WEEK 6
ENERGY QUANTIZATION
Objectives: At the end of this lesson, as a learner, I should be able to:
i. Define energy quantization
ii. Describe quantum numbers
iii. Define excitation and ionization energy
iv. Solve simple problems involving energy quantization.
ENERGY QUANTIZATION The energy level values are expressed in terms of a
Energy quantization is a fundamental concept in whole number n, which can be 1, 2, 3, 4 and so on.
physics that describes the idea that energy comes in N is called the quantum number for particular
discrete specific amounts called quanta rather than energy level and
being continuous. This means that energy is not Types of quantum numbers
infinitely divisible but rather exists in distinct packets there are about 4 types of quantum numbers.
or quanta. The quanta of electromagnetic energy that i. Principal quantum number (n): This defines the
makes up light are known as photons. size and total energy of the electrons. It helps to
identify the energy level under observation (taking
Energy quantization is an idea from Bohr’s model of K, L, M…or 1, 2, 3 as the first, second,
the atom which suggest that electrons in the atom third…orbitals.) Maximum possible number of
exist in discrete (quantized) energy levels and electrons which an orbital can take is equal to 2𝑛2
plank’s theory of radiation which explains that the where n = energy level or shell number.
energy from a radiation is emitted in separate or ii. Azimuthal (subsidiary) quantum number (L): This
discrete packages of energy known as energy describes the shape of the orbital. It is the number of
quanta. sub-energy level and the angular momentum of the
The energy of one quantum of radiation energy electrons. It takes values from 0, 1, 2…n-1 and
(photon) is given by: referred to as as the s, p, d, f…electrons respectively.
∆𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 iii. Magnetic quantum number (m): This specifies
Where h = plank’s constant (6.6 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠) and f = the number of orbitals present in each sub-energy
frequency of radiation (Hz). level. It also defines the possible orientation of the
orbital in space. It takes value from -1, 0, +1.
Quantum Numbers iv. Spin quantum number (s): this takes note of the
Quantum means fixed, discrete or separate amount. electron spin about its own axis as it moves round
1 1
A quantum number is a numerical value that the nucleus. It takes values of either + 2 or − 2. The
describes the energy, shape and orientation of an
spinning direction of the two electrons in a sub
electron’s orbital in an atom.
energy level must be opposite to one another.
The whole idea of energy quantization is that energy
radiated is not a continuous quantity but it is rather
ENERGY LEVELS IN AN ATOM
in discrete amount (quantized) and there is no
Electrons in an atom are arranged around the
radiation whose energy lies between these discrete
nucleus in positions known as electron orbits,
values.
orbital, shell or energy levels. Each electron is held
in its orbits by the force of attraction in the nucleus.
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1 1 1
Rydberg formula: 𝜆 = 𝑅 (𝑛 2 − 𝑛 2) to describe the
1 2
spectral lines of atoms.
Note the pattern of spacing of the lines (the spaces
reduce as energy level increase upwards). At the
ground state, the energy value of an electron in a
hydrogen atom corresponds to -13.16 eV (-
21.8× 10−19 J). That is, it is at this level that the
hydrogen atom is most stable. The value of an
energy level higher than ground state is evaluated
−13.6 𝑒𝑉
using the expression: 𝑛2 , where n = 1, 2, 3, 4….
The negative sign indicates that the electron is still
bounded to the atom. When an electron is raised
from the ground state to any of its higher energy
levels, it is said to be in an excited state. If the
When an electron in an atom moves from a lower energy level of the electron continues to increase
energy level to a higher energy level, the atom is until it becomes 0 eV, the electron could break away
said to be excited and energy is absorbed in the from the nucleus of the atom and become free. This
process. When an electron falls from one energy level is known as the ionization state.
level to the other (moves from higher to lower
energy level), emission takes place as energy is Excitation Energy
released in the process in form of photon. An atom is Excitation energy is the energy required to raise an
excited when it is heated or bombarded with an electron from its ground state to an excited state. It is
energetic particle. denoted by En .
The energy levels are usually represented by a series Excitation energy, En = (En − Eo ).
of horizontal lines with the lines numbered n = 1, 2, Where En = energy of the current level of the
3..., ∞; n is known as quantum number. These energy electron (eV), Eo = energy of ground state (eV).
levels get lower in value as the orbits gets nearer to Also Ex = eVx Where e = electric charge and Vx =
the nucleus. The lowest energy level is at n = 1 and it excitation potential of the atom.
is called the ground state of the atom. The highest During the excitation from lower energy level, the
energy level within the atom is at n = ∞, at this point potential energy is converted into Kinetic energy so
the electron is can be completely removed from the that the electrons eventually acquire a velocity
atom. 1
𝑅 𝐸
which can be evaluated thus: 𝐾. 𝐸 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑒𝑉.
