[Link] OF LOADS 1.

8 Hydrostatic Load:
1.1 Dead Load (DL): Applies to structures submerged in liquids, like
dams or underwater structures. Represents the
Also known as static load or permanent load. pressure exerted by the liquid on the structure.
Represents the weight of the structure itself Depends on the depth and density of the
and any permanently attached elements. It is liquid.
relatively stable and does not change
significantly. Examples include the weight of 1.9 Vibration Load:
walls, floors, roofs, and fixed equipment.
Results from dynamic forces, such as
1.2 Live Load (LL): machinery or vehicles. Can lead to structural
vibrations and fatigue.
Also known as dynamic load or imposed load.
Represents the variable loads that a structure 1.10 Blast Load:
may experience during its intended use.
Examples include people, furniture, vehicles, Applies to structures in proximity to explosive
and movable equipment. events. Represents the shock waves and debris
impact resulting from explosions.
1.3 Snow Load:
2. TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS
Represents the weight of snow on a structure.
Particularly important in regions with heavy Foundations are structural elements that
snowfall. The load depends on factors such as transfer loads from a building or structure to
snow density, shape, and accumulation. the underlying soil or rock. Different types of
foundations are used based on factors such as
1.4 Wind Load: the nature of the soil, the type of structure
Represents the force exerted by wind on a being built, and local building codes. Here are
structure. Important for tall buildings, bridges, some common types of foundations:
and other structures exposed to wind. Depends
on factors like wind speed, direction, and the 2.1 Shallow Foundations
shape of the structure. 2.1.1 Individual Footings: Also known as pad
1.5 Seismic Load: or isolated footings. Supports individual
columns or wall loads. Comes in various
Represents the ground motion during an shapes, such as square, rectangular, or circular,
earthquake. Particularly important in depending on the load distribution. Size is
earthquake-prone regions. The seismic load
calculated based on load on columns and safe
depends on the structure's location, soil
bearing capacity of soil.
conditions, and seismic activity.
1.6 Temperature Load: 2.1.2 Combined footings: combined footing
is used when two or more columns are close
Results from temperature changes causing enough and their isolation footings overlap
thermal expansion or contraction. Can lead to each other. The shape of the footing is
internal stresses in a structure. Bridges, rectangular.
pipelines, and other long structures are
particularly affected. 2.1.3 Spread footing: also known as strip and
wall footing. It is used where the base is wider
1.7 Soil Pressure Load:
than the typical load- bearing wall
Applies to structures supported by the ground, foundations. They are used for individual
such as foundations. Represents the pressure columns, walls, bridge piers where bearing soil
exerted by the soil on the foundation. Depends layer is within 3M from the ground.
on factors like soil type, moisture content, and
foundation depth. 2.1.4 Mat (Raft) Foundations: A continuous
slab that supports the entire structure Suitable
for areas with poor soil bearing capacity or in
the presence of expansive soils.
2.1.5 Slab-on-Grade: A single, continuous in contact with moisture and shrinks when its
slab with no basement. Common in residential dry. An under reamed piles are used in the
construction. Suitable for stable soils and mild foundation to remove these defects.
climates.
3.1 Method 1
2.2 Deep Foundations
When depth of black cotton soil is high and
2.2.1 Pile Foundations: used to transfer heavy water from the surface is not likely to enter the
loads from the structure to a hard rock stratum soil to a depth of more than 1.5m. foundation
much deep below the ground level. Consist of trenches are dug 30 cm deeper than the
long, slender columns driven or drilled into the maximum depth of cracks. The width is kept
ground. Transmit loads through soil strata to so that the allowable bearing capacity of soil
deeper, more stable layers. The depth of hard does not exceed 15 t/n2. Then gravel bed is
rock strata may be 5m to 50m deep from the placed into the trench and compact it. Then the
ground surface. Common types include driven masonry work on the concrete is carried to the
piles, bored piles, and auger-cast piles. plinth level. And then the side of masonry is
filled with sand.
