defined as half-life greater
than two months in water or six months in
soil sediment.
The persistence of OC compounds varies
from moderate persistence with half-life
of approximately 60 days to high
persistence with half-life up to 10–15
years.
 Organochlorines (OC)
• The most commonly used pesticide
in agricultural practice is
dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
(DDT), which is moderately
hazardous, with high persistence
and a half-life of 2–15 years.
• The use of DDT is now banned in
many countries but it is illegally
used in most of the developing
countries. This applies also to
endosulphan, an insecticide which
is highly hazardous and has
moderate persistence with a
half-life of fifty days and is used in
the production of cashew.
 Organochlorines (OC)
A comprehensive summary of major Organochlorine pesticides with their chemical
name, structure, toxicity, use and persistence in environmental medium as follows:
1. Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) C14H9Cl5: DDT, is a colorless,
tasteless, and almost odorless crystalline chemical compound.
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 113–130 mg/kg, Dermal: 2510 mg/kg, Mice Oral: 150–300
mg/kg, Guinea Pigs Oral: 300 mg/kg, Rabbit Oral: 400 mg/kg
Structure:

Use: Acaricide Insecticide

Persistence in environment:High Persistence. Half life: 2–15 years
WHO classification based on rat oral LD50: Moderately hazardous
 Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT)
C14H9Cl5
Mechanism of insecticide action: In insects, DDT opens
sodium ion channels in neurons, causing them to fire
spontaneously, which leads to spasms and eventual death.
Insects with certain mutations in their sodium channel gene
are resistant to DDT and similar insecticides.
Biological Effect: Human: Prickling sensation of the mouth,
nausea, dizziness, confusion, headache, lethargy,
incoordination, vomiting, fatigue, tremors in the extremities,
anorexia, anemia, muscular weakness, hyper excitability,
anxiety, and nervous tension.
In Birds: Egg shell thinning and in Fish: Affects membrane
function and enzymes
 Organochlorines (OC)
2. 1,1-dichloro-2,2bis (p-chlorophenyl) ethane (DDD)
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 4000 mg/kg
Structure:
Use: Insecticide

Persistence in environment:High
Persistence Half life: 5–10 years

WHO classification based on rat oral

LD50: Acute hazard is unlikely
 Organochlorines (OC)
3. Dicofol C14H9Cl5O: Dicofol is an organochlorine pesticide that is chemically
related to DDT. Dicofol is a acaricide that is very effective against spider mite.
Pure dicofol is a white crystalline solid. Technical dicofol is a red-brown or amber
viscous liquid with an odor like fresh-cut hay.
Solubility: It is stable under cool and dry conditions, is practically insoluble in
water but soluble in organic solvents. Solubility: 0.8 mg/l (25 °C) in water.
Melting Point: 78.5 - 79.5 °C for pure dicofol, 50 °C for technical dicofol
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 684–1495 mg/kg, Rabbit Oral: 1810 mg/kg, Dermal: 2.1
g/kg Use: Acaricide. It is formulated as emulsifiable
Structure: concentrates, wettable powders, dusts, ready-to-use
liquids, and aerosol sprays.
Persistence in environment:Moderate persistence
Half life: 60 days
WHO classification based on rat oral LD50:
Biological Effect: Moderately hazardous
Rats: Decrease in body weight and acute neurotoxicity
Dogs: Inhibition of ACTH (Adrenal cortical tropic hormone)
 Organochlorines (OC)
4. Endrin C12H8Cl6O : It was primarily used as an insecticide, as
well as a rodenticide and piscicide. It is a colourless, odorless solid,
although commercial samples are often off-white.
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 3 mg/kg, Dermal: 15 mg/kg, Mouse Oral:
1.37g/kg, Rabbit Oral: 60–94 mg/kg Persistence in environment:
Structure: Moderate Persistence Half life:
1Day to 12 Years
WHO classification based on rat
oral LD50: Highly hazardous
Use: Acaricide. Endrin was formulated as emulsifiable concentrates (ECs), wettable
powders (WPs), granules, field strength dusts (FSDs), and pastes. The product could then be
applied by aircraft or by handheld sprayers in its various formulations. Exposure to endrin
can occur by inhalation, ingestion of substances containing the compound, or by skin
contact. In addition to inhalation and skin contact, infants can be exposed by ingesting the
breast milk of an exposed woman. In utero, fetuses are exposed by way of the placenta if the
mother has been exposed.
 Organochlorines (OC)
5. Toxaphene (Camphechlor) C10H10Cl8
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 80–293 mg/kg, Dogs: 25 mg/kg

