Comparative Education

Education is perceived differently by different people. At times people

agree on the role of education and at others people do not agree.
Educational systems vary from one country to another or from one
region to another. Systems of education vary from one country to
another or from one system to another, in terms of appropriate
contents and skills, the teaching methods, administrative structures,
the number of years a student has to spend in order to satisfactorily
complete a program, issues relating to training and qualification of
teachers.
Studying the variations and similarities is one aspect of comparative
education. Information obtained through comparisons serves a number
of purposes and is utilized in several ways.
In this learning activity you are required to use an Executive Summary
of UNESCO Report of selected countries’ performance on achievement
of the EFA goals to enable you reflect on the purpose and use of
comparative education.
Comparative education: Comparative education is a field of study
that focuses on the provision of organized learning activities across
international and intercultural boundaries and utilizes comparative
methods of study. The Wiki encyclopedia defines comparative
education as a fully established academic field of study that examines
education in one country (or group of countries) by using data and
insights drawn from the practices and situation in another country or
countries.
The field of comparative education is supported by many projects
associated with UNESCO and national education ministries of various
nations.
Educational System: An educational system refers to a structure of
operation for the provision of education. Educational systems are
influenced by philosophies of policy makers. Educational systems are
normally classified around countries, e.g. the Pakistani education
system, Indian education system and American Education System; or
levels of education, e.g. primary education, secondary education, and
tertiary education; or around regions e.g. African educational system,
Asian educational system, European educational system, and American
education system.
International education: is a process as well as a systematic study
of the process of organized learning that is designed to increase
people’s knowledge and skills and that takes place across international
boundaries.
Comparative Analysis: Comparative analysis refers to a process of
comparing and contrasting two or more things, such as educational
systems, methods, theories or policies with an aim of assessing the
relative strength, advantage or value of one thing over another or
others.
Defining Comparative Education
Comparative education can be defined in several ways but what is
common in the definitions is the emphasis on the use of data from
another educational system.
Noah and Eckstein (1969) defined comparative education as follows:
Comparative education is potentially more than a congeries of data
and perspectives from social sciences applied to education in different
countries. Neither the topic of education nor the cross-national
dimension is central to any of the social sciences; nor are the social
science concerns and the cross-national dimensioning central to the
work of educators. The field of comparative education is best defined
as an intersection of the social sciences, education and cross-national
study.
Sources of comparative education information
1. UNESCO documents
 2. World Bank reports
3. United Nations Human Development reports
4. International encyclopedias such as the International
Encyclopedia of Education.
5. TIMSS report
6. PISA reports
These sources usually provide quantitative data showing the status of
education in various countries with brief narrations of the main
challenges and descriptions of efforts aimed at changing the situation
in some instances.
Not all comparative education information is of quantitative
nature. Some information used in comparative education is drawn from
descriptions of case studies written by authors who at times are not
writing for comparative purposes. The user of such information picks
case studies of interest and comparatively analyses them. The country
or regional case studies however tend to go deeper into educational
issues raising questions on various challenges in education ranging
from educational methodologies, functions and philosophies of
education to appropriate curriculum. At times an author may compare
and contrast education in two or more countries or regions. Focusing
on one or a few countries has the advantage of deepening the analysis
on the educational issues under study.
A third source of comparative education and one which is rarely
recognized as a source is the comparative analysis. Application of the
comparative analysis on educational issues can generate comparative
information.
Purposes of Comparative Education
One purpose of comparative education is to stimulate critical
reflection about our educational system, its success and failures,
strengths and weaknesses. This critical reflection facilitates self
evaluation of our work and is the basis for determining appropriate
courses of action.
Another purpose of comparative education is to expose us to
educational innovations and systems that have positive outcomes. The
exposure facilitates our adoption of best practices.
Purposes of comparative education suggested by two authors Noah
(1985) and Kidd (1975) are presented below to broaden your
understanding of the purposes of comparative education. Noah, (1985)
states that comparative education has four main purposes and these
are:
1. To describe educational systems, processes or outcomes
2. To assist in development of educational institutions and practices
3. To highlight the relationship between education and society
4. To establish generalized statements about education that are
valid in more than one country.
Kidd (1975) provides the following detailed list of purposes. According
to Kidd the most common goals for engaging in comparative education
are:
1. To become better informed about the educational system of
other countries;
2. To become better informed about the ways in which people in
other cultures have carried out certain social functions by means
of education;
3. To become better informed about the historical roots of certain
activities and use this to develop criteria for assessing
contemporary development and testing possible outcomes;
4. To better understand the educational forms and systems
operating in one’s own country;
5. To satisfy an interest in how other human beings live and learn;
6. To better understand oneself; and
 7. To reveal how one’s own cultural biases and personal
attributes affect one’s judgment about possible ways of
carrying on learning transactions.