2.2.2 Pier Foundations: Similar to spread
footings but extend below the frost line or
other unstable soil layers. Used in areas with
expansive soils or frost heave concerns.
2.2.3 Caisson Foundations: also known as
drilled shafts. It has a action similar to pile
foundation. Large-diameter, drilled shafts that
extend to stable soil or rock. It is used where
depth of hard strata below ground level is
located within 10m – 100m. it is not suitable
when deep deposit of soft clays and loose,
water bearing granular soil exert. Common in
bridge and high-rise building construction.
2.3 Special Foundations
2.3.1 Floating Foundations: Used for
structures on water, such as oil platforms. The
structure is allowed to float while anchored to 3.2 Method 2
the seabed. Black cotton soil with heavy rainfall and
2.3.2 Screw Piles (Helical Piles): Screw-like where surface water is more likely to penetrate
steel piles screwed into the ground. Suitable deeper. Then the foundation trenches are dug
for both tension and compression loads, used up to 2m. then the excavation is levelled and
in a variety of applications. hardened. Then the strips of concrete are
prepared in a 25x25 cm cross sectional on both
2.3.3 Earthquake-Resistant Foundations sides of trench. Then sand is filled between
Special foundations designed to absorb and these two strips. A layer of 10cm to 15cm thick
dissipate seismic forces. Examples include RCC is laid on.
base isolators and seismic dampers.
The masonry is done above the level of RCC.
3. FOUNDATION IN BLACK COTTON Which is carried up to the plinth and both
SOIL sides of the masonry are filled with sand.
Pile foundation is the type of deep foundation. Pipes of 80cm dia. Are passed through
Under reamed piles is specially designed for masonry and slabs of RCC at distance of 1.50
black cotton soil. Blac cotton soil swells when
c/c. the head of the pipe is kept at the plinth 3. Black clay should not come into direct
level and sand is filled in it. contact with the foundation masonry.
Plug is placed at the head of the pipe. The pipe 4. For this, gravel should be filled under the
is inspected twice a year and additional sand is base and sand on the sides.
added if required.
5. Construction should be done in the dry
season.
6. The depth of the foundation should be 30
cm greater than the depth of the cracks in the
black soil.
7. All major walls should be filled with R.C.C
coping at a plinth level or lintel level.
4. SAFE BEARING CAPACITY
Safe bearing capacity (SBC) is the maximum
pressure that can be applied to the soil without
causing shear failure or excessive settlement.
It is a critical parameter in geotechnical
engineering and is used to design foundations
for structures. The safe bearing capacity of soil
depends on various factors, including soil type,
moisture content, and the type of foundation.
The foundation trenches are dug up to 2m.
then the excavation is levelled and hardened.
Those strips of concrete are prepared in a 25 x The unit of safe bearing capacity is usually
25 cm. cross sectional on both sides in the expressed in terms of force per unit area, such
trench sand is filled between these two strips. as kilonewtons per square meter (kN/m²) or
A layer of 10 cm to 15 cm thick RCC is laid on pounds per square foot (psf).
it.
4.1 Field test to estimate safe bearing
The masonry is done above the level of RCC. capacity.
Which is carried up to the plinth both sides of
the masonry are filled with sand. 4.1.1 Standard Penetration Test (SPT): The
SPT is a widely used test to assess the
Pipes of 80 cm diameter are passed through subsurface soil conditions. It involves driving
masonry and slabs of RCC at a distance of 1.5 a standard sampler into the ground at the
c/c. the head of the pipe is kept at the plinth bottom of a borehole using a standard weight
level and sand is filled in it. falling freely from a standard height. The SPT
provides information on soil resistance and can
Plug is placed at the head of the pipe. The pipe
be used to estimate the soil's cohesion and
is inspected twice a year and additional sand is
friction angle.
added if required.
