Chapter 1

1. Introduction

Our knowledge about the social relationships among old age peoples is limited.

Therefore, it is necessary to find out the importance of relations between quality of life and

helping attitude among old age peoples. Despite the fact that populations all over the world

are aging rapidly and that there is strong evidence of social relationships being important for

older individuals and their health and well-being, the information about the social

relationships of the old age peoples from the viewpoint of themselves is almost non-existent.

Consequently, our existing knowledge about social relationships in very old age is strongly

based on quantitative research. Qualitative approach is, however, needed to reveal new

aspects of the factors that are perceived as important for the well-being of older persons. This

is essential in order to be able to promote the health and well-being of the older population.

1.1Old-age Population

According to the United Nations ([UN] 2015) the growth of the older population in the

next decades will be unprecedented. Worldwide, the growth of the number of those aged 60

and over is rapid. However, the number of the very old persons, meaning those aged 80 years

and over, is growing even faster. In 15 years there is projected to be an increase of 61

percent, from 125 million very old persons in 2015, to 202 million in 2030. By 2050 the

number of the very old will reach over 400 million. As this very old age is commonly

conceptualized as a gloomy time of life (e.g. Baltes & Smith, 2003), the future might seem

worrisome. However, in order to better understand life in very old age, studies are needed,

that do not only look for the restrictions of very old age, but also the possibilities (Tanner,

2016).

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 Numerous studies have investigated factors affecting the health and well-being of older

persons and these studies have also found social relationships to be a pivotal factor. These studies

have shown, for instance, that social engagement remains an important determinant of physical

health in old age (Cherry et al., 2011), that social relationships can have protective effect against

mortality (Giles, Glonek, Luszcz & Andrews, 2005) and that they are associated with cognitive

performance (Gow, Corley, Starr & Deary, 2013), life satisfaction (Berg, Hassing, McClearn &

Johansson, 2006; Okabayashia & Hougham, 2014), attachment to live (Jopp, Rott & Oswald,

2008), and considering oneself disabled (Kelley-Moore, Schumacher, Kahana & Kahana , 2006).

Furthermore, social relationships have been found to be one of the most important aspects for the

well-being and successful ageing of the oldest old (Nosraty, Jylhä, Raittila & Lumme-Sandt,

2015; Nosraty, Sarkela, Hervonen & Jylhä, 2012; von Faber et al., 2001). There is no doubt that

social relationships play an essential role in the lives of the older and oldest old persons.

While considerable attention has been devoted to studying associations between social

relationships of older persons and various other phenomena, much less attention has been paid to

the perceptions of the oldest old themselves about their social relationships. However, studying

older people’s own perceptions is essential, since quantitative measures are not always able to

capture the essence of the studied subject, as the study of von Faber et al. (2001) demonstrates. In

their study, they found that when the opportunity was given for the elderly to tell their perception

of the matter in their own words, a whole new perspective to the studied subject was found that

could not have been detected using only quantitative methods.

Consequently, more qualitative studies are needed to gain better understanding of the

complexity and diversity of social relationships in very old age and to learn more about factors

affecting the health and well-being of this fastest-growing age group. The primary focus of this

study is on deepening the understanding of informal social relationships of home-dwelling

nonagenarians by using life-story interview data, which is analyzed using qualitative content

analysis. This study provides diverse information about social relationships of the oldest old,

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including information about perceived limitations for social relationships, the significance of

social relationships in the lives of the oldest old and valued aspects of social relationships in very

old age. Thus, this thesis provides new knowledge that can be used to understand the social needs

of the old-age towards helping attitude among themselves for improving their lives qualities in

order to promote their health and well-being.

1.2 Quality of Life

Quality of life (QoL) is at the same time a very concrete and elusive concept. It is

concrete in the sense that most people have quite clear conceptions about what is not a good

life. There is more variation, and less agreement, on what are the positive aspects of life.