Use: Acaricide, Insecticide

Structure: Persistence in environment:Moderate persistence
Half life: 11 years

WHO classification based on rat oral LD50:

Slightly hazardous
 Organochlorines (OC)
6. Endosulfan C9H6Cl6O3S: Although classified as a yellow label
(highly toxic) pesticide by the Central Insecticides Board, India is one
of the largest producers and the largest consumer of endosulfan in the
world.
Toxicity LD50: Rat Oral: 18 to 220 mg/kg, Dermal: 74 mg/kg, Rabbits
Dermal: 200–359 mg/kg, Ducks Oral: 33 mg/kg
Structure:

Use: Acaricide, Insecticides

Persistence in environment:Moderate Persistence Half life
Alpha Isomer:35days
Beta Isomer:150days
WHO classification based on rat oral LD50: Highly hazardous
 Endosulfan C9H6Cl6O3S
Biological Effect:
Human:
• Decreases the white blood cell count and macrophage migration, adverse
effects on humoral and cell-mediated immune system.
• Affects semen quality, sperm count, spermatogonial cells, sperm
morphology and other defects in male sex hormones DNA damage and
mutation

Rats
• Immunosuppression, neurological disorders, congenital birth defects,
chromosomal abnormalities, mental retardation, impaired learning and
memory loss and glomerulonephritis
 Organophosphates Insecticides
• Organophosphates are a group of human-made
chemicals that poison insects and mammals.
Organophosphates are the most widely used
insecticides. Its make up about 50% of the
killing agents in chemical pesticides. They are
used in agriculture, the home, gardens, and
veterinary practice.
• Organophosphate insecticides are one type of
pesticide that works by damaging an enzyme in
the body called acetylcholinesterase. This
enzyme is critical for controlling nerve signals
in the body. The damage to this enzyme kills
pests and may cause unwanted side effects in
exposed humans.
• Different Organophosphates group of
Insecticides are as follows:
• Malathion, parathion, diazinon, fenthion,
dichlorvos, chlorpyrifos, ethion etc
 Organophosphates Insecticides
Parathion: Parathion, also called parathion-ethyl or diethyl parathion and locally
known as "Folidol", is an organophosphate insecticide and acaricide. It was
originally developed by IG Farben in the 1940s. It is highly toxic to non-target
organisms, including humans, so its use has been banned or restricted in most
countries.
Properties: When pure, parathion is a white crystalline solid. It is commonly
distributed as a brown liquid that smells of rotting eggs or garlic. The insecticide is
somewhat stable, although it darkens when exposed to sunlight.
Synthesis: Parathion is synthesized from diethyl dithiophosphoric acid
(C2H5O)2PS2H by chlorination to generate diethylthiophosphoryl chloride
((C2H5O)2P(S)Cl), and then the chloride is treated with sodium 4-nitrophenolate
(the sodium salt of 4-nitrophenol).