4.1.2 Plate Load Test: In a plate load test, a
3.3. Precautions
rigid plate of known diameter is loaded
1. Raft foundation should be made for incrementally on the soil surface. The
important structures. settlement of the plate is measured at various
load increments. The results are used to
2. Black soil should be completely removed if calculate the ultimate bearing capacity and
possible. settlement characteristics of the soil.
4.2 Procedure for determination of SBC
4.2.1. Site exploration: Conduct a thorough 4.2.6. Determination of Depth of
site investigation to gather information about Exploration:
the soil profile, including the type of soil, its
Determine the depth up to which the bearing
composition, and layering. This involves
capacity needs to be assessed. This may
drilling boreholes and extracting soil samples
involve considering different soil layers and
for laboratory testing.
their respective properties.
4.2.2. Laboratory Testing: Perform
4.2.7. Correction Factors: Apply correction
laboratory tests on the soil samples to
factors based on the foundation type, shape,
determine their engineering properties. Key
and size. The safe bearing capacity may vary
tests include:
for different types of foundations (e.g., shallow
Grain Size Analysis: Determines the foundations, deep foundations).
distribution of particle sizes in the soil.
4.2.8. Consulting Codes and Standards:
Atterberg Limits: Identify the plastic and Refer to relevant building codes and standards
liquid limits of the soil. for guidance on determining safe bearing
capacity. Different countries and regions may
Compaction Tests: Assess the maximum dry
have specific guidelines for these calculations.
density and optimum moisture content.
4.2.9 Final Safe Bearing Capacity: Calculate
4.2.3. In-Situ Tests: Conduct in-situ tests to
the final safe bearing capacity for the specific
gather information about the soil at the actual
foundation type, considering all relevant
construction site. Common in-situ tests
factors and correction factors.
include:
4.2.10. Foundation Design: Design the
Standard Penetration Test (SPT): Measures the
foundation based on the determined safe
number of blows required for a standard
bearing capacity to ensure that the structure is
sampler to penetrate the soil at a specified
adequately supported, and settlements are
depth.
within acceptable limits.
Cone Penetration Test (CPT): Measures the
5. ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY
resistance of the soil to a cone-shaped
penetrometer. The ultimate bearing capacity of soil is the
maximum pressure or load that can be applied
4.2.4. Determination of Soil Type:
to the soil before it fails in shear. It is an
Classify the soil based on its type (e.g., clay, important parameter in geotechnical
silt, sand) and assign appropriate soil engineering used to design foundations and
properties. Different soil types have different ensure the stability of structures. Ultimate
bearing capacities. bearing capacity is typically expressed in
terms of force per unit area, such as
4.2.5. Calculation of Net Safe Bearing kilonewtons per square meter (kN/m²) or
Capacity: pounds per square foot (psf).
Calculate the net safe bearing capacity by The ultimate bearing capacity is influenced by
considering the following factors: various factors, including soil type, moisture
Allowable Settlement: Determine the content, depth, and the type of foundation.
maximum allowable settlement for the 6. EPICENTER: The epicentre refers to the
structure. point on the Earth's surface directly above the
Safety Factor: Apply a safety factor to the hypocentre or focus of an earthquake. It is the
ultimate bearing capacity to ensure a margin of location where seismic waves, generated by
safety. the release of energy within the Earth, first
reach the surface. Earthquakes are caused by
the movement of tectonic plates beneath the 8.1 Tectonic Plate Movements:
Earth's crust, and the epicentre is a crucial
8.1.1 Divergent Boundaries: At divergent
parameter for locating and studying these
boundaries, tectonic plates move away from
geological events.
each other. Magma rises from the mantle to fill
7. INTENSITY SCALES: Intensity scales are the gap, creating new crust. As this process
used to measure the subjective effects of an occurs, earthquakes can occur due to the
earthquake at specific locations, assessing the adjustment of the surrounding rock.
degree of shaking and the resulting damage.