Among the reasons for this is that we as human beings share some basic needs which disturb

us and make us unhappy when they are not met, while we as individuals have personal tastes

and preferences which tend to direct our dreams about the good life in different directions.

This being said, the convergent images of the negative sides of life, and the more divergent

images of the positive will, in reality, interact and be modified by social structures, cultural

norms, and shared experiences such as ageing. They do, however, represent contrasting

perspectives on what QoL is and how it could be studied: one based on an indirect approach,

the other on a more direct one. The first will tend to focus on circumstances that may make a

good life possible, while the other will study the good life more directly in the form of

subjective well-being or happiness.

These two traditions have dominated research in the field. The first originated in

economics and focused on living standards in terms of income and material goods (Motel-

Klingebiel, 2004). Sociologists added social indicators that were assumed to be important like

housing, health, education, and social support (Erikson and Uusitalo, 1987; Ringen, 1995).

The common feature is a focus on (more or less) objective circumstances that may enable a

good life. This approach is normatively grounded in a conception of well-being as freedom or

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capability – the ability and power to reach valuable goals (Sen, 1993; Ringen, 1995). It works

on the assumption that people are rational and will try to realize what they consider to be

good for them, which is a reasonable assumption for most people and in most situations, but

not without exceptions.

A third line bridges the two by studying how well-being is influenced by living

conditions and vice versa. Campbell et al. (1976) have argued that subjective wellbeing

is a function of both direct and indirect effects of structural conditions, but typically, the

effects of objective living conditions are filtered through subjective evaluations of these

conditions (Smith et al., 1999). Living conditions have an impact on individual well-being

mainly through personal perceptions, for example relative to expectations and

comparative standards. This may explain the often moderate correlations found between

‘objective’ and ‘subjective’ living conditions. Relative deprivation is, so to speak, a better

indicator for subjective well-being than actual deprivation.

Quality of life consists upon the following features and it can be measured

through them

i. Age: It is commonly agreed that at all ages, and especially in late life, the

most important social relations are familial. In late life, and with increased

longevity, older people are likely to have the advantage of living in multiple-

generation families. This potentially increases the number of social relations

with which they might be engaged. On the other hand, age is also

accompanied by an increased likelihood that mates, peers, and parents would

have died. While the loss of physical strength undoubtedly occurs at every life

stage, there emerge higher proportions of individuals in old age reporting

illness, chronic disease, and fair to poor health.

ii. Gender: While biological differences are most directly associated with sex

differences, lifetime socialization, experiences, and context are responsible for

gender differences. With age, some differences become more pronounced and

others disappear. Women live longer than men; therefore, they are more likely

to experience at least part of their late life as widows. Children are clearly an

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 important resource for health care, assistance with daily living, and, with

increasing age, for living arrangements. All of these resources are often

associated with higher QoL and well-being.

iii. Race: In the Pakistan and many other countries ethnic and racial minorities

face a lifetime of discrimination and disadvantage. many researchers have

documented the likelihood that apparent race difference s disappear once

education, occupation, or socio-economic status are considered.

iv. Marital Status: Whether one is married, never married, divorced, or widowed

can be a life-defining status. Being married in late life is usually associated

with greater stability, income, and education. In addition to these ‘objective’

characteristics, a spouse is likely to have been a lifelong partner with whom

one is especially familiar and in whom one has considerable trust. In times of

ill health, and psychological, physical or emotional vulnerability, a spouse is a

resource who, under ideal circumstances, shares with the individual a lifetime

of memories and beliefs, which not only communicates that someone else

thinks highly of you but also manages to instill in you a sense of competence,

self-worth, and ability.

v. Culture: Assessing QoL in various cultural contexts is important. QoL

examinations often assume that the identified dimensions are equally

significant across time, space, and culture. Different family structures affect all

family members, though perhaps older people more. Some cultures have a

tradition of the eldest son staying in the family home to care for his parents,

even after he marries. Clearly, the broader cultural context within which older

people live fundamentally influences their social networks, the support that is

exchanged, and the evaluation or judgement of their support relations.

vi. History: The historical context within which an individual lives provides

another important situational context for understanding social relations. The

young people have experienced the fall of the Berlin wall, the end of the

Soviet Union, the terrorist attacks of 9/11, and two wars in the Middle East.

