HCH100:

BEHAVI
OURALSCI
ENCES-:
NEUROSCI
ENCES

UNI
VERSI
TYOFNAI
ROBI

COLLEGEOFHEALTHSCI
ENCES

SCHOOLOFMEDI
CINE

DEPARTMENTOFPSYCHI
ATRY

ANTHROPOLOGY

FOR

BACHELOROFMEDI
CINEANDSURGERYSTUDENTS

HCH100:BEHAVI
OURALSCI
ENCES
MODULE9:NEUROSCI
ENCES

2014

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ght

Behavi
our
alSciencesCourset
oUnder
graduat
eSt
udent
sint
heCol
l
egeofHeal
th
Sci
encesbyDistanceLear
ning

Publ
i
shedbyt
heUni
ver
sit
yofNai
robi
(UoN)

Col
l
egeofHeal
thSci
ences(
CHS)
,Depar
tmentofPsy
chi
atr
y

©2015

TheUni
ver
sit
yofNai
robi
(UoN)

Col
l
egeofHeal
thSci
ences(
CHS)
,Depar
tmentofPsy
chi
atr
y

Lect
ureser
ies:
HCH100:
BEHAVI
OURALSCI
ENCES

Publ
i
shedbyUni
ver
sit
yofNai
robi
,P.
O.Box30197-
00100,
Nai
robi
,Keny
a

Pr
int
edbyCol
l
egeofHeal
thSci
ences,
Uni
ver
sit
yofNai
robi
,30197-
00100,
Nai
robi
,2013
©Uni v
ersi
tyofNai
robi
,2013,
all
rightr
eser
[Link]
sModul
emaybe
repr
oducedinanyf
orm orbyanymeanswithoutper
missioni
nwri
ti
ngfr
om t
he
Publi
sher.

Wr
it
er: Pr
[Link]
iKur
iaMBCHB,
MMED(
Psy
ch)
,PhDPsy
ch.

Rev
iewer
:

Chi
efEdi
tor
:JoshuaM Or
ina

Techni
cal
Coor
dinat
or:
[Link]
aBosi
reandJamesMachar
ia

TheUniver
sit
yofNairobi
(UoN),
Coll
egeofHealt
hScienceswishtoacknowledgethe
contr
ibut
ionoftheDepart
mentofPsychi
atr
yandPRI ME-
Kwhosef inanci
alassi
stance
madethedevel
opmentoft
hise-
lear
ningcoursepossibl
e.

Modul
eInt
roduct
ion

Wel comet ot hismodul eonneur osciences.I tint r

oducesy out obasicneur osciences
andi tsrelevancet obehav [Link] heappr ov edcour seout l
inef orthismodul e(l
ink)
.
This modul ei s an i mpor t
antbasi sf orunder standing anat omy ,biochemi stryand
physi ol
ogy as r elated t o human behav ior . You wi ll al so under stand t he
neur ophysiologicalaspect sofsl eepandot herphy si
caldi sordersl i
kememor ylossand
[Link] eexpect edt ocar efull
yr eadt hee- content,compl ementt hesewi t
ht he
recommendedr eferencebooksandot herreadi ngmat erial
.Thet ext
-tasksi ncl
udedi n
themodul esar eimpor t
antandy oushoul dcar efull
ygot hrought hem t oenabl ey ou
under standt hemodul econtent.I ti
sal socr ucialt haty out aket imet or eflectont he
posedquest ionsandcompl etet heassi gnment sandact i
vit
iessuggest [Link] e
advisedt odi scusst hemodul eandassi gnment swi thot herst udentsandconsul tthe
modul eteacheri fnecessary.

Themodul
econsi
stsof3uni
tsasf
oll
ows;

Uni
t1:Fundament
alsofNeur
osci
encesandbehav
iour

Uni
t2:Endocr
inol
ogyandphy
siol
ogyofpsy
chi
atr
icdi
sor
der
s

Uni
t3:Phy
siol
ogyofSl
eepandmemor
y

Modul
eObj
ect
ives
Byt
heendoft
hismodul
e,y
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
standfundamental
sofneur
osci
encesandbehavi
our
[Link]
ibetheendocri
nol
ogyandphysi
ologyofpsy
chi
atr
icdi
sor
der
s.
[Link]
ibephysi
ologyofsl
eepandmemor y.

Letuspr
oceedt
odi
scusst
hef
ir
stuni
toft
hismodul
e.

UNI
T1:
FUNDAMENTALSOFNEUROSCI
ENCESANDBEHAVI
OUR

Welcomet ot hi
suni tt hatwi l
lteachyouonwhatneur osciencesar eandhow t heyar e
rel
atedt ohumanbehav i
[Link] orit
yofbehav iouraldisorder sis
now bet t
erunder stoodf ol
lowingmanyadv ancesmadei nt hef i
eldsofneur oanat omy ,
brai
ni maging,neur ochemi str
y and neurophy siol
ogy.I ti st hereforei mpor tantt o
understand t he neur osciences because t hey f orm the bi omedi calf oundat ion of
psychiatry and psy chology .They help us t o under stand human exper iences and
[Link],wewi l
lemphasizether el
ationshipbet weenanat omy ,biochemi st
ry
andphy siologyoft hebodyaf f
ecthumanbehav iour
.Iny ourtraini
ngasmedi caldoct or
youwi l
lneedt ounder standwhyapat i
entbehav esinapar ti
cularwaywhent heysuf f
er
cert
aindi [Link] nformationwil
lbev eryusef ultoy ouasy our ot
atet hrought he
vari
ousmedi caldiscipli
nes( i
nternalmedi
cine, surgery,
paedi atr
icsandpubl ichealt h).

Wel
comet
oUni
t1,
Ihopey
ouwi
l
lenj
oyt
het
opi
candl
ear
nfr
om i
t.

Uni
t1consi
stsof3sect
ionsasf
oll
ows:

Sect
ion1:
Int
roduct
iont
oNeur
osci
ences

Sect
ion2:
Neur
oAnat
omyandBehav
iour

Sect
ion3:
Neur
oChemi
str
y/Neur
opsy
chol
ogyandBehav
iour

Uni
tObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hisuni
t,y
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
ibet
heint
roductoryconcept
sofneur osci
ences.
[Link]
scussNeuroanatomyandbehav i
our.
[Link]
scussneur
ochemi str
y/neur
ophy si
ologyandbehaviour
.

Weshal
lnowbegi
nwi
tht
hei
ntr
oduct
iont
oneur
osci
ences
SECTI
ON1:
INTRODUCTI
ONTONEUROSCI
ENCES

Welcomet othissect i
onont heint
roducti
ontoneur osci
[Link] oscienceswi l
lbe
defi
nedandy ouwi ll
alsolear
nthevari
ousdivi
[Link] l
lalsolearn
about the organizati
on of the nervous system and f i
nallyt he importance of
neurosci
encesi nthediscipl
i
neofmedi ci
newillbeexplai
[Link] ssecti
onwi llprepare
yout ounderstandt heothersecti
onsoft hi
suni t
.Ihopey ouwi l
lenjoyt hesect i
on.
Welcomet oSect i
on1.

1.
2Sect
ionObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hissect
ion,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
neneurosci
ence.
[Link]
andthedivi
sionsinneuroscience.
[Link]
betheorgani
zationofthenervoussyst
em.
[Link]
scusstheimportanceofneurosciencesint
hedi
sci
pli
neofmedi
cine.

1.
3Def
ini
ti
onofNeur
osci
ences

Thehumani sthemostcompl i
catedorganizat
ionofmat terweknowof .Neur
oscience
i
st heumbr el
l
at er
mf orthemul t
i-
disci
pli
narystudyofthenervoussyst
[Link] vous
system isthebody ’
selectr
ochemi calcommuni cat
ioncircui
tr
[Link](nerv
ecel l
s)
arenervoussystem basicunit
[Link] voussystem i
smadeupofbi l
li
onsofneurons.
Thebr ainist hecentralcommandcent eroft henervoussy st
em andCont r
olsall
thoughts,movements.

1.
4Di
vi
sionsi
nNeur
osci
ence

Notl
ongagothedi
sci
pli
nest
hatstudyt
henervoussyst
em wer
evir
tual
l
ysepar
ated
f
rom eachot
her
.Ther
eare4div
isi
onsinneur
oscienceasl
i
stedbel
ow:

[Link] -studiestheneuronsphy
sicalst
ructure
[Link]-studi
esthefuncti
onoftheneurons
[Link] str
y-anal y
sesneuronschemicalacti
vit
y
[Link]
oralneur osci
ence-focusesonnervoussystem connect
ionandbehav
ior

Todaythesedisci
pli
nesover
lapandfortwoofthem (neurophy
siol
ogyand
neur
ochemi st
ry)i
tisdi
ffi
cul
ttodi
scussthem asseparateenti
ti
es.I
nthi
suni
tthe2wi
l
l
bediscussedunderthesamesubheading.