The energy of an electron at level n, 𝐸𝑛 = − 𝑛2 = 𝑛𝑜2
Where R = Rydberg’s constant = 1.097×107 m-1, n = Ionization Energy
quantum number (1, 2, 3,…, ∞), E0 = Ground state Ionization energy Ei , is the energy required to
energy (eV) remove an electron completely from an atom in its
The Rydberg’s constant is used to predict the most stable state. This is, for the hydrogen atom, the
wavelength of spectral lines for hydrogen atoms. It value of the energy level increases from -13.6 eV at
is named after Johannes Rydberg who developed the the ground state to 0 at the ionization state making
the ionization energy to be 13.6 eV. Now, when an
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electron or atom is given an amount of energy equal 𝐸2 − 𝐸0 −2.42×10−19 − (−21.8×10−19 )
∴𝑓= =
to the ionization energy, the electron is just able to ℎ 6.6×10−34
15
become a free electron. And if the electron is given a f = 2.9.× 10 𝐻𝑧
greater amount of energy than the ionization energy, and c = 𝑓𝜆
the excess energy is converted and equal to the 𝑐 3.0 × 108
∴𝜆= = = 1.03 × 10−7 𝑚
kinetic energy of the free electron outside the atom. 𝑓 2.9 × 1015
Ionization energy, Ei = E∞ − E0 Example 2
Where E∞ = Energy at farthest point from the An electron jumps from an energy level of -1.6 eV
nucleus while still bonded (eV), E0 = Energy at to one of -10.4 eV in an atom. Calculate the energy
ground state (eV). and wave length of the emitted radiation [ℎ =
𝒉𝒄 −6.6 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠, 𝑐 = 3.0 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑒𝑉 =
Also, Ei = eVi = 𝝀𝒊 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽]
Where 𝑉𝑖 = ionization potential and 𝜆𝒊 = wavelength Given: 𝐸𝑛 = −1.6 𝑒𝑉, 𝐸𝑚 = −10.4 𝑒𝑉
corresponding to ionization potential. i. Required: ∆𝐸 =?
And because excited states are unstable, the electron But ∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛 −𝐸𝑚 = −1.6𝑒𝑣 − (−10.4𝑒𝑣) =
soon jumps back to its original energy level or orbit 8.8𝑒𝑣 but 1𝑒𝑣 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
and emits a photon or quantum or light in the ∴ ∆𝐸 = 8.8 × 1.6 × 10−19 = 1.41 × 10−18 J.
process. The equation for the emission of photon is That is the energy of emitted radiation
given by: ii. Required: 𝜆 =?
ℎ𝑐 ℎ𝑐
∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛 − 𝐸𝑜 = ℎ𝑓𝑛 = But ∆𝐸 =
𝜆𝑛 𝜆
ℎ𝑐 6.6×10−34 × 3×108
Where 𝐸𝑛 = energy in the excited state, 𝐸𝑜 = energy ∴ 𝜆 = ∆𝐸 = = 1.41 × 10−7 𝑚
1.41×10−18
in the ground state, h = plank’s constant (ℎ = which is the wavelength of the radiation.
−6.6 × 10−34 𝐽𝑠 ), c = speed of light (𝑐 = 3.0 ×
108 𝑚𝑠 −1), 𝑓𝑛 = frequency of emitted photon (Hz), Example 3
𝜆𝑛 = wavelength of the radiation (m) The term photon means
This relation is still application when the electron A. Packet of light Energy. B. Light sensitive
falls to a lower energy level which is not the ground materials.
ℎ𝑐
state. ∆𝐸 = 𝐸𝑛 − 𝐸𝑚 = ℎ𝑓 = C. Light reflectors. D. Light absorbers
λ
Answer
Example 1 A. Packet of light Energy.
An electron excited to an energy level 𝐸2 =
−2.42 × 10−19 J fall to the ground state 𝐸0 = Example
−21.8 × 10−19 𝐽. Calculate the (i) Frequency (ii) If the p.d by which an electron moves is 1.5 kV,
Wave length of the emitted photons [ℎ = 6.6 × calculate (a) the velocity with which the electron
moves if the ratio of its charge to mass is 1.9 × 1011
10−34 𝐽𝑆 𝑐 = 3.0 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1]
Solution Ckg-1 (b) the kinetic energy.
Solution
Given: 𝐸2 = −2.42 × 10−19 J, 𝐸0 = −21.8 × 𝑒
10−19 J, ℎ = 6.6 × 10−34 𝐽𝑆,f=? = 3.0 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1, Given: V = 1.5 kV = 1500 V, 𝑚 = 1.9 × 1011 Ckg-1
Required: 𝜆 =? (a) Required: v
1
But 𝐸2 − 𝐸0 = ℎ𝑓 But 𝑒𝑉 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
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2eV = 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2.3 × 107 m/s
2𝑒𝑉 (b) Required: KE
𝑣2 = 𝑚
But KE = eV
2𝑒𝑉
𝑣=√ = √2 × 1500 × 1.9 × 1011 = 1.6 × 10-19 × 1.5 × 103
𝑚
= 2.4 × 10-16 J.
METHODS OF ELECTRON EMISSION
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES: At the end of this lesson, students should be able to:
i. Describe the Franck - Hertz Experiment
ii. Define a spectrum
iii. Describe the various methods of electron emission
iv. State the applications and uses of the concept of electron emission.
Energy is involved in the movement of an
electron from one shell to another in an atom.