Four classical purposes of comparative studies:

Ideographic purpose: This purpose is fulfilled by various types of

educational systems. A study may be interested in identifying common
structures and developments in different systems, or in distinguishing
the Principles that guide the actors in different settings just because
there is scientific interest in the phenomenon.
Meliorist purpose: For this purpose the units of analysis are
determined by the goal of finding a feature in one educational system
that may be useful to improve another system. This approach is
popular but nevertheless problematic, because of the entelechy of
each system, which may result in the same feature working differently
in one system than in another.
Evolutionist purpose: Here researchers try to discover emerging
developments within at least two compared systems. The emerging
trends are then taken as a point of reference when analyzing countries
that have not yet shown any signs of these trends. However, there is
an inherent danger in this approach in the often undisputed normative
understanding of the new discovered trends.
Experimental purpose: In this approach the compared systems are
viewed as participants in an experiment. Researchers are interested in
learning about the different systems by the way they deal with a
common intervention. Unlike a scientific experiment, however, there is
no random assignment of interventions to the experiment or to the
control group. Preconditions and implementation procedures differ.
Uses of Comparative Education
Problems transcend national borders. To attack a national problem it is
useful to seek possible solutions from a similar experience in another
country. To do so we must investigate commonalities and differences
between and among nations.
The first use of comparative education is what is referred to as
educational borrowing. In this instance, comparative education is used
to obtain solutions to problems that are plaguing us. Many educational
questions can be examined from an international perspective. For
instance, the question of what to do to enhance literacy rate in country
or how to improve the standard of science education in Pakistan.
Comparative education in this area is used to borrow successful forms
of education, ideas and activities from other countries or regions to be
adopted.
The second use of comparative education is to facilitate planning
of educational programs, curricula, teaching methods and activities.
Studying case studies on various educational systems can facilitate
educational planning both at national level as well as in the classroom.
Before educational polices are made, policymakers need to evaluate
the anticipated consequences of the policy as well as identify possible
constraints. Studies of educational systems that share similar problems
or those that have formulated policies to overcome similar problems
provide information for learning the possible consequences. Country
case studies on educational systems may provide data on what other
countries are doing, planning or changing in their educational systems
and thus provide invaluable information for decision-making regarding
what to adopt, modify or avoid.
The third use of comparative education is to facilitate
educational assessment or evaluation. Comparative education
enhances evaluation of educational outcomes by showing us how we
are performing in a particular area of education compared to other
countries and this evaluation ideally should go beyond performance in
national examinations. Noah (1984) points out that comparative
education facilitates the establishment of comparative standards.
Descriptive studies provided by the country studies provide an
opportunity to estimate a country’s standing in relation to other
countries on dimensions of education that are selected for analysis.
He further points out that the International Association for the
Evaluation of Educational Achievement is one such initiative that uses
comparative data.
Given the above uses of comparative education, the traditional
users of comparative education have been the policymakers,
curriculum developers and educational scholars. The educational
scholars usually are interested in widening their knowledge of
educational philosophies and learning theories as well as discovering
the effects of various educational practices in various social contexts.
A fourth category of users of comparative education ideally should be
teachers. However, most teachers do not perceive themselves as users
of comparative education because they associate comparative
education with policy making and curriculum development. In this
learning activity you have noticed that teachers can also benefit from
comparative education through a variety of ways such as adoption of
appropriate teaching methods and self evaluation.
 Unit 2: Comparative approaches in education