1.
4Di
vi
sionsi
nNeur
osci
ence
Notl
ongagothedi
sci
pli
nest
hatstudyt
henervoussyst
em wer
evir
tual
l
ysepar
ated
f
rom eachot
her
.Ther
eare4div
isi
onsinneur
oscienceasl
i
stedbel
ow:

[Link] -studiestheneuronsphy
sicalst
ructure
[Link]-studi
esthefuncti
onoftheneurons
[Link] str
y-anal y
sesneuronschemicalacti
vit
y
[Link]
oralneur osci
ence-focusesonnervoussystem connect
ionandbehav
ior

Todaythesedisci
pli
nesover
lapandfortwoofthem (neurophy
siol
ogyand
neur
ochemi st
ry)i
tisdi
ffi
cul
ttodi
scussthem asseparateenti
ti
es.I
nthi
suni
tthe2wi
l
l
bediscussedunderthesamesubheading.

1.
5Or
gani
zat
ionoft
heNer
vousSy
stem

Thehumanner
voussyst
em i
shi
ghl
yor
gani
zedandi
tpr
ocessesev
ery
thi
ngwedo.I
tis
di
vi
dedint
otwopart
s;

[Link]
alNer
vousSyst
em (CNS)
[Link]
pher
alNer
vousSyst
em (PNS)

1.
5.1Cent
ral
Ner
vousSy
stem

Thecent
ral
ner
voussy
stem i
smadeupof2component
s

[Link]
[Link]
d

Mor
ethan99%ofal
lneur
ons(
ner
vecel
l
)inourbodyar
elocat
edi
ntheCNS.

1.
5.2Per
ipher
alNer
vousSy
stem

Thisi
sthenet
wor
kofner
vest
hatconnect
sthebr
ainandspi
nal
cor
dtoot
herpar
tsof
thebody

Itbr
ingsinfor
mat i
ontoandf r
om t
hebr ai
ntootherpart
softhebodyandcarriesout
commandsoft heCNSt oexecut
ev ar
iousmuscularandgrandul
aract
ivi
ti
[Link]
peri
pheralnervoussy
stem (PNS)hastwomajordi v
isi
ons;

[Link]
icner
voussy
stem

Thisconsi
stsofSensor
ynerv
es,whichconvey
sfr
om theski
nandmuscl
estotheCNS
aboutsuchmatter
sas,pai
n,temper
ature,
andmotorner
veswhi
chinf
orm muscl
es
whentoact.

[Link]
onomi
cner
voussy
stem
Thissystem t
akesmessagestoandfr
om body'
sinternalor
gansandmoni
tor
ssuch
processesasbreat
hing,
hear
trat
e,anddi
gesti
[Link]
idedi
nto2par
ts

a)Sy
mpat
het
icner
voussy
[Link]
ssy
stem ar
ousest
hebody

b)Par
aSy
mpat
het
icner
voussy
[Link]
ssy
stem Cal
mst
hebody

Letmeexpl
ainhowthecent
ral
ner
voussy
stem wor
ksbygi
vi
nganexampl
eofal
ect
urer
whoispr
epari
nglect
urenot
es:

ThePNScarr
iesi
nfor
mat i
onaboutt
henot
estotheCNS,whi
chintur
ninterpr
etsand
memori
zeskeypoi
[Link]
eystothemuscl
esofthearm andhandto
wri
te

Thesomaticnerv
oussy stem t
ransmit
sinformationfr
om theey estothebrai
nandfrom
brai
[Link]
csy st
emsar ouseanxietyaboutthequal
it
yof
thel
ectur
enotes,theparasympathet
icsystem causesrel
axat
ion, cal
mt heper
son.

1.
6Impor
tanceofNeur
osci
encei
nMedi
cine

Thepat hophy si
ologyofmaj ori
tyofpsy chiatr
icdisordersi snow bet terunder stood
fol
lowing many adv ances made i nt he f i
elds of neur oanat
omy ,br ainimagi ng,
Neurochemi stry and neur ophysiology
. The st udy of neur osciences gi ves us
understandingint heaeti
ologyofneur opsy chiat
ri
cdi sorders,neurophy siol
ogi
caland
neurochemi calcausesofdi [Link] ai
n and ner voussy stem ar ecent ralto
understandingbehav i
our,
thoughtandemot [Link]
st her
eforev er
yimpor tantfordoctors
tounder st
andneur osci
encest oenabl et
hem beef fecti
veclinici
ans.

1.
7Sect
ionSummar
y

Neur oscienceisanumbr el
lat
ermforthemulti
disci
pli
narystudyoft hecentralnervous
[Link] r
alner
voussystem i
scomposedoft hecent r
alnervoussy stem andthe
peri
pher alnervoussyst
em.TheCNShas2component snamel ythebr ai
nandt hespinal
cord.ThePNShas2component sthesympatheticandparasympat heticnervous
system.The2component soft
heCNSandPNSar ewell
coor di
natedi nfuncti
ont o
ensur ethatthebodyfuncti
onswell
.Iti
sdif
fi
culttounderst
andt hedi sci
pli
neof
medi cinewithoutunder
standi
ngneurosci
ences.

Act
ivi
ty1.
8

For
m adi
scussi
ongr
oupconsi
sti
ngofst
udent
(s)i
nyourcl
assanddi
scuss:

[Link]
eneurosci
ences
[Link]
tantist
histopi
ctoy
ouasheal
thpr
ofessi
onal
tobe?
I
nsect
ion2y
ouwi
l
llear
nonneur
oanat
omyasr
elat
est
othehumanbehav
ior
.

SECTI
ON2:
NEUROANATOMYANDBEHAVI
OUR

Welcomet ot hissectiononneur oanat omyandbehav [Link] earneryoumayhav e

beenwonder i
ngwhyt helecturerst eachy ouanatomyandexpect sy outodissectthe
humanbody .Simil
arl
yy oumaybewonder i
ngwhyneur oanatomyandbehav i
ourshould
bet aughtt
oy ouasacl ini
[Link] ssecti
onwi l
lanswert hesequest i
onsbyl ayi
ng
af oundati
on f oryout o understand how neur oanatomi calabnormalit
iesresultsto
abnor mal
it
iesinbehav iourandbodyf uncti
oni
[Link] heabnormalit
iesmentioned
i
nt hischaptermayappeardi ff
iculttopr onounceatthemomentbuti nduecour sethey
wil
lbet hedisorder
sy ouseedur i
ngy ourwardrotati
onsonadayt odaybasi [Link] ou
enj
oyt hesection.

Sect
ionObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hissect
ion,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
inetheanat
omyoft
hebrai
n.
[Link]
beneuroanat
omi
cal
abnormal
i
tiesandhowi
taf
fect
sbehav
iour
.

2.
3Anat
omyoft
heBr
ain

Thebrainconsistsoftwohemi spheres,whichareconnectedbyt hecorpuscal l

osum
andothersmal l
ercommi ssur
al t
[Link] ensioncalledthespi nalcor
d.
Thespinalcor
dandt hebrai
nconst it
utethecentr
alnervoussy stem (CNS) .Thebr ai
n
hasgrayandwhi temat er
.Thethreear easofthegraymat erare;cerebralcortex,
cer
ebell
arcortex,andthesub-cor t
icalcerebr
alandcerebell
arnucl ei
.

Thecerebralcor
texhasf ourl
obesfront
al,
parietal
,temporalandt
heoccipit
[Link]
cerebr
alcortexi
sheav i
lyfol
dedwithconvolut
ions(gyri
)fi
ssures(
sulci
orgroov es)and
contai
nsabout70per centofthenervecel
[Link] tcal
l
edt hebrainstem
comprisesthemedull
aobl ongata,
ponsandmesencephal on.

Thev
ent
ri
cul
arsy
stem consi
stsof
;

[Link] at
eralventr
icl
eseachwithananteri
orandpost
eri
orhor
n,
[Link]
dandf ourthventr
icl
esall
locatedwit
hint
hedept
hofthebrai
nmass.
[Link]
ri
cularsyst
em isl
ocat
edbet
weenthetwol
ater
al
vent
ricl
es.

Cer
ebr
alspi
nal
flui
d(CSF)ci
rcul
ateswi
thi
nthesev
ent
ri
cles.
Thef
oll
owi
ngar
eimpor
tantst
ruct
uresoft
hebr
aint
hatmayaf
fectbehav
iour
.

2.
3.1Basal
Gangl
i
a

TheBasal
gangl
i
aconsi
stofagr
oupofnucl
eit
hatcont
ainchol
i
ner
gicneur
ons.I
thas

[Link]
atum
[Link]
ianigr
aandinnomi
nat
aand
[Link]
amicnuclei
.

2.
3.2Meni
nges

Thebrai
niscover
edbyl
ayer
soft
issuer
efer
redt
oasmeni
ngesi
nthef
oll
owi
ngor
der
fr
om wit
hout,

[Link]
chi
satt
achedtot
heskul
l,
[Link]
achnoidmat
eri
sbeneat
hthedur
amater

Thespacebetweentheduramaterandarachnoidi
scalledthesub-duralspace.The3rd
l
ayerisknownasthepiamaterandisatt
achedt othecerebral
[Link]-
bet
weent hear
achnoidandpi
amat eri
scalledthesubarachnoidspaceandi sfi
ll
edwith
Cerebr
o-Spi
nalFl
uid(CSF)
.