And that energy can be measured according to
the experiment conducted by James Franck and
Gustav Hertz.
The Franck - Hertz Experiment
In 1914, James Franck and Gustav Hertz found
a direct experimental evidence of the existence
of atomic energy levels or electron shells
The electrons were accelerated towards the grid
according to Neils Bohr. This experiment also
plate (G). The distance between F and G are
reveals the possibility of measuring the energy
arranged to be much greater than the mean
needed to raise an electron from the ground
distance between atomic collisions (the mean
state in an atom to higher state (excitation
free path). This is to ensure that the electrons
energy) and the energy needed to remove an
would make collisions before reaching G. The
electron entirely from an atom (ionization
energy). potentiometer P was used to vary the potential
difference (v) between F and G. This potential
difference is also the electrons’ accelerating
Frank and Hertz bombarded atoms in form of
voltage.
very low pressured sodium vapour with
electrons emitted from a hot tungsten filament
The electrons accelerated by this voltage,
(F) and accelerated to a higher energy (several
acquire high kinetic energy before reaching G.
electron volts) in a tube also containing a grid
They are however subjected to a retarding field
plate (G) and an anode (A) as shown in this
before passing through G to the anode A. The
figure.
number of electrons per second reaching the
anode (A) is measured by an electrometer (E).
As the potential difference (V) was slowly
increases from zero, the speed and number of
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electrons reaching G increased and the current A spectrum is a range of colors representing
in the anode plate also increased until the light (electromagnetic radiation) of continuous
potential difference reached 𝑉1. As V was frequencies.
further increased, the current dropped to a
minimum, rose again to another potential Types Of Spectrum
difference 𝑉2. This pattern of drop and rise in 1. Emission spectrum: This is a spectrum
the current was repeated as V was further observed due to the light emitted when
increased. The graph of current against voltage the temperature of an atom, gas or metal
is shown in this figure. is raised. Examples are found in
incandescent solid or vapour, a spark
discharge, a discharge tube etc.
2. Continuous spectrum: This spectrum
mostly occurs in the sun. It contains all
the wavelength from one end to the
other. It appears as unbroken luminous
band as a result of the atoms of the
incandescent gas sources packed.
3. Absorption spectrum: This spectrum
occurs when rays of light from a light
source is passed through a material
liquid or gas and some of the rays are
absorbed thereby creating dark lines in
the spectrum
It was found that the potential interval between
4. Line spectrum: A spectrum that consists
the successive peaks is known as the excitation
of a number of well-defined lines each
potentials (𝑉𝑐 ) of the atom. At each critical
having a particular frequency,
potential, (𝑉1 , 𝑉2, 𝑉3) the electrons have just
wavelength or color
sufficient kinetic energy (e𝑉𝑐 or joules) to raise 5. Band spectrum: This spectrum occurs in
the internal energy of the sodium atom by chemical compound e.g. hydrogen,
collision. oxygen, carbon (iv) oxide. When they
are heated, they produce an emission of
The drop in the anode current is as a result of discontinuous spectrum of large number
the fact that when electrons reach the grid (G) of luminous bands.
they have insufficient kinetic energy to
overcome the retarding field between the grid METHODS OF ELECTRONS EMISSION
(G) and the anode (A). And that shows that no Two methods of electron emission are:
increase in energy of the atom can occur if the 1. Thermionic emission
energy of the electrons is less than e𝑉𝑖 . The 2. Photoelectric effect
existence of definite series of energies with no
intermediate values suggests that the atom has a THERMIONIC EMISSION
set of well-defined energy levels. And the Thermionic emission is the process by which
transition of electrons from one energy level to electrons leave a metal surface by simple
another gives the characteristics and unique application of heat. Edison in 1880 noticed that
spectrum of the material. current could flow in an evacuated (without air)
bulb from one glowing filament to another
SPECTRUM (pl. SPECTRA)
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filament if the hot filament was negatively
charged.
The energy required to cause this emission of
free electrons from a hot metal surface, differs
from metal to metal. The emitting surface
which is usually a metal plate in a vacuum tube
is indirectly heated with a hot wire. The cloud
of electrons produced near the plate in the valve
and maintained at a much more positive
potential forming a thermionic diode as shown
in this figure.
The lower curve represents a lower temperature
T1. The greater the anode potential, the greater
the electron velocity.
Thermionic emission occurs because the free
electrons within the metal are given sufficient
energy to escape from the surface. The energy
is provided by the heater of the filament.
There was a flow of current which was The gain in kinetic energy (K.E) of the
indicated by the milliammeter. The hotter the electrons come from their loss in electrical
1
cathode, the greater the current since more energy (E.E). K.E = 2 𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑒2 and E.E = eV
electrons are emitted per second. This is shown where V = p.d across anode, e = electron
in this graph. charge, 𝑚𝑒 = electron mass, and 𝑣𝑒 = electron
velocity
1 2𝑒𝑉
𝑚𝑒 𝑣𝑒2 = 𝑒𝑉 → 𝑣𝑒 = √
2 𝑚𝑒
Application of thermionic emission
i. Diode-valve (two electrodes)
ii. X-ray tube
iii. Cathode ray tube eg TV
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