At the end of this unit you should be able to:

a) Describe Bereday’s, Holmes’, and Eckstein and Noah’s Methods of

Comparative education
b) Compare and contrast Bereday’s and Holmes methods of
comparative education
c) State the appropriate use of Bereday’s and Holmes’ comparative
methods in Education.
Key words
Comparative method: The comparative method is a research
method for inquiring into a particular question, examining the issue by
collecting data from more than one case and assessing the relative
strength or value of one case over other cases. The comparative
method does not only focus on establishing what the situation is but
whether the pattern in one context is similar to the one in another
context or other contexts and goes further to explore the reasons for
the differences. The term comparative method is used interchangeably
with comparative approaches.
Comparative analysis: Comparative analysis refers to a process of
comparing and contrasting two or more things, such as educational
systems, methods, theories or policies with an aim of assessing the
relative strength, advantage or value of one thing over another or
others.
Investigator: This term refers to a researcher or a social enquirer. In
comparative education an investigator is also referred to as a
comparative analyst who examines and explores comparative issues.
George Bereday’s Comparative Method in Education
George Bereday is considered to be one of the pioneers of
comparative methods in education. According to Kidd (1975) Bereday’s
method is one of the best-known systematized approaches to
comparative education, in which an educational system is viewed as a
component within a larger cultural context. Bereday perceived
comparative education as a political geography of schools whose task
was to search for lessons that can be deduced from the variations in
educational practices in different societies. Bereday advised
comparative educators to familiarize themselves with the culture of the
societies they were going to study as well as guard against their own
cultural or personal biases. In order to compare school systems
Bereday proposed a four-stage method.
Stages in Bereday’s Comparative Method in Education
1. Description and data collection: In this stage pedagogical data
from various countries selected for the study is collected and
presented using tables and graphs. The data should be presented in
descriptive form to facilitated further analysis at later stages.
2. Interpretation: This stage involves an analysis of the facts using
methods of different social sciences. For example the researcher could
use perspectives from sociology to explain the varying attitudes of
pupils towards social science studies. Factors in the contextual
background such as historical, geographical, socioeconomic and
political factors can be used to explain the issues that have shaped the
educational system.
3. Juxtaposition: In this stage preliminary comparisons of facts and
findings, concepts and principles are used to classify data and process
the data. The criteria for comparability are also set out during this
stage.
4. Comparison: This is the final stage of Bereday’s comparative
method and it involves a final fusion of data from other countries for
the purpose of comparison and to derive plans for action. The step also
involves hypothesis testing.
Brian Holmes’ Problem Approach in Comparative Education
Holmes (1969) sets out his argument by stating that early
comparative educators sought to apply learning from other systems for
reform purposes. He proposed the problem serving approach as one
that could serve this function, and even go further to meet the needs
of those educators who are interested in theoretical understanding of
educational phenomena. Holmes argues that pioneers of comparative
education were administrators who wished to reform their own
systems of education. Well aware of the dangers of cultural borrowing
the administrators wished to develop methods of comparison to ensure
that whatever they chose to incorporate from foreign theory or
practice would benefit their own schools.
They needed a predictive instrument enabling them to foresee as far
as possible the consequences of any innovation. Holmes argues that
the problem approach is the right instrument for addressing
educational problems. He points out that the problem approach
presupposes a problem or a limitation in the area inquired into, and
guards against accepting superficial similarities, and assures precise
comparison of actual predicted outcomes.
Stages in Brian Holmes’ Problem Approach in Comparative Education
Holmes method is an adaptation of John Dewey’s stages of
reflective thinking which are found in his book entitled: How we think.
According to Dewey the investigator of a problem assesses the validity
of proposed solutions (hypotheses) by comparing predicted with
observed events. Agreement offers a verification of the hypothesis or
an explanation of the events and provides a springboard for further
action. Using this approach Holmes suggested the following stages:
1. Problem Formulation: In this stage the researcher or investigator
formulates
a vaguely perceived problem as precisely as possible in order to break
it down for further study and see to what extent it is universally
applicable. This stage is also referred to as problem analysis
2. Policy Formulation or Hypotheses Development: The process
of problem analysis generates a number of possible solutions. At this
point the researcher or investigator examines several hypotheses or
policy options that could address the formulated problem. These
hypotheses could arise from the current educational discussions. The
researcher should note that the hypotheses or identified policy options