2.
3.3Neur
onsandGl
i
a

Aneuronisthebasi cfuncti
onaluni toft henervoussy [Link]
nerv
ecell
[Link]
alcell
s( neurogli
a)ar eacl assofneur onalcel
[Link] our
ty
pes ofgli
alcells,the astrocytes,oligodendri
tes,ependymaland mi cr
ogli
a cells.
Ependymalandmi crogl
iacellslinet hebr ai
nv entri
clesandt hecent
ralcanaloft he
spi
nalcor
[Link]
it
atethef l
owoft heCSF.

Thegli
alcell
salsocontri
butetobloodbrainbarri
er(BBB),asemi -
permeablemembr ane
bet
weenbl oodvesselsandt hebr
[Link]
tyofcompoundst opassf r
om theblood
i
ntothebrainandviceversadependsont hei
rmol ecul
arsize,el
ect
rical
charge,
solubil
it
y,
andspeci
fictr
[Link] simportantinregulat
ingt
hebr ai
nchemistr
y .

2.
3.4Thal
amus,
Hypot
hal
amusandPi
neal
Body

Thalamusi sl ocatedabov ethehy pothalamusandconsi stsofv ari

ousnucl [Link]
i
ntegralpar toft hel i
[Link] amusi si nvolvedwi t
hper cept i
onofpai [Link]
nociceptors( painr ecept
orsreceivenervei mpulsesf r
om t heperi
pher alorganst hatare
rel
ayedandev entuall
yascendal ongspi nothal
ami candr et
icul
othalami ctractst ot he
thal
amus.f rom wher etheimpul sesar er el
ayedt ot hesomat icsensor ycor [Link]
Thalamusi sar elaystati
onforallofthesensor ymessagest hatentert [Link] hi
s
areat hattheconsci ousawar enessofmessagesassensat i
onssuchast emper ature,
painandt ouchpr [Link] pot hal
amusi slocat edbeneatht hethal amusand
onei
thersi
deoft
hethi
rdv entr
icl
e.I
thasmanynucleiandthoserelevantt
opsy
chi
atr
y
i
ncl
ude:mamil
l
ary
,supr
a-chiasmati
c,opt
icandpar
avent
ricul
arnucl
ei.

Thehy pothal amushassever

alconnecti
ngpathwaystootherpartsthebr ai
[Link]
majorintegrat i
ngandout
putsystem oftheenti
[Link]
rol
sbiologi
calrhythms
and regulates the i
mmune syst
ems.I tis al
so i
nvol
ved wit
h appeti
te and sexual
regul
ati
on, sinceiti
sapar
tofthel
imbicsystem.

Thepi nealgland secretesmel

atoni
n whi
ch i
susef
uli
n sl
eep r
egul
ati
on and al
so
secr
etesv ar
iouspeptides.

2.
3.5Br
ainSt
em

Thebr
ainst
em compr
isest
hreepar
ts:
themesencephal
on,
ponsandmedul
l
aobl
ongat
a.

Functi
onsoft hebr ainstem arecont r
olofcar diovascularact i
vi
ty,sl
eepandl ev el
sof
consci
ousness.I tis also involved inr espi
ratoryact i
v i
ti
[Link] lthese physiological
acti
vi
ti
esar eunderi nvol
untarycont rol
.TheBr ainStem cont ainsnervefibr
es( neur ons)
whichtransmitinformati
onf rom thespi nalcordt othebr [Link]
at ionsof
serot
oninandnor epinephri
nebi ndingsitesmaybepr esenti [Link]
i
mpor t
antfuncti
onoft hebrai nstem ishostingoft hemedi al f
orebrai
nbundle,thenucl ei
ofascendi ng biogenic-
ami ne pat [Link],t here ar e high concentr
at ions of
dopamine,noradrenali
nandser otoni nl
evelsinthebr ai
nst em

2.
3.6Cer
ebel
l
um

Consistofcerebell
arcor
tex,
themi ddlecer
ebel
lum ver
misanddeepcer
ebell
arnucl
ei.
Thereareprojecti
onstothecerebr
al cor
texandotherbr
ainar
eassuchastheli
mbic
syst
em, brai
nst em andt
hespinalcord.

2.
3.7Ret
icul
arAct
ivat
ingSy
stem

Thisi
sasy st
em oflooselyor gani
sednetworkofneuronslocatedi
nthebrai
nstem,
whichreceiveinputfrom cerebell
um,basalgangli
a,hypot
halamusandcerebr
alcor
tex.
Theret
icularactivat
ingsystem alsosendsproject
ionstothehypot
halamus,t
he
thal
amusandt hespinalcord.

2.
4Abnor
mal
i
tiesoft
heNer
vousSy
stem andHowi
tAf
fect
sBehav
iourBodyFunct
ion

2.
4.1Cer
ebr
ospi
nalFl
uid

Neurot
ransmitt
ermetabol
itescontai
nedintheCSFcanbebiol
ogi
calmarker
sanda
measureofresponsetophar macol
ogical
treat
ment
.Bl
ockadeinCSFdrai
nagecauses
CSFpressuretori
sewithi
nt heventr
icl
esresul
ti
ngi
nhydr
ocephal
[Link]
tomography(CT)scanofsuchbr ai
ns
2.
4.2BasalGangl
ia

Thebasal gangli
oni sinv olvedininiti
ationofmov ement .Thisanat omi careais
associatedwi thanumberofcl ini
cal disorderssuchasPar ki
nson' sdisease,
Huntington'schor eaWi l
son' sdiseaseandFahrsy ndr [Link] eneur ol
ogical
disor
der smost lyassoci atedwi t
hsy mpt omsofpsy chosi s,depr essi
onanddement ia.
Thedi sorderspresentwi thabnormal mov ementsofl imbsandbody .Youwillstudy
thesedisor dersfurtheriny ourcli
nicaly earsofmedi [Link] reatedschizophrenics(a
form ofment ali
ll
ness)showmanymov ementdisorder seg, extremeopeni ng&cl osing
ofeyes, f
laringoft henose, gr
imaci ng,pr ot
rusi
onoft het ongue, andshakingofhead, all
ofwhi chimpl yani nvolv
ementoft hebasal gangli
a.

2.
4.3Meni
nges

[Link]-
duralhaemat
oma:Asubduralhaematomaisduet
o"sl
ow"bl
oodaccumul
ati
on
beneat
htheduramatercausedbyr
upturedv
eins

[Link]:Anepidur
alhaematomaisdueto"r
api
d"accumul
ati
onofbl
ood
betweent heduramaterandskul
lcausedbyrupt
ureofanar
ter
[Link]
dur
al
haemat oma isali
fethr
eateni
ngcondit
ion

[Link]
ngi
ti
s:Thi
sisav
iral
orbact
eri
ali
nfect
ionori
nfl
ammat
ionofoneoft
he
meni
ngi
all
ayers.

I
nalltheabovecondi
ti
onspati
entmayshowsi gnsandsymptomsofdeli
ri
um,
behavi
ourandpsychol
ogi
[Link]
stheref
oreimpor
tantt
orul
eoutbr
ain
meningealabnor
mali
ti
esi
nwhopr esentwit
hbehav i
ourpr
obl
ems.

2.
4.4Fr
ont
alLobe

Theremaybechangesi nthefrontallobes,thepar tofthebr ainconcernedwi th

emotionalandsomehi gherment alfuncti
[Link] ppocampusandadj acentregions
mayshowsomer educti
[Link] scanaf fectthe"sensor yfi
l
teri
ng"t hattakesplace
i
[Link]
cl es(fl
uid-fi
ll
edspaces)maybel argerthannor mal.
Thi
smayputpr essureonsurroundingbr [Link] t
hfront
al lobedisorders
wil
lpresentwit
hemot i
onalandbehav i
ouralproblemsi ncludingdisi
nhibiti
on.

2.
4.5Thal
amusandHy
pot
hal
amus

Dy sfuncti
onsofthet halamusar eduetomanyf actorsincludi
ngtumour swhichpr oduce
sev erepainsyndromePai ntransmissi
ontothet hal
amuscanbei nhibi
tedbypr ojecti
ons
from per i
aqueductalregionoft hemidbrai
nandt henucl eusrapheofthemedul [Link]
regionshav ehighconcent rati
onsofopiatereceptorsandt heseendogenousopi ates
(endor phi
nsenkephal i
ns)pl ayar ol
easneurotr
ansmi tt
er sfort
hecontrolofpain.
Tumour softhethalamusmaypr esentwit
hextremepai n.
Di
sor
der
soft
hehy
pot
hamuswi
l
laf
fectappet
it
e,sl
eepandsexual
behav
iour

2.
4.6Cer
ebel
lum

Functi
onsofthecerebel
l
um arecont
rolofmovementandpostur
eandther
eforeits
l
esionswil
lcauselossofbal
ance.I
tisalsoi
nvol
vedi
nhighermental
funct
ionsresult
ing
toabnormalbehavi
our.