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 These historical events will similarly influence their familial and non-familial

social relations.

vii. Government Policies: Recent research has shown that government and

public policy can fundamentally influence support relations, among families

and older people. A recent comparative study across five European nations

and the USA is illustrative (Brown et al., 2006; Lowenstein and Ogg, 2004).

People of all ages in the USA, Germany, UK, Israel, Norway, and Spain were

asked who they thought should provide financial, personal, and instrumental

care for older people.

viii. Environment: The meaning of QoL may depend on the contextual and

environmental challenges of a given group. Environment is considered in its

broadest context to include the general pleasantness or unpleasantness of the

neighborhood, and the affluence of the people and businesses in the

community. It is an unfortunate reality that more pleasant environments, e.g.

those that are safer, cleaner, and with greater affluence, afford more open,

accepting, and interactive social relations. The influence of socio-economic

status on the individual is well recognized. One can apply a similar assessment

of the socio-economic status of a neighborhood. When older people live in a

poor or deteriorating community, it is likely that available services will be few,

the number of people available or willing to provide support will be limited,

and the security that a person will feel walking to the store or standing on a

corner waiting for a bus will be minimal (Balfour and Kaplan, 2002). This

situational characteristic allows us to consider the enormous differences in people

who are born to affluence compared to those born with less socio-economic

capital. When old age is associated with poverty, these environmental constraints

are sorely felt. Consider a poor neighbourhood that reduces or eliminates bus

services. If older people lost bus transportation, they would be unable to visit any

area to which they could not walk. Their social relations and QoL would be

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 significantly limited. They would be likely to feel compelled not to leave the

house at night, since many poor areas are often unsafe. At the same time, unlike in

wealthy areas, it is unlikely that a park would be available in which to pass a

pleasant afternoon or enjoy a peaceful walk in a lovely surrounding. Numerous

characteristics can be incorporated under this environmental label. While personal

safety might be one aspect of the environment, unregulated industry can violate

the safety of a neighborhood by exposing its members, for example, to chemical

toxicity or pathogens. Less environmentally safe areas are likely to lead to

constrained social exchanges, which become limited as a result of a hostile and

unsafe neighborhood (Krause, 1993).

1.3 Helping Attitude

Helping Attitude is a willingness and concern for the welfare of others. It refers to

voluntary actions intended to help others, may be in lieu of money or some returns or purely

selfless help. In simple words, it is caring about the welfare of other people and acting to help

them. Altruistic behavior can be motivated by personal egotism or it can be prompted by

“pure” empathetic desire to benefit another person, irrespective of personal gain (Batson,

1991; Batson, Ahmed & Lishner, 2009). With the positive attitudes like helping attitude a

person enjoys „helping‟ others and also can reduce many different negative emotions of their

day by day life. Thus, it seems that helping behaviours could be considered as beneficial for

the person who helps because it is likely that the person who helps another person will

experience the joys of helping others. Helping attitude is the quality of individual which

benefits the giver as well as the receiver. It is the quality of unselfish concern for the welfare

of others not putting themselves first but being willing to give their time or money or effort

etc. for the benefits of others. Such helps can enhance the positive thought and positive self-

esteem. On the other hand, peoples’ helping attitude involves expectation or exchange of

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material goods as well as social goods like service, love, information status. (Baron & Byrne,

1999). The study of Helping Attitude has its root in the works of early Social psychologists.

Research conducted over the last few years has shown that the positive emotions and attitudes

like optimism, helping attitude, love, and hope have tremendous impact on well-being but the

study of positive attitude and emotions have a very short past. Because most of the time the

study of negative aspects like schizophrenia, truancy, alcoholism etc have been getting more

importance.