8.2.2 Convergent Boundaries: At convergent
Unlike magnitude, which quantifies the energy
boundaries, two plates collide or move toward
released at the earthquake's source, intensity
each other. One plate may be forced beneath
provides information about the earthquake's
the other in a process called subduction. The
impact on the Earth's surface. Two commonly
intense pressure and friction at these
used intensity scales are the Modified Mercalli
boundaries can result in earthquakes.
Intensity (MMI) scale and the European Macro
seismic Scale (EMS). Here's a brief overview 8.2.3 Transform Boundaries: At transform
of each: boundaries, tectonic plates slide past each
other horizontally. The friction between the
7.1 Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI)
plates prevents smooth movement, and when
Scale: The MMI scale, developed by Giuseppe
the stress overcomes this friction, it can lead to
Mercalli in 1902 and later modified by Charles
sudden release of energy, causing earthquakes.
F. Richter, assigns Roman numeral values
from I to XII to describe the intensity of 8.2 Subduction Zones: Subduction zones
shaking at a specific location. The scale is occur when an oceanic plate collides with and
based on observed effects on people, is forced beneath a continental plate. The
structures, and the natural environment rather subduction process generates intense pressure
than instrumental measurements. Intensity I and friction, causing earthquakes in the
represents not felt, while intensity XII signifies subduction zone and sometimes triggering
total destruction with most buildings tsunamis.
collapsing.
8.3 Volcanic Activity: Earthquakes often
7.2 European Macro seismic Scale (EMS): accompany volcanic activity. As magma rises
The EMS is a similar intensity scale used towards the Earth's surface, it can cause the
primarily in Europe to evaluate the effects of surrounding rock to fracture, leading to
earthquakes. It categorizes intensity levels volcanic earthquakes. These earthquakes can
from I to XII, similar to the MMI scale, but occur before, during, or after a volcanic
with detailed descriptions tailored to European eruption.
building types and cultural aspects. The EMS
also considers macro seismic effects, such as 8.4 Human-Induced Causes: Human
damage to buildings, landslides, and other activities, such as mining, reservoir-induced
environmental impacts. seismicity (due to the filling of large reservoirs
behind dams), and activities related to oil and
8. CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE: gas extraction, can induce seismicity. These
Earthquakes are primarily caused by the are known as induced earthquakes and are
movement of tectonic plates beneath the generally of lower magnitude compared to
Earth's surface. The Earth's outer shell, known natural earthquakes.
as the lithosphere, is divided into several large
and rigid plates that float on the semi-fluid 8.5 Fault Slippage: Faults are fractures in the
asthenosphere beneath them. The interactions Earth's crust where rocks on either side have
between these tectonic plates lead to various moved relative to each other. Stress along
seismic activities. Here are the main causes of these faults can cause the rocks to slip
earthquakes: suddenly, releasing stored energy in the form
of seismic waves, resulting in an earthquake.
9. MAGNITUDE: The magnitude of an 11.2 Zone III: Moderate Seismic Zone:
earthquake is a measure of the energy released Moderate seismic risk. Encompasses areas
at the earthquake's source. It is a logarithmic such as the Indo-Gangetic plain, Rajasthan,
scale, meaning that each whole number and parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka, and
increase in magnitude represents a tenfold Andhra Pradesh. Buildings must be designed
increase in amplitude of the seismic waves and with stricter seismic resistant measures to
roughly 31.6 times more energy release. The withstand potential earthquake.
magnitude of an earthquake is typically
11.3 Zone IV: High Seismic Zone: High
determined using seismographs, which record
seismic risk. Includes parts of Jammu and
the amplitude of seismic waves. The most used
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, the
magnitude scale is the moment magnitude
North-Eastern states, and portions of northern
scale (Mw), which has largely replaced the
Bihar and Uttar Pradesh. Building in this zone
Richter scale. Other magnitude scales, such as
must adhere to seismic design code with
the body wave magnitude (Mb) and surface
extensive structural reinforcement.
wave magnitude (Ms), are also used, but the
moment magnitude scale is considered more 11.4 Zone V: Very High Seismic Zone: Very
accurate and reliable for measuring the size of high seismic risk. Encompasses the entire
larger earthquakes. north-eastern region, parts of Jammu and
Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and
10. INTENSITY: The intensity of an
the western Himalayan region. The strictest
earthquake is a measure of its effects at
seismic resistant construction measures are
specific locations, describing the observed
required due to significant seismic hazard.
shaking and damage caused by seismic waves.