are based on values and these values need to be evaluated as
scientifically as possible.
3. Prediction of Policy Outcomes: Using Dewey’s stage of reflective
thinking, Holmes argues that an evaluation of a hypothesis implies that
the consequences flowing from it in any situation should be predicted
and then compared with the actual results.
4. Analyze the Physical and Socioeconomic Context: This step
involves describing all circumstances with a potential of influencing the
outcome of a selected policy. In order to do this the researcher must
analyze three categories of factors.
First, factors related to the normative system,
Second, factors related to the institutional pattern,
and finally, factors related to the physical features of a given context
such as the terrain, the climate and mineral resources.
Factors related to the normative system refer to the major norms and
values of society such as people’s religious beliefs, or customs that
influence their attitudes and behavior. Factors relating to the
institutional pattern refer to social institutions such as government or
the economic system that have could have a bearing on the proposed
policy. The physical factors are factors such as the climate, natural
resources, and other geographical conditions that can influence the
policy. These geographical factors should not be underestimated. All
the physical and socioeconomic factors are supposed to be completely
analyzed and their possible effects on the policy described. Holmes
points out that the importance of case or area studies in comparative
education is due to the fact that contextual descriptions are necessary
to the process of prediction.
5. Predicting Policy Consequences: This step involves all possible
policy consequences when applied to various contexts. Holmes
concludes that the problem approach is forward looking and represents
an attempt to make the study of education scientific and maintains
that this is possible through careful analysis of problems and social
contexts.
Noah and Eckstein’s Scientific Method
Noah and Eckstein (1969) provide us with a brief evolution of the
comparative methods in education. The brief evolution of comparative
education methods are provided below:
Evolution of Comparative methods according to Noah and
Eckstein
Comparative education began with observations about foreign peoples
and their education and developed into descriptions of foreign school
systems. Inherent in this work was the practical aims of borrowing from
abroad useful education strategies or innovations for use at home. The
descriptive phase gradually expanded to include examination of social,
political and historical context in which school systems developed. A
further dimension was the description of relationships between
education and social setting. A later development was the use of cross-
national data to test propositions about the relationship of education to
society. In this view, comparative education is thus part of the attempt
to explain phenomena, first within educational systems and institutions
and second, surrounding education and linking it with its social
environment. Attempts to do the first lead to a concern with
instruction, organization, supervision, administration and finance.
Where attention is paid to teaching-learning process, in a number of
countries, educational psychology and particularly psychometrics are
especially relevant. In so far as comparative education is concerned
with pedagogy, the work has largely been done by teachers,
administrators, and educational psychologists seeking to comprehend
and possibly to improve the instructional work of schools and it is
useful to term this branch of subject comparative pedagogy. But to the
extent that comparative education has looked outside the confines of
the classroom and the school system, its concerns and its data have
overlapped with interest of social sciences, some of whom have
recently undertaken systematic comparative study of education as a
social phenomenon.
Noah and Eckstein (1969) conclude that comparative education
has one foot firmly planted in pedagogy and the other in the wider
area of the social sciences.
Two things unite these two fields in comparative education. The first is
the concern for the form and function of the school and the second is
the use of empirical and quantitative methods.
With regard to method, Noah and Eckstein argue that not all
propositions in education and society require cross-national treatment.
But with respect to two types of validation, cross-national work is
mandatory. They point out that some generalizations simply cannot be
tested using data from one country alone, since there is not sufficient
variation in the single case. For example a test of the hypothesis that
there is a relationship between centralization of the national
educational administration and students’ achievement levels inevitably
requires cross-national inquiry. In the second place, a single case
permits no more that a particular statement to be made, and it is only
on the basis of cross-national research that propositions established by
the study of a single case can be generalized and further refined. If the
results from another country confirm the results in one country then
the results are validated. If the results from one country conflict with
the results in another country, the investigator is forced to revisit or
reconsider the research problem and probably take additional factors
and cases in order to develop a more comprehensive theory.
Noah and Eckstein (1969) proposed the use of empirical,
quantitative methods of the social sciences. They recommended the
use of hypothesis for testing of cross-national data so as to build a
scientific base for comparative education.