1.3.1 Factors Affecting Helping Attitude

Helping is the function of either relatively selfish or relatively unselfish motives.

(Baron & Byrne, 1999). For centuries, it was assumed that all human behavior, including the

helping of others, is egoistically motivated. The term Egoism refers to the selfish motive to

pursue some sort of personal gain or benefits through targeted behavior such as helping

others. But all the times, under some circumstances, the egoism motives account for the

helping. On the other hand, empathy is an emotional response that refers to feelings of

compassion, sympathy, tenderness and the like or to perceive plight of another person

without any selfish motives. For the empathy people help those in need simply because it

feels good to do so. The investigators now turns to the four major theories that attempt to

explain pro-social motivation.

1.3.2 Empathy Altruism Hypothesis

The empathy altruism hypothesis states that feelings of empathy for another person

produce on altruistic motivation to increase that person‟s welfare. In the empathy altruism

hypothesis the term Empathy refers to compassionate feelings which is generally perceived to

be a cause of leading to helping behavior. Since for the arousal of empathy person provides

help simply because victim needs help and because it feels good to provide help. One view of

empathy is that it involves the ability to match another persons‟ emotion. Altruism refers to a

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motivational state in which the goal increases another persons‟ welfare as an end in itself.

Hence, this motivation to help can be sufficiently strong that the individual who provides

help is willing to engage in unpleasant, dangerous and even life-threatening activity. (Baron

& Byrne, 1999). On this underlying assumption, Batson and his colleagues (2009) proposed

the empathy altruism hypothesis. This theory predicts that those feeling high level of empathy

for a person in need will be more likely to help than will those feeling less empathy.

1.3.3 Negative State Relief Model

This theory suggests that when a person is experiences negative affect he helps,

sometimes because he wants to make himself feel better. This explanation of pro-social

behaviour is known as the negative state relief model. (Batson et all, 2009). When negative

affect is aroused person provides help in order to reduce own negative affect and make the

helper feel better.

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1.3.4 Empathetic Joy Hypothesis:

It is generally true that it feels good to have a positive impact on other people.

Helping others brings good feelings to the giver and receiver of the deeds because receiver

will pleased that someone cares, and looks out for him, and giver will become satisfied and

inside his heart for helping someone from his own will. It can literally be better to give than

to receive. By helping one individual can enjoy a self-esteem boost for making others lives

better, and make the world a better place. It is due to the empathetic joy person provides help

in order to engage in an activity that has a successful outcome making the helper feel good.

1.3.5 Genetic Determinism Model

The proposal that behavior is driven by genetic attributes that evolved because they

enhanced the probability of transmitting one‟s genes to subsequent generations. (Baron &

Byrne, 1999).this model suggests that unconscious desire to help occurs if the person

perceives the victim to be genetically similar to himself or herself. People help if the

individual feels emotionally close relative is perceived as rational ethical and a matter of

obligation.

1.4 Potential Advantages of Helping

Helping behavior in children and adults has received considerable interest in the last

few years, but the potential advantages of encouraging helping behavior in young children

have yet to be examined. What might children learn from helping others or from being helped

by others? What significance might helping have for children, the classroom, or even society?

A personal benefit to the child who helps others would be the sense of competence in

assisting others. White (1960) and others have referred to a key motivational disposition

which is central to psychologically healthy development. "Effectance motivation" is the

desire to feel potent and competent in dealing with one's physical and social worlds. Ideally,

children become increasingly able to meet their own needs and to change those aspects of

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their world that are dissatisfying. This is in contrast to the child who feels that whatever he or

she touches leads to disaster and who is a passive (reactive) agent in his or her own

development. The isolate, for example, has little chance to feel effectance in dealing with

people and fails to reap the motivational benefits of working cooperatively with others.