Unlike magnitude, which is a measure of the 12. PLATE TECTONICS: Plate tectonics is a
energy released at the earthquake's source, scientific theory that explains the movement
intensity provides information about the and interactions of the Earth's lithospheric
earthquake's impact on the Earth's surface. The [Link] provides a framework for
Modified Mercalli Intensity (MMI) scale is understanding the dynamic process that shape
commonly used to assess the intensity of an the earth’s surface and geological features.
earthquake. The scale ranges from I (not felt)
to XII. 12.1 Key components:

11. SEISMIC ZONES: India is divided into 12.1.1. Lithospheric Plates:

several seismic zones based on the level of The Earth's lithosphere is divided into several
seismic activity and the potential for major and minor tectonic plates, each with
earthquakes. These zones are designated by the distinct geological features. Some of the major
Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) in plates include the North American Plate,
collaboration with the Geological Survey of Eurasian Plate, Pacific Plate, African Plate,
India (GSI). The seismic zoning of India is and South American Plate.
outlined in the Indian Standard IS 1893 (Part
1): 2016, which is regularly updated to reflect 12.1.2. Plate Boundaries:
the latest seismic risk assessments. the seismic
Plate boundaries are regions where two plates
zones of India are as follows:
interact. There are three main types of plate
11.1 Zone II: Low Seismic Zone: This zone boundaries:
covers areas with the lowest seismic risk.
•Divergent Boundaries: Plates move away
Includes parts of eastern India, northern Bihar,
from each other, leading to the formation of
northern Uttar Pradesh, and some areas in the
new crust. This often occurs along mid-ocean
southern states. Building in this zone needs to
ridges.
be designed to resist seismic force but the
forces are relatively lower. •Convergent Boundaries: Plates move toward
each other, resulting in subduction (one plate
going beneath the other), mountain building, [Link]. Epicentre: The epicentre was near
and earthquakes. the village of Chobani in Bhachau Taluka of
Kutch District, approximately 20 kilometres
•Transform Boundaries: Plates slide past each
south-southwest of Bhuj.
other horizontally, causing earthquakes
along fault lines. [Link]. Magnitude and Depth: The
earthquake had a magnitude of 7.7 and
12.1.3. Plate motion: the driving forces
occurred at a depth of about 15 kilometres.
behind plate movement is the convection flow
of material in the underlying atmosphere heat [Link]. Impact: The Bhuj earthquake caused
generated from the earth’s interior causes widespread destruction across Gujarat,
material to rise move horizontally cool and affecting not only Bhuj but also numerous
sink, creating connection current that drag the towns and villages in the surrounding regions.
lithospheric plates along. Thousands of people lost their lives, and many
more were injured. Infrastructure, including
12.1.4. Geological features: Plate tectonics is
buildings, roads, and bridges, suffered severe
responsible for a wide range of geological
damage. Historical and cultural landmarks
features including mountain ranges, ocean
were also affected.
basins, earthquake, volcanic activities etc.
[Link]. Response and Rescue: The
12.1.5. Evidence plate: Plate tectonic is
earthquake triggered a massive humanitarian
supported by various lines of evidence, such as
and rescue effort. National and international
the fit of continents like South America and
agencies, as well as the Indian military, played
Africa, the distribution of earthquake and
a crucial role in providing aid and assistance.
volcanos along plate boundaries the magnitude
Rescue teams worked tirelessly to pull
striping of sea floors and the study of seismic
survivors from the debris, and medical teams
waves.
provided emergency healthcare.