2 (C2H5O)2P(S)SH + 3 Cl2 → 2 (C2H5O)2P(S)Cl + S2Cl2 + 2 HCl

(C2H5O)2P(S)Cl + NaOC6H4NO2 → (C2H5O)2P(S)OC6H4NO2 +
NaCl
 Organophosphates Insecticides
Applications and dose: As a pesticide, parathion is generally
applied by spraying. It is often applied to cotton, rice and fruit
trees. The usual concentrations of ready-to-use solutions are 0.05
to 0.1%. The chemical is banned for use on many food crops.
Insecticidal activity and Mode of action: Parathion is a
cholinesterase inhibitor. It generally disrupts the nervous system
by inhibiting acetylcholinesterase. It is absorbed via skin,
mucous membranes, and orally. Absorbed parathion is rapidly
metabolized to paraoxon.
Safety: Paraoxon exposure can result in headaches, convulsions,
poor vision, vomiting, abdominal pain, severe diarrhea,
unconsciousness, tremor, dyspnea, and finally lung-edema as
well as respiratory arrest. Symptoms of poisoning are known to
last for extended periods, sometimes months. The most common
and very specific antidote is atropine, in doses of up to 100 mg
daily.
 Organophosphates Insecticides
Malathion is an organophosphate insecticide which acts as an
acetylcholinesterase inhibitor.
Physical / Chemical Properties:
Malathion is a colorless to amber liquid with a skunk- or garlic-like odor.
Molecular weight: 330.4 g/mol
Solubility (water) : 145 mg/L
Soil Sorption Coefficient (Koc) : 30, 93-1800 depending on soil type and
environmental conditions.
Uses:
Malathion is a broad-spectrum insecticide used to control a variety of
outdoor insects in both agricultural and residential settings. Malathion is
registered for use on food, feed, and ornamental crops and in mosquito,
boll weevil and fruit fly eradication
Malathion is also an ingredient in shampoos to control head lice.
Signal words for products containing malathion may range from Caution
to Danger. The signal word reflects the combined toxicity of the active
ingredient and other ingredients in the product.
 Organophosphates Insecticides
Mode of Action:
Target Organisms: Malathion is toxic via skin contact, ingestion, and inhalation
exposure.
• Malathion and other organophosphate insecticides bind to the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase (AChE) at nerve endings throughout the bodies of
insects and other organisms. Under normal circumstances, AChE binds to the
neurotransmitter acetylcholine (ACh) at the nerve junction, effectively ending
the stimulation of the next neuron. When AChE is bound by malathion's
metabolite malaoxon, ACh accumulates at the nerve junction and results in
overstimulation of the nervous system.
• Malaoxon is considered to be 22 times more toxic than the parent malathion
from acute dietary exposure and 33 times more toxic by all routes of exposure
from short-term and medium-term exposures.
• The organophosphate pesticides, including malathion, share a common mode
of action. Exposure to multiple organophosphates can lead to additive toxicity.
However, the different organophosphates vary widely in their potency and
how well they are absorbed by the body depending on the route of exposure.
 Organophosphates Insecticides
Mode of Action:
Non-target Organisms
• Acetylcholinesterase is found in mammals,
amphibians, fish, reptiles, and birds. In these
organisms, the binding of AChE with
malathion allows the accumulation of ACh at
the nerve junction. This accumulation of ACh
leads to overstimulation of glandular cells,
autonomic ganglia, the central nervous
system, and both smooth and skeletal muscles.
• Uptake and metabolism of organophosphates
such as malathion are similar in insects and
mammals.
• Plants metabolize malathion to malaoxon
although this appears to be a minor pathway,