Children who do not help also have no chance to gauge the needs of others for help.

Sensitivity to the "need for help" cues others give is probably an outcome of the shift from an

egocentric concern for one's own needs and perceptions to a socio-centric concern for others'

needs. The beginnings of friendships may entail a reciprocal trading of help, and one would

find it difficult to imagine a lasting friendship that is not characterized by such mutuality.

Helping may be perceived by friends as a reliable alliance in times of stress and as a sign of

affection.

There are also advantages in learning to receive help from others. It is likely that

every child will meet situations in which he or she needs comfort or support or help with a

task. The child or adult who is unwilling or unable to accept help from others is likely to

suffer needlessly, or to cause suffering in those people who are close. Coping with life's

stresses is made easier when others lend a hand. The benefits to the classroom as a mini-

society are at least twofold. The kind of atmosphere that is likely to arise from greater helping

behavior is likely to be friendlier and more supportive. The relationship between classroom

achievement and a positive (e.g., warm, helping) class-room climate has been found positive

(Gazda et al. 1973). Empathy which is typically defined as a vicarious affective response to

another's feelings (Stotland, 1969), is another important factor which determines helping

behavior. Feeling empathy for someone in distress appears to increase the desire to help that

person. It signifies an observer's emotional response to the perceived welfare of someone else

in some particular situation.

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1.5. Statement of the Problem

The problem under study is formally entitled as “The Relations between Quality of

Life and Helping Attitude among Old Peoples”. Majority of Researchers depend a lot on the

recommended material (textbooks) for their research papers. They are considered one of the

best sites for the ideological investigation and essential tool for ideological production and

textbooks are one of the strongest means for the propagation of different ideologies and

worldviews. Therefore, the present research is an attempt to critically analyze the contents of

the “Old Age Peoples” regarding Quality of Life and Helping Attitude theoretical research.

1.6 Significance of the Study

This research has a great significance regarding Quality of Life of old age peoples and

their helping attitude among themselves. Thus, the this research paper is not only significant

for its plot and theme that reveals the secrets of old age livelihoods but it has also played a

key role in shaping the previous research work.

1.7 Objectives

The objectives of the study were-

1. To determine the quality of life (QoL) of old people.

2. To compare the level of helping attitude between male and female old age persons.

3. To determinants the relation between quality of life and helping

attitude.

1.8 Research Questions

1. What are the determinants of quality of life (QoL) of old people?

2. What are the determinants of Helping Attitude among old age?

3. What relations exist between Quality of Life and Helping Attitude.

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1.8. DEFINITION OF THE KEY TERM

1.8.1 Helping Attitude

Helping attitude is degree of the concern for the welfare of the others with regard or

disregards of rewards. The level of helping attitude in the present study was quantified by

using Helping Attitude Scale developed by Gary S. Nickell (Moarhead State University) and

adapted by the Investigators. More the scores in the scale refer more the level of helping

attitude.

1.8.2 Design

The present study is an experimental study. The researchers decided to use quasi

experimental single group pre-test post-test design to meet the objectives. A residential camp

was organized for seven days and the investigators arranged for the helping attitude activities

for the Old age along with other curricular areas. A helping attitude test was conducted on

the Old age before introducing the helping attitude activities. After nine days of activities

the levels of helping attitude of they were re-tested and the significance of difference of the

mean scores of both the tests were calculated to get the result of introducing the helping

attitude activities.

1.9 The Tool Used

Helping Attitude Scale developed by Gary S. Nickell (1998), Moarhead State

University was used for the study. This scale consists of 19 statements which includes 14

positive, and 5 negative items. The range of scores on this scale extended from 20 to 95 with

a neutral score of 60. The summation of all 19 scores earned by a student on all statements

was taken as the total Helping Attitude score. The reliability coefficient of the original scale

was 0.847 which was calculated by test-retest method and the reliability coefficient of the

translated version of the scale was 0.77 which was calculated by split half method.

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