2.
4.7Ret
icul
arAct
ivi
tySy
stem

Si
ncethereti
cularacti
vati
ngsyst
em i
sresponsibl
eforthest at
eofal
ert
nessand
wakef
ulness,t
hosepsy chi
atri
cdi
sor
derswher emotiv
ationandarousal
areaff
ect
ed,
maybeduet opat hol
ogywithi
nther
eti
cularacti
vat
ingsy st
em.

2.
5Sect
ionSummar
y

Abnor
mali
ti
esofthebr
ainmayresul
ttobehaviourpr
obl
[Link]
st heref
orei
mpor
tantt
o
rul
eoutbr
ainpat
hol
ogyinpat
ient
swhopr esentwit
hbehav
iourproblems.

2.6Acti
vit
y
I
denti
fytheanatomi
cal
str
uct
uresdi
scussedi
nthi
ssect
iondur
ingy
ourcadav
er
di
ssecti
onpract
ical

Letusnowlookatsect
ion3inwhichyouwi
l
llear
nabouthumanbehav
iourasr
elat
edt
o
neurochemi
str
yandneurophysi
ology

SECTI
ON3:
NEUROCHEMI
STRY/
NEUROPHYSI
OLOGYANDBEHAVI
OUR

3.
1Sect
ionI
ntr
oduct
ion

Welcomet othissectiononneur ochemi st

ry/neurophysiologyandbehav i
[Link]
ssect ionyou
wil
ll earn aboutt he br ai
nsneur ochemistry
.You wi l
lal so lear
n how abnor mal
ities inthe
neurochemi calscanr esultt
[Link]
standingwil
l helpyouin
thefuturet oev aluatepat i
ent
shol ist
ical
lyhav i
ngi nmi ndt hattheaeti
ologyofsomeoft he
behav i
ouraldisordersmaybeneur ochemicalabnormal i
ti
[Link] ouwil
lenjoythelearning.

3.
2Sect
ionObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hissect
ion,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
ineneur
ochemist
ryandneurophysi
ology
.
[Link]
beneurochemi
cal
-neur
ophysiol
ogi
calabnor
mal
i
tiesandhowi
taf
fect
sbehav
iour
.
3.
3Out
li
neofBr
ainNeur
ochemi
cal
andNeur
ophy
siol
ogi
cal
Syst
em

Behav i
our al student scanappr oacht hest udyoft hebr ainonmanyconcept ual l
evels.
Whi leinneur oanat omysect iont hesubj ectwasappr oachedatt hel evel oft hewhol e
brainandi ndiv i
dual brai nar easf ort heneur ochemi stryandneur ophy siologywewi l
l
appr oachst udyoft heneur onl ev [Link] ebr ai
norasi ngl ebr ainar eacanbe
seenasper formi ngani nt egr atingf unct ion, socanani ndiv i
dual neur onbeseenas
per f
or mi ngani ntegr at ingf unct [Link] ndiv i
dual neur onr eceivesdi versei ncomi ng
i
nf ormat i
on, integr atest hati nf or mat ionandr espondsbymodul atinghowof tenit
gener atesanact i
onpot ential andhowmuchofwhi chneur o-
transmi ttermol eculesit
releasesf rom i tsaxont ermi nal [Link] onsr eceiv esy napticinput ,ani ndi v
idual
neur oncanbeaf fect edbyhor mones, thei mmunesy stem, andchr onobi ologi cal
rhythmsoft heor gani [Link] ear ei nt egrat i
ngmechani smswi t
ht heneur [Link] s
i
ncl udesr egul ati
onofpr ot einf unct ionandr egulati
onofgenef unct i
[Link] mpor tant
mol ecul eswi thi
nt heneur onar epr ot ei
nsi ncludingneur otransmi ttersr ecept ors,
enzy mesandcy toskel etal element s.I nasmuchast hef unctionofi tsshapeand
electrical char ge, biochemi cal pr ocessessuchaspr oteinphosphor ylati
on, t
hatcan
affectt heshapeandchar geofapr ot eincanaf f
ecti tsf unct i
[Link] f
icallyan
i
ndi vidual prot einmol ecul emayhav ei tsf unct i
onr egul atedbysev eralrev ersible,post-
translationmodi ficat ions, initiatedbyadi fferentsour cee. [Link] napt i
ci nputhor mal
effect sandchr onobi ologi cal rhy thms.

Thehumanbr
aini
smadeupofcel
l
scal
l
edneur
[Link]
l
scompr
isef
ourpar
ts:

[Link]
body ,
[Link]
tes,
[Link],
[Link]-
synapti
cter
minal
.

Agapcal l
edthesy napseexi stsbetweenapr e-
sy napti
cterminalandt henextneur on.
Thereareseveralmi l
li
onsoft heseneur onsinthebr ainwhosemai nfunctioni s
i
nf or
mati
onpr ocessingf oll
owingeitherexci
t at
ionori nhi
bit
[Link] cate
toandwitheachot hert hrough;si
gnal tr
ansduct i
onchemi calneurotr
ansmi ssi
[Link]
tr
ansducti
onreferst othegener alpr
ocessbywhi chelect
ri
cal si
gnals(thener veimpulse)
areconvert
edintochemi calsi
gnals( neur
otransmi tt
errel
ease)byt hepr e-
sy napti
c
neuronandthepr ocessbywhi chthechemi calsignalsareconv ert
edbacki ntoelect
ri
cal
signal
sbythepost -synapticneuron.

Chemi calneurotr
ansmissionr eferstothereleaseofaneur ot
ransmi t
terbythepr e-
synapticneuronandt hedet ecti
onoft heneur ot
ransmitt
erbytherecept orprot
eins
(synapti
cconnect i
on)leadingt oact i
vat
ionofpost -
synapti
cneuroncausi ngmembr ane
depolari
zation(exci
tati
on)orhy per pol
ari
zati
on( i
nhibi
ti
on).Theact i
vi
tiesthattakeplace
i
nt hesy napseareimpor t
anti ntheunder st
andingofmanyphy si
ologicalchangesthat
arerelevanttopsychiat
[Link] napseisthemaj orsit
eofactionforneur o-
messenger s
anddr
ugsusedi
npsy
chi
atr
y.

Therearet hreet ypesofsy napses-chemi cal(humor al)

,electri
cal(gapjunctions)and
conjoi
[Link] calsynapsesuseneur otr
ansmi tt
erst osendmessageswhi leel ectr
ical
synapsesuseel ectri
ccur r
entandf lowofchar gedi onst orel
[Link] oi
nt
synapsescont ainbothchemi calandel ectri
cal [Link] napsescanei therbe
excit
atoryori nhibit
ory,dependingonwhet hert heyinducemembr anedepol arizati
on
(exci
tati
on)ormembr anehy perpolarization(inhibit
ion),foll
owingr el
easeoft heneur o-
messenger sandi tseff
ectont hepost -synapticneur [Link] o-messengers, alsoknown
aneur o-
transmi tter
sorneur o-modul atorsar egr oupedi nto;

[Link](5-10%)-includecate-cholamines(dopamine,epi
nephr
ineand
norepinephri
ne);i
ndoleami nes(serot
onin,alsocal
led5-hydr
oxytrypt
amine)
,
quaternaryamines(acetyl
-choli
ne)andet hylamines(hi
stamine).
[Link] noacids,(
60%)
[Link] i
des
[Link](thisgroupist hel
eastunder st
ood)

Allneurotr
ansmitterplayar oleinbehavi
ourregulati
[Link]
ransmitt
ersy nt
hesizi
ng
enzymes, quanti
ti
esofneur o-t
ransmit
ter
sandneur o-
transmit
termetaboli
testhatare
foundinsampl esofbl ood, ur
ineandcerebrospi
nal fl
uidcanbemeasur edinresearch
techni
[Link] standingofthenatureofrecept or
sall
owstheneur oscient
ist
s
andclinici
anstoappr eciatethemechanismsi nvolv
edi ntheactual
diseasepathology
andwhatr emediest odev elop.