and maloaxon is rapidly eliminated.
Malathion is not expected to be toxic to plants
or aquatic algae because its mode of action
targets nervous systems.
 Organophosphates Insecticides
Acute Toxicity:
Oral
Malathion is very low in toxicity when ingested. The acute rat LD50 is 5400 mg/kg
in males and 5700 mg/kg in females. The low toxicity is due to rapid
carboxylesterase enzyme metabolism of malathion. The acute LD50 in mice ranges
from 400-4000 mg/kg.
Dermal
Malathion is low in toxicity when applied to the skin. The acute dermal LD50 in
rats is >2000 mg/kg.
In a skin-irritation study, malathion caused slight skin irritation in rabbits.
In an eye-irritation study with rabbits, malathion caused slight eye irritation that
cleared within 7 days.
Inhalation
Malathion is very low in toxicity when inhaled, with an acute LC50 in rats of >5.2
mg/L
 Organophosphates Insecticides
Parathion methyl, or methyl parathion: Methyl
parathion is an insecticide and acaricide used to control
boll weevils and many biting or sucking insect pests of
agricultural crops.
It kills insects by contact, stomach and respiratory action.
Methyl parathion is available in dust, emulsifiable
concentrate, ULV liquid, microencapsules and wettable
powder formulations.
Methyl parathion is one of a class of insecticides referred
to as organophosphates. These chemicals act by interfering
with the activities of cholinesterase, an enzyme that is
essential for the proper working of the nervous systems of
humans, animals and insects.
Properties: Pure methyl parathion is a white crystalline
solid with a characteristic odor of rotten eggs or garlic.
Technical product is light to dark tan with about 80%
purity. Methyl parathion is hydrolyzed by, and therefore
not compatible with, alkaline materials.
Chemical Properties
 Organophosphates Insecticides
TOXICOLOGICAL EFFECTS: ACUTE TOXICITY
Methyl parathion is highly toxic by inhalation and ingestion, and
moderately toxic by dermal adsorption. As with all organophosphates,
methyl parathion is readily absorbed through the skin. Skin which has
come in contact with this material should be washed immediately with
soap and water and all contaminated clothing should be removed.
Accidental skin and inhalation exposure to methyl parathion have
caused human fatalities. Methyl parathion may cause contact burns to
the skin or eyes . Because methyl parathion has a short half-life (1 hour
on cotton) when applied to crops, the risk of exposure to agricultural
workers is low.
Factory workers who handle quantities of concentrated methyl
parathion are at a higher risk. Exposure may occur during mixing,
spraying or application of methyl parathion, during cleaning and repair
of equipment or during early re-entry into fields .
Persons with respiratory ailments, recent exposure to cholinesterase
inhibitors, cholinesterase impairment, or liver malfunction are at
increased risk from exposure to methyl parathion. High environmental
temperatures or exposure of the chemical to visible or UV light may
increase its toxicity.
 Toxicity
• The main effect of acute exposure to organophosphates is
poisoning. Organophosphate pesticides can be absorbed
via the skin and integumentary system, respiratory system
via inhalation, or direct ingestion.
• Chronic exposure to organophosphate can cause the same
effects as seen in acute exposure. However, with chronic
exposure, memory, speech loss, lack of coordination, and
impaired judgment are also impaired.
• Chronic exposure to organophosphate can also cause Lethal Dose 51–500 mg/kg
flu-like symptoms like nausea, vomiting, malaise, and
weakness. Peripheral polyneuropathy has been linked to
chronic exposure.