12.1.6. Impact: Plate tectonics has a profound
[Link]. Aftermath: The economic impact of
effect on earth geology, climate, ecosystem. it
the earthquake was substantial, with estimates
influences the formation and breakup of super
of significant financial losses. The disaster
continent, the development of mountain
prompted a revaluation of building codes and
chains, the development of ocean basins and
seismic preparedness in India, leading to
redistribution of land and sea.
efforts to enhance earthquake-resistant
13. MAJOR EARTHQUAKES: construction practices.

13.1. Bhuj Earthquake [Link]. Reconstruction: The reconstruction

process was extensive, involving the
The devastating earthquake that struck Bhuj, a rebuilding of homes, schools, and other critical
city in the western Indian state of Gujarat, infrastructure. Lessons learned from the Bhuj
occurred on January 26, 2001. This earthquake earthquake contributed to advancements in
is often referred to as the "Bhuj earthquake" or earthquake-resistant construction and disaster
the "Gujarat earthquake." It was a moment preparedness in the region.
magnitude (Mw) 7.7 earthquake and remains
one of the most destructive seismic events in 13.2. Assam earthquake
the recent history of India.
Tibet Earthquake, also known as the Assam-
13.1.1. Key details about the Bhuj Tibet earthquake of 1950 or the Assam
earthquake: earthquake of 1950, was a devastating seismic
event that occurred on August 15, 1950. This
[Link]. Date and Time: The earthquake earthquake is one of the most powerful
occurred on January 26, 2001, at around 08:46 earthquakes ever recorded in the world.
AM local time. This date coincided with
India's Republic Day.
13.2.1. Key Details about the Assam ongoing tectonic activity. It also highlighted
earthquake: the need for continued monitoring and
research in seismically active areas.
[Link]. Date and Time: The earthquake
struck on August 15, 1950, at around 6:39 PM 13.3. San Francisco
local time.
The San Francisco Earthquake of 1906 was a
[Link]. Epicentre: The epicentre was located catastrophic event that struck the city of San
near Rima in the northeastern part of the Francisco and the surrounding region, causing
Indian state of Assam, close to the Assam- widespread destruction and significant loss of
Tibet border. life. Here are key details about this historic
earthquake.
[Link]. Magnitude and Depth: The
earthquake had an estimated magnitude of 8.6, 13.3.1. Key details about the San Fransisco
making it one of the strongest earthquakes in earthquake:
recorded history. The depth of the earthquake
13.3.1.1Date and Time: The earthquake
was approximately 15 kilometres.
occurred on April 18, 1906, at approximately
[Link]. Impact: The tremors were felt across 5:12 AM local time.
a vast region, including parts of Assam, Tibet,
[Link]. Magnitude: The earthquake had an
Bhutan, and Bangladesh. The affected area
estimated moment magnitude of 7.8.
included remote and sparsely populated
regions, which limited casualties compared to [Link]. Epicentre: The epicentre was
the intensity of the earthquake. situated along the San Andreas Fault, which is
a major tectonic fault line in California.
[Link]. Casualties and Damage: While the
region was not densely populated, the [Link]. Cause: The earthquake was a result
earthquake resulted in significant casualties, of the movement between the Pacific Plate and
and entire villages were reported to have been the North American Plate along the San
wiped out. Infrastructure, including buildings, Andreas Fault. The rupture along the fault line
roads, and bridges, suffered severe damage. caused a release of accumulated stress and
The earthquake triggered landslides in the generated powerful seismic waves.
mountainous terrain, further contributing to the
destruction. [Link]. Duration and Shaking: The shaking
lasted for about 45 to 60 seconds, causing
[Link]. Aftermath: The Great Assam-Tibet extensive damage to structures in the affected
Earthquake had a profound impact on seismic areas.