Receptor
saremadeupofpr oteinsandarefoundinneur onalmembr [Link] e
l
ocatedonboththepre-synapticandpost-sy
[Link] i
gured
i
nsuchawayt hateachr eceptoronlyr
ecognizesaspeci fi
cneurot
ransmi t
[Link]
desi
gnedinthekeyandl ockformatwher ealockwillonlyacceptt
hecor rectkeyforthe
l
ockingorunl
ockingoperati
ont [Link]
owingneur ochemicalsaresomeoft he
i
mpor t
antones

1. dopami ne
[Link] nephri
neandepi
nephr
ine
3. serot
oni n
4. acety
lcholine

Dopami ne-cont ai
ningneuronal cellbodiesar elocatedintheNigrostr
iatal
,Mesoli
mbi c,
Mesocor ti
cal andTuber o-i
nfundi bularpathway s.Thereare5maj ortypesofdopami ne
receptors.D1andD5r eceptor
sar emember soft heD1l i
kefamilyofdopami ne
receptors,wher eastheD2, D3,D4r eceptorsaremember softheD2- l
ikefamily
.
Activati
onoft heD1- li
kefami l
yr eceptorsist y
picall
yexcitat
ory,
whi l
eD2- l
i
keact i
vat
ion
i
st ypicall
yi nhibit
ory.TheD2f ami l
yofr eceptorsisthemostr el
evantinbehav i
orandi n
psychiat r
[Link] uncti
onofdopami neinvolvest hei
nit
iati
onandco- ordi
nati
onof
mov ement s.
3.
3.1Basi
cEl
ect
rophy
siol
ogy

Inther esti
ngst atetheintracell
ularcompar tmentofaneur onisnegat i
velychar gedin
compar isonwitht heextracell
ularcompar tment .Thedi f
f erencei
nel ectr
icalpotentiali
s
producedandmai ntai
nedbyt heneur onalmembr anei tselfandbyt heionpumpsand
channelscont ainedi nthemembr [Link] incipali onpumpi stheener gy-r
equiri
ng
sodium- pot
assium exchange pump;t he principali on channel s aret he sodi um,
potassium,cal ci
um and chl ori
de i on channel [Link] membr ane i s saidt o be
semi permeabl
ebecausei tisselectiveregardingwhi chi onscanpasst hroughi [Link]
semi permeabl
epr opert
yoft hemembr aneist hesour ceofi t
sfunctionalrole,whichis
similartother oleofacapaci [Link] ect
ricalpot entialoft hemembr anef oll
owst he
equat i
onofOhm’ sLaw, E=[Link] i
on,Ei sthet r
ansmembr anepot ent i
al,
Iisthe
currentandRi st heresi
stance.

3.
3.2Neur
onal
Membr
ane

Phosphol i
pids,or
ganizedasabi l
ayerwit
hthehy drophobicendsoft hemolecules
pointingtowardeachot her
,makeupt heneur
onalmembr [Link]
erolandprotein
mol eculescanbef oundwithintheseaofphospholi
[Link]
i
evedt o
regulatemembr aner i
gidi
[Link] orty
pesofpr otei
nsf oundint hemembr anear e
neur otr
ansmitt
errecept
ors,thei
rrel
atedpr
otei
[Link]
aseandi onchannels.

3.
3.3Act
ionPot
ent
ial
s

Intheresti
ngstatet
heintr
acell
ularcompar
tmentoftheneuronisnegati
vel
ycharged,
butduri
nganactionpot
enti
altheneuroni
sposi
tiv
elychar
[Link]
onpotent
ialt
o
begeneratedbyaneur on,theinsideoftheneuronhast obecomel essnegati
vely
chargedthant
heoutsi
de.

3.
3.4Sy
napse

Thecomponent softhesy napsearetheaxont er

mi nalofthepresynapt
icneuron,the
synapt
iccleft
,andt hedendr i
teofthepostsy napti
cneur [Link] ionpotential
devel
opsinpr esynapt
icneuron,theacti
onpotenti
al;mov esdowntheaxont otheaxon
ter
minalortootherfuncti
onall
ysimil
arregionsoftheaxonscal l
edaxionalvar
icosi
ti
es.
Theacti
onpot enti
alcausescalci
um ionstoentert
heanont erminal
.

3.
3.5Recept
ors

Neurotr
ansmi t
terreceptor
saret hesitesofact
ionforvir
tual
lyallthepsychot
herapeuti
c
andpsy choacti
vedr ugsusedt [Link] ypesofr eceptor
[Link] napse
recept
orscanbeonbot hthepr esynapti
candpostsynapti
[Link]
ythere
2t y
pesofr ecept
ors;receptor
sl i
nkedt otheGprotei
nandr eceptorsl
ocateddir
ectlyon
i
onchannel s.

UNI
T2:
ENDOCRI
NOLOGYANDPSYCHI
ATRI
CDI
SORDERS
Psy chi at
ricdisordersmaybesecondar ytoendocrinedi sor
[Link]
heendocr i
neor gan
producest olit
tleort oomuchoft heconcernedhor mone,mayr esul
ttopsy chi
atr i
c
mani festationt hatmaybemi st
akenasment ali
[Link] heendocr ine
disor derr esultsall
evi
at i
onofthepsychi
atr
[Link] ngtheproperdiagnosisof
these di sor dersi si mport
ant since if untr
eat
ed t his conditi
ons may l ead t o
compl icationsi ncl
[Link]
ionofeachcasei simportanttoav oid
mi sdiagnosi [Link] l
lnow lear
naboutsomeoft hisendocr i
nedisordersandt he
psy chi atr
icpr esentat
[Link] ounit3,Ihopey ouwillenjoythetopicandl ear n
from i t.

Uni
t2consi
stsof5sect
ionsasf
oll
ows:

Sect
ion1:Thy
roi
ddi
sor
der
sandt
hephy
siol
ogyofpsy
chi
atr
icdi
sor
der
s

Sect
ion2:Adr
enal
i
nedi
sor
der
sandt
hephy
siol
ogyofpsy
chi
atr
icdi
sor
der
s

Sect
ion3:Pi
tui
tar
ydi
sor
der
sandt
hephy
siol
ogyofpsy
chi
atr
icdi
sor
der
s

Sect
ion4:Par
athy
roi
ddi
sor
der
sandt
hephy
siol
ogyofpsy
chi
atr
icdi
sor
der
s

Sect
ion5:Pancr
eat
icdi
sor
der
sandt
hephy
siol
ogyofpsy
chi
atr
icdi
sor
der
s

Uni
tObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hisuni
t,y
oushoul
dbeabl
etodi
scuss:

[Link]
icdisorders
[Link]
icdisorders
[Link]
tuitarydisordersandpsychiat
ricdisorders
[Link]
sandpsy chiat
ri
cdi sorders
[Link] i
cdisordersandpsychiatr
icdisorders.
Weshal
lnowbegi
nwi
thadi
scussi
onoft
hyr
oiddi
sor
der
sandpsy
chi
atr
icdi
sor
der
s

SECTI
ON1:
THYROI
DDI
SORDERSANDPSYCHI
ATRI
CDI
SORDERS

1.
1Sect
ionI
ntr
oduct
ion

Thet hyroidgl andpr oducest hethy r

oidhor monest hatareresponsiblefortheregulati
on
ofimpor tantbodyf unctionsincl
udi ng,bloodpr essure,heartratebodyt emperatureand
rateofconv er sionoff oodt oenergy .Thyroidhormonesar eessentialforthefuncti
onof
everycell i
nt hebody .Theyhelpr egulategr owthandt her ateofmet aboli
sm inthebody .
Italsohelpsi ngr owt handdev elopmentofchi [Link] hyroi
dstimulati
nghor mone
whichi sproducedbyt hepi t
uit
arygl andisr esponsibleforthestimulati
onoft hethy oi
d
glandinor dert opr oducet [Link] hyroxine(T4)andt ri
iodothyroni
ne(T3)
arei mportantt hyroidhor mones.I talsopr oducescal ci
tonin,whichisinvolvedin
calcium met abol i
sm andst i
mulatingbonecel l
st oaddcal cium tobone.

1.
2Sect
ionObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hissect
ion,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
scusshy
per
thy
r oidism and psychi
atr
icdisor
ders
[Link]
scusshy
pot
hyroidism andpsy chi
atr
icdi
sorder
s.

1.
3Hy
per
thy
roi
dism andPsy
chi
atr
icDi
sor
der
s
Hy pert
hyroidi
sm r esult
sf r
om ani ncreaseoft het hyroidhormoneswi thther esul t
ing
medi calconditi
ont hatisrefer
redtoast hyrot
[Link] evelofthet hyroid
hormonesr esult
st osy mptomsofwhatmayappearl i
keananxi etydisorder,including
restl
essness,i rr
itabil
it
y,distr
acti
bili
ty and anxi ety. To differ
entiatet he bet ween
sympt omsoft hyr
ot oxi
cosisandanxietydi sor
der,itisimportanttot akeproperhi story
andexami nati
[Link] scri
minat
ingsy mpt omsoft hy r
otoxi
cosisinclude;preferenceof
coldweat her,weightl ossdespit
ei ncreasedappet it
e,palpablethyroidgland,sl eeping
pulserateofabov e90/ minandt r
emor [Link] ementoft heT3andT4showsel evated
l
ev els.

1.
4Hy
pot
hyr
oidi
sm andPsy
chi
atr
icDi
sor
der
s

Hy pothyroidi
sm i sthelackoft hyr
oidhor monesandi nvari
ablyr
esultstopsy chiat
ric
sympt oms.I fithappensi near l
yli
feitleadstoretardati
onofment aldev el
opment .I
n
adults,lackoft hyroidhormonesr esultstopoormemor y,sl
owness, apathyakinto
depressi onanddement i
[Link] mpt omsofhy pothyroi
dism ar
elessdi sti
ncti
vethan
thoset hy r
otoxicosisincl
uding;poorappet i
te,
const i
pati
on,general
izedachesand
somet imesangi [Link] ngadiagnosi si
tisimpor t
anttomeasur enotonl ytheT3and
T4butal sotheTSHt ohelpdisti
nguishbetweenpr imarythyr
oiddiseasesf r
om pituit
ary
cause.I npituit
arycausest heTSHi susuall
ylow

1.
5Sect
ionSummar
y

Inthi
ssecti
on,wehavesof
arseent
hatabnor
mal
i
tiesoft
het
hyr
oidhor
monemay
causepsychi
atr
icsy
mptoms.