• Exposure to some organophosphate has been associated
with the possible development of cancer.
 Organophosphates Insecticides
• The amount of a chemical that is lethal to one-half
(50%) of experimental animals fed the material is
referred to as its acute oral lethal dose fifty, or LD50.
The oral LD50 for methyl parathion in rats is 18 to 50
mg/kg, in mice is 14.5 to 19.5 mg/kg, in rabbits is 420
mg/kg, in guinea pigs is 1270 mg/kg, and in dogs is 90
mg/kg. The dermal LD50 in rats is 63 to 491 mg/kg, in
mice is 1200 mg/kg, and in rabbits is 300 mg/kg
• The lethal concentration fifty, or LC50, is that
concentration of a chemical in air or water that kills half
of the experimental animals exposed to it for a set time
period. The 4-hour inhalation LC50 for methyl parathion
in rats is 34 mg/m3, and in mice is 120 mg/m3.
 Carbamate pesticides
Carbamates
• Carbamates are also used extensively as pesticides. Their mechanism of
action, like that of OPs, is inhibition of AChE. The toxicity of the carbamate
compounds varies with the molecular structure, but in general the AChE
inhibition is of shorter duration than that of OPs. The severity and duration of
toxicity are accordingly less. Acute toxicity from carbamate exposure
produces symptoms identical to OP toxicity. The carbamate ester derivatives,
used as insecticides (and nematocides), are generally stable and have a low
vapour pressure and low water solubility.
• Aldicarb (Temik), carbofuran (Furadan), carbaryl (Sevin), ethienocarb,
fenobucarb, oxamyl, and methomyl etc are underCarbamate insecticides.
These insecticides kill insects by reversibly inactivating the enzyme
acetylcholinesterase. The organophosphate pesticides also inhibit this enzyme,
although irreversibly, and cause a more severe form of cholinergic poisoning.
• Fenoxycarb has a carbamate group but acts as a juvenile hormone mimic,
rather than inactivating acetylcholinesterase. The insect repellent icaridin is a
substituted carbamate.
 Carbamate pesticides
1. Carbofuran is an odorless white crystalline solid.
Contact with skin may burn skin and eyes. When exposed to
heat or flames it may emit toxic oxides of nitrogen.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Carbofuran is a white crystalline solid with a melting point
of 153-154 degrees C and a vapor pressure of 2 x 10(-5) mm
Hg at 33 C. Solubility in water is 700 ppm. Other
solubilities include: 30% in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, 25% in
dimethyl sulfoxide, 15% in acetone, 14% in acetonitrile,
12% in methylene chloride, 9% in cyclohexanone, and 4% in
benzene.
Mode of Action: Carbofuran is a broad spectrum carbamate
pesticide that kills insects, mites and nematodes on contact
or after ingestion. It is used against soil and foliar pests of
field, fruit, vegetable and forest crops. Carbofuran is
available in liquid and granular formulations. As with other
carbamate compounds, carbofuran's cholinesterase-
inhibiting effect is short-term and reversible.
 Carbamate pesticides
• Symptoms of carbofuran poisoning include: nausea, vomiting,
abdominal cramps, sweating, diarrhea, excessive salivation,
weakness, imbalance, blurring of vision, breathing difficulty,
increased blood pressure or 'hypertension,' and lack of control of
urine or feces release, referred to as 'incontinence.' Death may
result from respiratory system failure associated with carbofuran
exposure.
• Carbamates generally are excreted rapidly and do not accumulate
in mammalian tissue. If exposure does not continue,
cholinesterase inhibition reverses rapidly. The oral LD50 for rats
is 5 mg/kg, for mice is 2 mg/kg, and for dogs is 19 mg/kg. The
dermal LD50 for rabbits is 885 mg/kg .