Stages in Noah and Eckstein’s Scientific Method

1. Identification of the problem: This involves the selection of a

particular topic or issue that can be studied comparatively. The
selected problem should have a relationship between education and
social development.
2. Development of a Hypothesis: Development of a hypothesis is
based on a review of literature. The hypothesis should be clear and
focus on collection of specific data.
3. Definition of Concepts and indicators: This involves the
explanation and clarification of concepts, indicators, and variables. The
concepts and indicators must be measurable and quantifiable. For
example a concept such as self-reliance must be redefined to actual
indicators of self-reliance in the study. Remember that your definition
of self-reliance will vary from another person’s definition of self-
reliance. In one context a person can identify the following factors as
indicators of self reliance in an adult: ability to pay for medical bills,
ability to own a house or rent a house, ability to purchase food or grow
food crops, and ability to purchase clothes.
4. Selection of cases for study: This involves of careful selection of
countries or regions that have basis for comparability and are relevant
to the formulated hypothesis. The selected countries or regions should
be researchable and the number of cases small so that you can
manage the study.
5. Collection of Data: This involves collection of data and should
take into consideration accessibility of data, relevance and reliability of
data, challenges in terms of cooperation with sources of data, and the
issue of communication both in terms of travel and language.
6. Manipulation of the Data: This involves actual comparison
between systematically arranged and quantifiable data from different
countries.
7. Interpretation of Results: This involves assessment of the
findings of the study in relation to the hypotheses and the findings’
relevance and then drawing conclusions.

Quite often comparative education is identified with either the

study of education in another country or studies that use data drawn
from more than one country. This is but only part of comparative
education. From a methodological perspective, comparative education
includes all comparative studies in education both within and across
nations. The absence of multi-national data does not disqualify a study
from being classified as comparative, if that study used a comparative
method. Although national units commonly form the matrix for data
collection and governments and international bodies such as UNESCO
finance the gathering of data for assessing improvement following
interventions, studies within a country such as comparisons between
single sex schools and mixed schools, rural schools versus urban
schools private schools versus public schools all qualify as comparative
education studies.
Scholars that have written on comparative methods or approaches in
education not covered in this module include Hans (1949), King (1968),
Phillips (2006), and Beech (2006). The proposed methods emphasize
the use of scientific procedures in comparative studies, the recognition
of differences in socioeconomic contexts, and the need to remember
that the focus for comparative studies is to reform education and thus
focus on educational problems.