1.
6Acti
vi
ty
Li
st2psy
chi
atr
icdi
sor
der
sthatmayr
esul
tfr
om abnor
mal
i
tiesoft
het
hyr
oidhor
mones

SECTION2:ADRENALI
NEDI
SORDERSANDTHEPHYSI
OLOGYOFPSYCHI
ATRI
C
DISORDERS

2.
1Sect
ionI
ntr
oduct
ion

Thesupr arenalgland(adr enal gland)islocatedatt het opofeachki dney .Thesegl ands

arecri
ticalincreati
ngnumer oushor monesthatar enecessar yforaheal t
[Link]
suprarenalglandsar edividedi ntot [Link] erpor ti
onoft hegl andiscal l
edthe
[Link] enal cor t
exi sresponsibl
ef orcr eatingt hreedi fferenttypesof
hormones: mi neral
ocorti
coi dswhi chconservesodi um i nthebody , glucocor t
icoids
whichincreasebl oodglucosel ev elsandgonadocor t
icoi dswhi chr egul atesex
hormonessuchasest [Link] hwouldresultiftheadr enal cortexwer etost op
functi
oningasi tcontrolsmet abol i
cprocessesthatar eessent i
al t
ol [Link]
medullaist heinnerportionoft hesupr ar
enal gl
and( adr enal gland).Thi spor ti
on
secret
esepi nephr i
neandnor epi nephri
neint i
mesofst ress.
Letusf
ami
l
iar
izeour
sel
veswi
tht
hesect
ionobj
ect
ives.

2.
2Sect
ionObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hissect
ion,y
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
scusshypoadrenali
sm and psy
chiatr
icdisorders
[Link]
scusshyperadrenal
ism andpsychi
atr
icdisorders
[Link]
scussphaeochromocytomaandpsy chiat
ricdisor
der
s.

2.
3Hy
per
adr
enal
i
sm andPsy
chi
atr
icDi
sor
der
s

Addison'sdiseaseal soreferredtohavehypoadrenali
sm i
scausedbyl owl evelsof
adrenali
[Link] son'sdiseasemaypr esentwit
hpsy chol
ogicalsymptomst hatmaybe
mistakenaspsy chiatr
icill
[Link]
ssy mptom i
ncludes:wi
thdrawal,apathy ,f
atigue
mooddi sturbanceandmemor yl
[Link] st
akenbemi st
akenf ordement ia,
a
di
sordert hatpresentswi thmemor [Link]
entinAddisonniancrises(whent he
l
evelsofadr enalinearet oolow)maypr esenti
nanacut [Link] onall
y
Addison'sdiseasemaycoi nci
dewithdepressi
onorschizophrenia

2.
4Hy
poadr
enal
i
sm andPsy
chi
atr
icDi
sor
der
s

Cushingsy ndromei sal

sorefer
redtoashy peradrenali
sm andresult
sf rom toomuch
adrenali
[Link] i
bedbyCushing’
s,iti
susuallyassociat
edwithemot ionaldisorder
.
Depressivesympt omsarethemostf r
equentmani f
estati
oninthesepat i
[Link]
sympt omsar elesscommonandappearmai nlyinpat i
entswit
hseverephy sicalil
l
ness.
Discussphaeochr omocyt
omaandt hephysi
ologyofpsy chi
atr
icdi
sorders.

2.
5Phaeochr
omocy
tomaandPsy
chi
atr
icDi
sor
der
s

Phaeochr omocytomaaret umoursusuall

ybenignar i
singfrom thechromaf f
incellsof
theadrenalmedul l
aorect opi
cal
lyi
nr el
ationtothesympat het
[Link]
adrenali
neandnoradr enali
neeit
herconti
nuouslyorpar oxy
smally.I
tisassociatedwith
headaches,anxi et
y attacks and occasional
ly epi
sodes of conf [Link]
catecholamine’
sinuri
neisani mpor
tantdiagnost
icfi
nding.

Thedepr
essi
oni
mpr
ovesoncet
hecushi
ngsy
ndr
omei
str
eat
edi
str
eat
ed

2.
6Sect
ionSummar
y

Addi
son’sdi
seaseandCushing’
ssy
ndr
omear
eabnor
mal
i
tiesofadr
enal
i
negl
andt
hat
maypresentwit
hpsychi
atr
icsympt
oms.
 2.
7Acti
vit
y
Whati
sphaecr
omocy
tomaandwhatar
ethepsy
chi
atr
icmani
fest
ati
onsoft
hecondi
ti
on.

SECTI
ON3:
PITUI
TARYHORMONESANDPSYCHI
ATRI
CDI
SORDERS

3.
1Sect
ionI
ntr
oduct
ion

Thepi tui
taryglandrest satthebaseoft hebraininthebonysel latur
cicaneart
heoptic
chiasmaandt hecav [Link] t
uitar
yconsi stsofanant eriorl
obe
(adenohy pophysis)andapost er
iorlobe(neurohypophysis).Itisconnectedtothe
hypothalamusbyast alkofneurosecretor
yfibresandbl oodv [Link]
ior
pit
uitaryproducesgr owt hhormone, prol
acti
n,thyroidsti
mul ati
nghor mone,fol
l
icl
e
sti
mul ati
nghor mone, lutei
nizi
nghor moneandadr enocorti
cot r
[Link]
posteriorpit
uit
arypr oducesoxy t
ocinandv asopressin(antidiureti
chormone).Welcome
tosect i
on3, hopey ouwi ll
enjoyit.

3.
2Sect
ionObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hissect
ion,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
scussacromegal
yand psychiat
ri
cdisorders
[Link]
scusshyperpi
tui
tar
ism andpsychi
atr
icdisor
der
s.

3.
3Acr
omegal
yandPsy
chi
atr
icDi
sor
der
s

Acromegalyisadisorderresult
ingfrom hypersecreti
onofhor monesfrom t
hepitui
tar
y
gl
[Link] chi
atr
icsympt omsi nacromegalyincludeapat hyandlackofini
ti
ati
ve.
Depressi
onsomet imesoccur swhichmaybe apsy chologicalreact
iontophysi
cal
symptomsr athert
handirecteffectofthehormonedi st
urbance.

3.
4Hy
popi
tui
tar
ism andt
hePhy
siol
ogyofPsy
chi
atr
icDi
sor
der
s

Hy popit
uit
arism i
sduet oreduct
ioninhormonespr oducedf rom thepi tuit
arygl
[Link]
psy chi
atr
icmani f
estati
onsofthisdiseaseincl
ude;depression,apathy ,lackofini
ti
ati
ve,
somnol ence,andcogni t
iveimpair
mentsi mil
artothatf oundinpat ientwi thdementia.
Psy chol
ogicalsy mptoms usuall
yr espond wellwhen hy popituit
arism i streat
ed by
replacementt her
apy.

3.
5Sect
ionSummar
y

Abnor
mal
i
tiesoft
hepi
tui
tar
ygl
andmaycausepsy
chi
atr
icsy
mpt
oms.
 3.
6Acti
vi
ty
Li
st2psy
chi
atr
icdi
sor
der
sthatmayr
esul
tfr
om abnor
mal
i
tiesoft
hepi
tui
tar
y
hor
mones

SECTI
ON4:
PARATHYROI
DISM ANDPSYCHI
ATRI
CDI
SORDERS

4.
1Sect
ionI
ntr
oduct
ion

Theparathyroidglands, asthenamesuggest s,ar

esi t
uatedclosetot hethyr
oidgl
and.
Theyareusual lyfourinnumberandcanal sobesituatedoutsidetheirnormal
anatomicalsite,r
esidingany wherebetweenthehyoidbonei ntheneckandt he
mediasti
[Link] andsproducetheparathyr
oidhormonewhi chservesasoneof
thepri
ncipl
er egulator
sofcal cium andphosphatehomeost [Link] osect
ion4,
hopeyouwi llenjoyit.

4.
2Sect
ionObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hissect
ion,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
scusshy
poparathyroidism and psy
chiatr
icdi
sorder
s
[Link]
scusshy
perparathy
r oidism andpsychi
atr
icdi
sor
ders.

4.
3Hy
per
pit
utar
ism andPsy
chi
atr
icDi
sor
der
s

Hyperpar at
hy r
oidism isduetoi ncr
easedhor monesoftheparathyr
oidgl
[Link]
s
condit
ionpsy chologicalsy
mptomsar ecommonandappar ent
lyrel
atedtotherai
sed
bl
oodl evelofcal ci
[Link] chiat
ri
csy mptomsincl
ude;depr
essionaner
gia(l
ackof
energy),i
rri
tabi
li
tyandcogni ti
vei mpai
[Link]
ti
veimpairmentthepati
enthas
poorconcent r
ati
on, memory,ori
entat
ion,at
tent
ionandj
udgment.