• The 4-hour LC50 for inhalation of carbofuran in guinea pigs is

43 mg/m3. The LC50 for rats is 85 mg/L and 52 mg/L for dogs .
 Carbamate pesticides
Effect on Environmental
• Carbofuran degrades fairly slowly in non-sterile, neutral, or acid
aerobic soils, with half-lives ranging from 1-8 weeks. It is more
stable in sterile soil, and unstable under alkaline conditions.
• Under anaerobic conditions, carbofuran is more stable and may
take twice as long to degrade. The major degradates of concern
are the 3-hydroxyl carbamate and 7-phenol products resulting
from hydrolysis. The metabolites of carbofuran are less toxic
than the parent compound.

• Carbofuran is mobile in soil, particularly sandy soil with high

percolation rate.
 Carbamate pesticides
Ecological Characteristics
• Acute avian oral toxicity: LD50
90-500 mg/kg
• Avian subacute dietary toxicity:
LD50 16-1104 ppm
• Freshwater fish acute toxicity:
LC50 94-2859 ppb
• Acute toxicity for freshwater
invertebrates: 9.8-38.6 ppb
• Carbofuran is characterized as
very highly toxic to coldwater and
warmwater fish, highly toxic to
freshwater invertebrates, and very
highly toxic to birds.
 Carbamate pesticides
2. Carbaryl (1-naphthyl methylcarbamate) is a white
crystalline solid commonly sold under the brand name Sevin. It
is a wide-spectrum carbamate insecticide which controls over
100 species of insects on citrus, fruit, cotton, forests, lawns, nuts,
ornamentals, shade trees, and other crops, as well as on poultry,
livestock and pets.
It is also used as a molluscicide and an acaricide. Carbaryl works
whether it is ingested into the stomach of the pest or absorbed
through direct contact. The chemical name for carbaryl is 1-
naphthol N-methylcarbamate.
Carbaryl is formulated as a solid which varies from colorless to
white to gray, depending on the purity of the compound. The
crystals are odorless. This chemical is stable to heat, light and
acids under storage conditions.
It is non-corrosive to metals, packaging materials, or application
equipment. It is found in all types of formulations including
baits, dusts, wettable powder, granules, oil, molassas, aqueous
dispersions and suspensions
 Carbamate pesticides

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: Carbaryl is a solid which

varies from colorless to white or gray, depending on the
purity of the compound. The crystals are odorless.
Carbaryl is stable to heat, light and acids. It is not stable
under alkaline conditions. It is non-corrosive to metals,
packaging materials or application equipment.
Solubility in water: 0.005 g/100 g (20 degrees C), 0.004
g/100 g (30 degrees C)
Solubility in solvents: Carbaryl is soluble in ethanol,
petroleum ether, diethyl ether, and chloroform;
moderately soluble in polar solvents such as acetone,
dimethyl sulfoxide, mixed cresols, and cyclohexanone.
Melting point:145 degrees C
 Carbamate pesticides
TOXICOLOGICAL EFFECTS
ACUTE TOXICITY
• The oral LD50 of carbaryl ranges from 250 mg/kg to 850 mg/kg
for rats, and from 100 mg/kg to 650 mg/kg for mice. The
inhalation LC50 for rats is 0,005 to 0.023 mg/kg . Low doses can
cause minor skin and eye irritation in rabbits, whose dermal
LD50 has been measured at greater than 2,000 mg/kg. Technical
carbaryl has little potential for skin or eye irritation.
• It can produce adverse effects in humans by skin contact,
inhalation or ingestion. The symptoms of acute toxicity are
typical of the other carbamates. Direct contact of the skin or eyes
with moderate levels of this pesticide can cause burns. Inhalation
or ingestion of very large amounts can be toxic to the nervous
and respiratory systems resulting in nausea, stomach cramps,
diarrhea and excessive salivation. Other symptoms at high doses
include sweating, blurring of vision, incoordination, and
convulsions.
 Carbamate pesticides
ECOLOGICAL EFFECTS
• Carbaryl is lethal to many non-target insects. The pesticide is
more active in insects than in mammals. The destruction of
honeybee populations in sprayed areas is sometimes a problem.
Carbaryl is moderately toxic to aquatic organisms, such as
rainbow and lake trout, bluegill, and cutthroat. It is also
moderately toxic to wild bird species, with low toxicity to
Canada geese .