Units 3 and 4: Comparative Study of International and Regional

Systems of Education
At the end of this unit you should be able to:
a) outline the goals of education of the selected international systems
of
education,
b) state the Education for All (EFA) goals,
c) describe the similarities and differences of the selected international
systems of education,
d) outline the goals of education in regional systems of education, and
e) describe the similarities and differences in regional systems of
education.
Key Words
International Educational Systems: At national level, the education
system is defined as the means by which education is provided. It
consists of a number of organized structures and activities, promoted
and administered by a variety of institutions and other agencies. At
international level educational systems refer to broad categories of
educational systems that are classified as unitary educational systems
based on common bonds such as geographical or socioeconomic
context.
Comparative framework: A structure for comparing cases
understudy. The structure indicates what aspects of education are
going to be compared. For instance an individual may decide to
compare the curricula, financing of education, educational polices or
administrative structures.
Anglophone: Anglophone refers to people or countries that have a
cultural background that is associated with the English language
regardless of the ethnic and geographical differences. The Anglophone
culture spread beyond the United Kingdom due to British colonialism.
The British empire was the largest empire at one time and the
consequence is that English is the second most spoken language.
Although Anglophone countries include all the English speaking
countries, the term is more commonly used in reference to Britain and
its African colonies. Anglophone Africa consists of Ghana, Liberia,
Nigeria, Sierra-Leone and Gambia in the West, Kenya, Seychelles,
Uganda and Tanzania in the East and Botswana, Lesotho, Malawi,
Mauritius, Namibia, Swaziland South Africa Zambia and Zimbabwe in
the south.
Francophone: The term Francophone refers to people and countries
that have a cultural background that is primarily associated with the
French language regardless of ethnic and geographical differences.
The Francophone culture beyond France is a legacy of the French
colonial empire and that of Belgium.
Lusophone: Lusophone refers to people or countries that have a
cultural background that is associated with the Portuguese language
regardless of ethnic or geographical differences. The Lusophone
culture is a legacy of the Portuguese colonial empire. Lusophone
countries in Africa include Mozambique, Angola, Cape Verde Guinea
Bissau, and Equatorial Guinea.
Comparative Analysis of International and Regional
Educational Systems
The international system of education implies that there is a
relationship between educational institutions and practices on one
hand and the socioeconomic and geophysical contexts within which
these institutions exist on the other hand. Ideally international systems
are based on continental divisions such as North-America, Africa, Asia,
Western Europe and Latin America. At international level educational
systems refer to broad categories of educational systems that are
classified as unitary educational systems based on common bonds
such as geographical or socioeconomic context. Regional divisions are
supposed to refer to sub-sectors within the international systems
based on social-cultural factors such as Anglophone Africa,
Francophone Africa and Lusophone Africa. Regional educational
systems refer to broad categories of educational systems that are
classified as unitary educational systems based on common bonds
such as geographical, cultural or socioeconomic context.
In practice the divisions are based on a complex combination of factors
including culture, economic factors, and colonial history. The
boundaries between regions and international systems of education
tend to be determined more by the purpose of the comparative study
of education rather than the official demarcation of the region. An
African country such as Zambia can be classified as a Sub-Saharan
country, an Anglophone country or a Least Developed Country.
The United States of America at times is classified as part of Western
Europe and at other times as a North American country. In reality there
is no such thing as an Anglophone, Francophone, or Lusophone
educational system because such a system would be a unitary system
that applies in all the countries classified as such. These terms are
used when the basis for selecting the comparative frame affects all
those countries in the category such as when examining the practice of
streaming at secondary school level in the Lusophone countries.
Effect of Socioeconomic Factors on Educational Systems
There are several factors that are focused on when carrying out
comparative studies at international and regional levels. The most
common are: the effect of the economy on the educational system, the
effect of religious values on the educational system, issues of colonial
legacy such as decisions regarding official and vernacular languages in
schools, the effect of political system or political reform on education
and the effect of major problems on education such as HIV/AIDS.
Educational strategies and initiatives are usually analyzed in light of
one of these main factors.
Latin America similar to Africa faces a number of challenges in their
educational system. A case study presented by the Woodrow Wilson
Center revealed that the Latin American educational system suffers
from three main challenges:
First the quality of education remains stagnant, second the