4.
4Hy
popar
api
tur
ism andPsy
chi
atr
icDi
sor
der
s

Hypoparathy
roidi
sm i
susuall
yduet oremovalordamaget otheparathy
roidgl
andsafter
thy
roidect
omybutaf ew casesarei di
opat
[Link]
atri
csy mptomsi nthi
sdisorder
i
nclude depressi
on,irr
it
abil
it
y,ner v
ousness,mani c depressi
ve and schi
zophrenic
[Link] i
entsmayalsopresentwit
hepilepsy
.

4.
5Sect
ionSummar
y

Abnor
mal
i
tiesoft
hepar
athy
roi
dhor
monemaycausepsy
chi
atr
icsy
mpt
oms.
 4.
6Acti
vi
ty
Li
st2psy
chi
atr
icdi
sor
der
sthatmayr
esul
tfr
om abnor
mal
i
tiesoft
hepar
athy
roi
d
hor
mones

SECTI
ON5:
CORTI
COSTEROI
DTREATMENTANDI
NSULI
NOMAS

WelcometoSect
[Link]
ssect
ionwearegoi
ngtocov
ercor
ti
cost
eroi
dtr
eat
ment
andinsul
i
nomasinrel
ati
ontopsychi
atr
icdi
sor
ders.

Bef
orepr
oceedi
ngf
urt
her
,got
hrought
heobj
ect
ivesoft
hissect
ion.

5.
2Sect
ionObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hissect
ion,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
scusscor
ti
coster
oidt
reat
mentandpsychiatr
icdi
sor
der
s
[Link]
scussi
nsuli
nomasandpsychi
atr
icdi
sorders.

5.
3Cor
ti
cost
eroi
dtr
eat
mentandPsy
chi
atr
icDi
sor
der
s

Pati
ents on corti
cost
eroidt reatmentmaydev elop psy
chologi
calprobl
[Link]
psychol
ogicalsymptomsar emor elikel
yifthepat
ienthasusedthecor
ti
coster
oidsf
ora
prol
onged per i
[Link] chologicalsy mptoms may i ncl
ude;euphori
a,mi l
d manic
syndrome,depressi
vedisorder.

5.
4Insul
i
nomasandPsy
chi
atr
icDi
sor
der
s

Insulinomasusual
lypresentbetweentheagesof20and50y ear
[Link]
vesa
l
onghi st
oryoftr
ansientbutrecurr
entatt
acksi nwhichthepat ientbehavesoutof
char acter
,oft
eninanaggr essi
veanduninhibi
[Link] bloodglucoseconcentr
ati
on
eitherduringt
heepisodeorimmediatel
yaf
terhelpsi
ndiagnosis.

5.
5Sect
ionSummar
y

Pat
ientswit
habnormal
i
tiesoft
hei
nsul
i
nhor
moneandcor
ti
cost
eroi
dsmaycause
psy
chiatr
icsympt
oms.

5.6Acti
vi
ty
Li
st2psychi
atr
icdi
sor
der
sthatmayr
esul
tfr
om abnor
mal
i
tiesofi
nsul
i
nand
cor
ti
cost
eroi
ds
UNI
T3:
PHYSI
OLOGYOFSLEEPANDMEMORY

I
nsection1y ouwi
lll
ear
nt hephysi
ologyofsleepandt hebasi
cunderstandi
ngofsleep
needspatternandhowthisisdependentonphy si
ologi
calst
ateofthebody.I
nsecti
on2
youwil
llearnaboutmemor [Link]
ionsareusef ulf
orever
yhumanbei ngandit
i
snecessar ytohav
eagoodunder standi
ng.

Thi
suni
thas2sect
ionsnamel
y:

Sect
ion1:Phy
siol
ogyofsl
eep

Sect
ion2:Memor
y

Obj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hisuni
t,y
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
ibet
hephy
siol
ogyofsl
eep.
[Link]
scussmemory.

Next
,weshal
lnowt
ackl
esect
iononeoft
hisuni
t.

SECTI
ON1:
PHYSI
OLOGYOFSLEEP

I
nsecti
on1y ouwil
llear
nthephysiol
ogyofsleepandthebasicunder
standi
ngofsleep
needspatternandhowthisisdependentonphysi
ologi
calstat
eofthebody.I
nsection2
youwil
llearnaboutmemor y
.Boththesecti
onsareuseful
f orever
yhumanbeingandi t
i
snecessar ytohav
eagoodunder standi
ng.

Thi
suni
thas2sect
ionsnamel
y:

Sect
ion1:Phy
siol
ogyofsl
eep

Sect
ion2:Memor
y

Obj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hisuni
t,y
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
ibet
hephy
siol
ogyofsl
eep.
[Link]
scussmemory.
Next
,weshal
lnowt
ackl
esect
iononeoft
hisuni
t.

SECTI
ON1:
PHYSI
OLOGYOFSLEEP

1.
1Sect
ionI
ntr
oduct
ion

Welcometosection1ofthi
[Link]
sisaveryinter
est
ingsect
ionwher eyouwilll
ear
nont he
vari
ouspsychol
ogyaspect
[Link]
l
llearnwhyy ouneedtosleep,howmuchsl eepyou
needin24hrsandthesl
eeprhy
[Link]
lalsolearnt
heconsequencesofsleepdepri
vati
on.

Ihopey
ouwi
l
lenj
oyt
hissect
ion

1.
2Sect
ionObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hissect
ion,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
standt hepur
poseofsleep
[Link]
ibesleeprequir
ements
[Link]
standnor malsleepr
hyt
hm
[Link]
ibetheconsequencesofsleepdepr
ivat
ion.

1.
3Pur
poseofSl
eep

Sleepservesar est
orat
ive,homeost
ati
cfunct
ionandappearstobecr
uci
alfornormal
thermoregul
ati
on and energyconserv
ati
[Link]
onged per
iodsofsl
eep depr
ivat
ion
sometimesleadt ot
hefollowing:

[Link]
sor
gani
zat
ion

[Link]
l
uci
nat
ion

[Link]
usi
ons

I
nst
udi
eswi
thr
ats,
sleepdepr
ivat
ionpr
oducesasy
ndr
omet
hati
ncl
udes:

[Link]
l
itat
edappear
ance

[Link]
nlesi
ons

c.I
ncreasedf
oodintake,
wei
ghtl
oss,
incr
easedener
gyexpendi
tur
e,decr
eased
bodytemper
atur
eanddeath
Theneur
oendocr
inechangesr
esulti
ngfr
om sl
eepdepri
vati
oni
ncl
udesi
ncr
eased
pl
asmanorepi
nephri
neanddecreasedpl
asmathyr
oxine.

1.
4Nor
mal
SleepRhy
thm

Withoutexter
nalcl
ues,t
henaturalbodyclockfol
lowsa25-hourcy cl
[Link] erwit
h
i
nfluenceofexter
nalf
actor
ssuchasl i
ght-
dar
kcycles,
dailyr
outi
nes,mealper
iodstrai
n
personsto24-hourcl
[Link]
ogicalrhyt
hmsinfl
[Link]
hina24hourper iod,
adultssl
[Link] i
sabsentatbirt
handdev el
opsovert
hef ir
st2
yearsofli
fe.

Sl
eepi
smadeoft
wophy
siol
ogi
cal
stat
es:

a. Nonr
api
dey
emov
ement(
NREM)sl
eep

b. Rapi
dey
emov
ement(
REM)sl
eep.

Nonr
api
dey
emov
ementsl
eepi
schar
act
eri
zedby
:

a. Sl
owedpul
ser
atebutr
egul
ars(
5-10beat
sbel
owl
evel
ofr
est
ful
waki
ng)

b. Respi
rat
ioni
ssl
ow

c. Bl
oodpr
essur
eisl
owert
hannor
mal

d. I
nvol
unt
arybodymov
ement
sar
epr
esent

e. Bl
oodf
lowt
hroughmostt
issuesi
ncl
udi
ngcer
ebr
albl
oodf
lowi
sreduced.

f
. Pul
se,
respi
rat
ionandbl
oodpr
essur
ear
eal
lhi
ghdur
ingREM sl
eep

g. Br
ainoxy
genusei
ncr
easesdur
ingREM sl
eep

TheNREM has4st
ageswi
thstage3and4beingthedeepestpor
ti
[Link]
per
cent
ageofti
mespenti
neachofthest
agesisasfol
lows:

a. St
age1 -5%

b. St
age2 -45%

c. St
age3 -12%

d. St
age4-4-
13%

e. St
age3&4ar
ethedeepestpor
ti
onsofNREM sl
eep.
1.
4.1Rapi
dEy
eMov
ement(
REM)Sl
eep

AlmosteveryREM peri
odi saccompani
edbypar t
ialorf
ullpeni
leerect
[Link]
sfi
nding
i
sofsignif
icantcl
i
nicalvaluei
neval
uati
[Link]
ei sal
mosttotal
paral
ysi
sofskelet
al(postural
)muscl
es-asaresult:

[Link] ement sar eabsentdur i

ngREM sl eep
[Link] eamsoccurcommonl yinREM ( Dr eamsdooccuri nNREM butar ety
pical
l
y
l
ucidandpur poseful).Thecy cli
cal natur eofsleepi sregul
arandr el
i
able.
[Link] per i
odoccur saboutev ery90- 100mm dur ingthenight.
[Link] ir
stREM per i
odt endstobeshor tusuall
yl essthan10mi nut
es.
[Link] att
erREM per iodsmayl ast15- 40mi nut
es.
f. MostREM per iodsoccuri nthel astt hir
doft heni ght.
[Link] t
ernschangeofov erli
fespani nneonat es50%ofsl eepisREM
[Link] lei
nadul t
sonl y25%ofsl eepi sREM.
i
. Newbor nssleepabout16hr saday .
j
.I nadulthoodt hedistributi
onofsl eepst agesisasf oll
ows;-
[Link] t
ernschangeofov erli
fespani nneonat es50%ofsl eepisREM
l
. Whi lei
nadul t
sonl y25%ofsl eepi sREM.
[Link] nssleepabout16hr saday .