• Accumulation of carbaryl can occur in catfish, crawfish, and

snails, as well as in algae and duckweed. Residue levels in fish
were 140 fold greater than the concentration of carbaryl in
water. In general, due to its rapid metabolism and rapid
degradation,carbaryl should not pose a significant
bioaccumulation risk in alkaline waters. However, under
conditions below neutrality it may be significant .
 Pyrethroides
• Pyrethroides and pyrethrins are similar organic
compounds isolated from the flowers of
pyrethrums (Chrysanthemum Coccineum and
C. cinerariaefolium).
• The insecticidal properties of pyrethrins are
derived from ketoalcoholic esters of
chrysanthemic and pyrethroic acids .
Pyrethroides affect the sodium channels and
lead to paralysis of the organism.
• Pyrethroides have a comparatively slight level
of mammalian toxicity and have a fast
biodegradation capacity.
• Exposure to very high levels of the compounds
in air, food or water may cause giddiness,
headache, vomiting, muscle twitching, low
energy, convulsions and loss of consciousness
Mode of action
 Others
• There are many more pesticides used in agricultural practice.
Heavy metals have found vast use as pesticides. Elements
like iron, lead, sulphur, arsenic, mercury, zinc, tin, etc. have
been used in inorganic or organic metal form.
• Methyl mercuric chloride, sodium arsenate, calcium arsenate,
zinc phosphide are some of the compounds that fall under
this category.
• Among the various classes of pesticides, organochlorines and
organophosphates are widely used. Organochlorines are
known for their high persistence and toxicity characteristics.
• These pesticides cause neurological damage, endocrine
disorders, and have acute and chronic health effects. Hence
contamination of the environment with organochlorine
pesticides drastically affects the ecosystem.
 Fungicide: Phenylamides & Phthalimides
1. Phenylamide fungicides are systemic compounds that show
potent eradicative anti-fungal activity. When added to the soil,
they enhance plant growth and yield; in addition, these
fungicides affect the homeostastis of the soil system. These
chemicals affect nutrient cycling and enter the food chain, and
have thus been reported to affect higher organisms including
humans. They affect nucleic acids by inhibiting the activity of
RNA polymerase I system. They are known to impact mitosis
and cell division in target fungi.
2. Phthalimides: Phthalimides include three fungicides, captan,
folpet and captafol which together represent the second most
important group of organic fungicides used. They represent
about half the usage of the dithiocarbamates. The fungicides
difolatan, captan and folpet react with thiols such as cysteine and
glutathione at acidic pH levels of 4.0 to 5.0.
 Herbicides
1. Phenoxyalkonates are a widely used family of herbicides.
These pesticides are mainly used to control weeds in
agriculture. Nearly all compounds of this group are degraded
by microorganisms.
Examples: 2,4-D(2,4 Dichloro phenoxy acetic acid),2,4 5 T(2,4 5
Trichloro Phenoxy acetic acid) Dichloroprop, Mecoprop, Erbin,
Sesone
2. Triazines: The compounds that fall under this category are
herbicidal pesticides. They include desmetryne, chlorazine,
atriazine, propazine, etc. These compounds are known to have
potential use as insect chemosterilants. Higher concentrations of
these herbicides were found to inhibit plant catabolism pathway.
Examples: Atrazine, Simazine, Ametryn, Atratone, Chlorazine,
Cynazine, Cyprazine, Metribuzin, Propazine, Turbutryn, Simetryn
 Herbicides

3. Benzoic acid: Benzoic acid herbicides include

dicamba, dichlobenil, chlorambin, bromoxynil, ioxynil
and naptalam. Little information is available regarding
their degradation by soil microbes. Ioxynil is found to
precipitate in acid soils.
Examples: Dicamba, Dichlorobenil, Chloroambin,
Tricamba, Neptalan, Bromoxynil

4. Dipyrids: The dipyridyl herbicides include paraquat

and diquat. They are strongly adsorbed as organic Benzoic acid
cations in the soil . Microorganisms metabolize paraquat
as the main source of nitrogen.
Examples: Paraquat, Diaquat
 References

1. [Link]

2. Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology, Edited by: Robert I. Krieger and William C. Krieger, Academic Press,
Elsevier, 2001.
3. [Link]
4. [Link]
5. McCollister et al., [Link] Studies of 0,O-Dimethyl-O-(2,4,5-trichlorophenyl) Phosphorothioate
(Ronnel) in Laboratory Animals , Insecticide toxicity to animals,ACS,690-693.
6. [Link]
7. [Link]
8. [Link]
9. CRC Handbook of Pesticides By G.W.A. Milne, Taylor and Francis, ISBN 9781315892078,2017.
10. [Link]
11. [Link]