discrepancy between the education provided for the poor and wealthy
is wide and growing in many countries and finally, higher education is
significantly under developed. Although the traditional goal of
education was to spread common values and national culture, a focus
on education’s link to economic development has overtaken that goal
(Woodrow Wilson Center: 2005)
Asian countries although experiencing many challenges in their
educational systems are known to produce high performers in
international educational scores.
According to Wikipedia, in 2003, five Asian countries shared the five
top slots of the international educational scores in mathematics and
science in the Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study
(TIMSS). Japan and China have long histories of using examinations to
decide who should be recruited in government service.
Principles and Educational Goals in Education systems
The educational systems at both international level and regional level
can be compared and analyzed by focusing on the main principles that
govern the work of the education system. In many countries the
education system is a reflection of the government’s need to satisfy
the requirement for constitutional right to education for its citizens.
The government is expected to ensure equality of opportunity to
access to education and academic success and other educational
conditions that contribute to personal development. Some goals are
generated at international level. The most common of these are the
Education for All goals
Education for All Goals
1. Expanding and improving early childhood care and education,
especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children.
2. Ensuring that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, children in
difficult circumstances, and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have
access to complete free and compulsory education of good quality.
3. Ensuring that all education needs of young people and adult are met
through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills
programs
4. Achieving a 50% improvement in levels of adult literacy by 2015,
especially for women, and equitable access to basic and continuing
education for all adults.
5. Eliminating gender disparities in primary and secondary education
by 2005, and achieving gender equality by 2015, with a focus on
ensuring girls’ full and equal access to and achievement in basic
education of good quality.
6. Improving all aspects of the quality of education and ensuring
excellence of all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes
are achieved by all especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life
skills.
Education in East Asia
The East Asian countries have adopted implementation strategies that
have allowed the countries to propel their education and economic
systems from a situation similar to Sub-Saharan countries to that
similar to industrialized countries. According to Fredriksen and Tan
(2008), even though the countries do not fit a single model of success,
the policies and strategies they have adopted in the education sector
share the following critical features: first adaptation. The East Asian
countries customized the reform effort to conditions obtaining in their
countries. Second, they adopted a pragmatic approach. A pragmatic
approach that provides flexibility in pursuit of agreed development
objectives above national pride and ideological dogmatism was
adopted. The countries adopted the learning by doing to improve
implementation orientation. Third, the countries focused on building
national capacity for technical expertise and built national consensus
around the policies and strategies adopted. Fourth, foreign assistance
was used strategically to support national educational policies in which
adult literacy and universal primary education were prioritized. Fifth,
the countries developed a technical and vocational education and
training that consistently responded to the rapid changes in the skills
demanded by the economy. The success of education in East Asia was
based on sound macroeconomic policies and committed political
leadership.
Conditions Spurring Development of Education in East Asia
The following favorable conditions spurred the development of
education in the East Asian countries: first high rates of economic
growth enabled the countries to finance education development,
implement politically difficult education reforms and generate
employment for school leavers and graduates.
Second, the emphasis on shared growth in the countries’ overall
development policy ensured that groups that would have lagged
behind such as women and adults benefited through a deliberate focus
on universal adult literacy and primary education.

Third, the rapid demographic transition due to decreasing fertility rates

enhanced the countries capacity to cope with primary school-age
population. Finally, the East Asian countries created and developed
strong public institutions that ensured existence of political will and
visionary leadership, quality civil service and consultative and
consensus-building mechanisms. Developing educational policies that
required allocation of sizable resources to the education sector
requires political commitment. A quality civil service is required to
ensure professionalism, high performance and integrity. The East Asian
countries worked hard to develop a technically competent civil service.
Another support structure to strong public institutions was the
development of consultative and consensus- building mechanisms. For
instance, in Korea and Singapore such structures included government
officials, journalists, labor representatives and academics.