studies in the region. Scientists and researchers
studied the geological aspects of the [Link]. Impact: The earthquake and the
earthquake to better understand the tectonic subsequent fires that engulfed San Francisco
forces at play. The disaster prompted had a profound impact on the city. Buildings
discussions on earthquake preparedness and and infrastructure, including many
the need for early warning systems. unreinforced masonry structures, suffered
extensive damage. The fires, ignited by
[Link]. Seismic Significance: The ruptured gas lines and broken electrical wires,
earthquake occurred in a seismically active raged for days, further exacerbating the
zone, where the Indian Plate is colliding with destruction. The combination of the
the Eurasian Plate. This tectonic interaction is earthquake and fires resulted in the near-total
responsible for the seismic activity in the destruction of much of the city.
region.
[Link]. Casualties and Displacement: The
[Link]. Subsequent Seismic Activity: The earthquake and its aftermath resulted in the
1950 earthquake was followed by other death of an estimated 3,000 to 6,000 people.
seismic events in the region, emphasizing the Tens of thousands of residents were left
homeless, leading to mass displacement and of their grain-size distribution and fine-grained
temporary settlements in parks and open soils on the basis of their plasticity
spaces. characteristics.
[Link]. Response and Reconstruction: The
disaster prompted a massive humanitarian
response, with neighbouring cities and states
providing aid to San Francisco. Reconstruction
efforts were undertaken in the aftermath, and
the city was rebuilt with a focus on more
resilient and earthquake-resistant structures.
The experience of the 1906 earthquake played
a pivotal role in shaping modern building Coarse grained soils are those having 50% or
codes and seismic regulations. more retained on the 0.075 mm sieve. They are
further subdivided into gravels and sands. The
[Link]. Legacy: The San Francisco coarse-grained soils are designated as gravel
Earthquake of 1906 remains one of the most (G) if 50% or more of these are retained on
significant earthquakes in U.S. history, not 4.75 mm sieve; otherwise, they are designated
only for its immediate impact but also for its as sand(S).
lasting influence on earthquake engineering
and urban planning. The event led to Fine grained soils having more than 50%
advancements in the understanding of seismic material passing the 0.075 mm sieve. These
hazards and the development of measures to are subdivided into silt (M) and clay(C) based
mitigate earthquake risks. on their liquid limit and plasticity index.
Highly organic soils, Fibrous in nature, usually
peat and swampy soils having high
14. SOIL CLASSIFICATION compressibility are not subdivided.
Soil classification is the arrangement of soils AASHTO Soil Classification System
into different groups such that the soils in a
particular group have similar behaviour under According to AASHTO system, the soils are
given set of physical conditions. Any soil classified into eight groups: A-1 through A-7
classification system must provide us with with an additional group A-8 for peat. This
information about the probable engineering system includes several sub-groups. Soil
behaviour of a soil. The most commonly used within each group is evaluated according to
properties for soil classification are. the group index.
GI=0.2a + 0.005ac + 0.01bd.
Grain size distribution Where, a=that part of the percentage passing
the 75 µ sieve greater than 35 and not
Plasticity of soil
exceeding 75.
Engineering classification System of Soil b=that part of the percentage passing the 75µ
sieve greater than 15 and not exceeding 55
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) c=that part of liquid limit greater than 40 and
American Association of State Highway and not greater than 60.
Transport Officials (AASHTO) d=that part of plasticity index greater than 10
and not exceeding 30.
Indian Standard Soil Classification System In general, the greater the group index value,
(ISSCS) the less desirable a soil is for highway
construction within that sub-group. A group
Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)
This system was originally developed by A. index 0 indicates a good subgrade material
Casagrande. According to the USCS, the where group index 20 or more indicates a very
coarse-grained soils are classified on the basis poor subgrade material.
 Indian Standard Soil Classification System
(ISSCS)
The Indian soil classification system is
basically the same as that of USCS with the
slight modification that the fine-grained soils
have been subdivided into three sub-groups of
low, medium and high compressibility.
In this system, coarse grain soils are classified
on the basis of grain size distribution and fine
soils on the basis of plasticity.