I
nReduct
ionofREM sl
eepoccur
sint
heel
der
ly.

1.
5Sl
eepRequi
rement
s

Ther
ear
e2gr
oupsofper
sonsasf
arassl
eepr
equi
rement
sisconcer
ned.

a. Shor tsleeper
swhor
equi
ref
ewert
hansi
xhour
sofsl
eepeachni
ghtandwho
funct
ionadequatel
y.

b. Longsl eeper
s-whor
equi
remor
ethanni
nehour
seachni
ghti
nor
dert
ofunct
ion
adequat
ely
.

Shortsl
eepersaregener
all
yeffi
cient
,ambit
ious,andcont
entandsoci
all
yout
goi
ng.
Longsleeperstendt
obemi l
dlydepressed,
anxiousandsoci
all
ywit
[Link]
er
i
ncreasedsleepneedsoccurswit
h:

[Link]
[Link]
c.I
ll
ness
[Link]
[Link]
ress
f.I
ncreasedment al
activi
ty
g.1.6SectionSummar y
 [Link]
sbiological
lycontr
oll
[Link]
eandquali
tysl
eepisnecessar
yfor
normalfuncti
oningofthebody .Somemedical
andpsychol
ogi
caldisor
derswi
l
l
changesleepquant i
ty,
quali
tyandpatt
ern.

i
. 1.
7Acti
vit
y
j
.I nagr
oupofcl
assmat
es,
discussy
ouri
ndi
vi
dual
sleepr
equi
rement
s
k.

l
. Rev
iewQuest
ion

[Link]
ibet
heconsequencesofsl
eepdepr
ivat
ion
n.

SECTI
ON2:
MEMORY

Memor yisani mportantfuncti

onineveryhumanbei [Link] i
nghelpsusr el
ate
withwhathasbeenencount [Link]
si sani mportantfuncti
onevenf oryouasa
studentwhoisexpect edtorememberwhaty ouhavebeent aughti
nclassandr etri
eve
thesamedur ingexami nati
[Link]
ssectionyouwilllearnaboutmemor yprocesses,
memor yencodingandt y
pesofmemor y
.Youwi llal
sol ear
naboutforget
tingandwhy
peoplefor
[Link]
opi cisnotj
ustimport
antforyouasacl i
nici
anbutal
soasast udent
.
Hopey ouenj
oyt hesession.

2.
2Sect
ionObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hissect
ion,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
inememoryprocesses
[Link]
scussmemoryencoding
[Link]
li
nety
pesofmemor y
[Link]
scussf
orget
ti
ngandr easons

2.
3Int
roduct
oryConcept
sofMemor
yPr
ocesses

Memoryisther
etent
ionofi
nfor
mat
ionov
ert
[Link]
oll
owi
ngar
ethememor
y
pr
ocesses:

[Link]
str
ati
on

Thi
sisabi
l
ityt
oaddnewmat
eri
alt
oexi
sti
ngst
oreofmemor
ies.

[Link]
ent
ion
Thi
sist
heabi
l
ityt
oret
ainmemor
y.

[Link]
l

Thisi
stheabil
it
ytobr
ingitbacktoawar
[Link]
li
sthepr
ocessbywhi
chmat
eri
al
previ
ousl
ylear
nedisr
etr
ievedint
oremembrance.

[Link]
ti
on

Recognit
ioni
saf eel
i
ngoff ami
li
ari
tyi
ndi
cat
ingcor
rect
,thatapar
ti
cul
arper
son,obj
ect
oreventhasbeenencount
eredbef
ore.

Memor
ymaybedi
vi
dedi
nto:

[Link](recal
l)memor y:alsocall
edshortter
mr et
ainedf
orasl
ongas30secs
unl
essi nf
ormationisrehearsed.
[Link] y: hol
dsrecentinfor
mation
[Link] erm memor y
:ar elati
velypermanenttypeofmemorythathol
dshuge
amount sofinf
ormat i
onforal ongti
me.

2.
4Memor
yEncodi
ng

Encodingi
nvol
veshowinf
ormati
ongetsint
[Link]
ageconsi
stsoft
heretent
ion
ofinf
ormati
onovert
imeandret
ri
eval
takeswheni
nformati
oni
stakenoutofst
orage.

Inevery
dayexper iences,encodi
nghasmuchi ncommonwi thlearni
[Link] ouare
l
ist
eningtoal ecture,watchi
ngamov i
e,l
ist
eni
ngt omusicortal
kingwithafr
iend,you
areencodinginformat i
onintomemor [Link] nfor
mati
ongetsi ntomemoryv i
rt
uall
y
automati
call
y,whilegetti
ngotherinf
ormati
onintakesef
for
t.

Someoft
heencodi
ngpr
ocessest
hatr
equi
reef
for
tar
e:

[Link]
sal

[Link]
ocessi
ng

[Link]
abor
ati
on

d.I
mager
y

[Link]
gani
zat
ion

2.
4.1Rehear
sal

Rehearsali
stheconsci
ousr
epet
it
ionofi
nfor
mati
onthati
ncr
easest
hel
engt
hoftime
thati
nformati
onst
aysinmemory
.Rehear
salwor
ksbestwhenweneedt
oremembera
l
istofnumber
sori
temsf
orabr
iefper
iod.I
tisnotef
fi
cientt
orememberi
nfor
mat
ion
overal
ongti
me.

2.
4.2Deeppr
ocessi
ng

FergusCrai
kandRober tLockhar
t(1972)proposedt hatpeopl
eprocessinf
ormat
ionat
di
fferentl
[Link]
rtheor
y,l
evelsofprocessi
ngt heory,st
atesthatmemoryisona
conti
nuousfrom shal
lowtodeep,wit
hdeeperprocessingproduci
ngbett
ermemory.

Attheshall
ow levelonlyt hesensor yofphy si
calfeaturesofthestimuliareanal
yzed
whil
eatt heinter
medi atel evelt hestimulusisr ecognizedandl abel
edwhi leatthe
deepestl
eveli
nformationi spr ocessedsemant ical
lyintermsofi t
smeani [Link]
ofstudi
eshaveshownt hatpeopl e’smemor iesimpr ovewhentheymakeassoci ati
onto
sti
muliasopposedt ophy [Link] emor eli
kelyt
or emembersomet hi
ngin
thedeeprat
herthanashal l
owl evel.

2.
4.3El
abor
ati
on

Cogni
ti
vepsy chologi
stssoonr
ecognizedt
hatt
her
eismor etoagoodmemor ythanj
ust
[Link]
hindeepprocessi
ngthemor
eextensiv
etheprocessi
ngthebet
ter
thememor y.

Elaborati
oni
st heextensi
venessofpr
ocessingatanygiv
endept hinmemor [Link]
her
thanmemor izingthedefi
nit
ionofmemor y
,y ouwoul
ddobet t
ert olearntheconceptof
memor ybycomi ngupwi thsomeexampl esofhow infor
mationent ersyourmind,is
stored,i
sret
rieved,unt
ilt
ounderst
andit
.

2.
4.4I
mager
y

How manywi ndowsarei

nyourapar
tmentorhouse.I fy
oul i
vei
nasingl
eroom t
he
answeri
seasybutfewofushavememorizedthatinf
ormati
onbutmaybel
i
evewecan
getacor
rectansweri
fweusei
mageryto‘
reconst
ruct’
eachroom.

Studi
esbyAl l
anPal vi
o(1977,1986)documenthow imagerycani mpr
ovememor y.
Palvi
oarguesthatmemoryisstoredi
noneof2way sasver
balcodeorasimagecode
e.
[Link]
ecanber ememberedbyalabel(
verbal
code)ormentali
mage(imagecode).
Palvi
obeli
evesthati
magecode, whi
chishi
ghlydetai
l
edanddist
inct
ivepr
oducesbett
er
memor y
.

Thedual-
codehypothesi
scl
aimsthatmemoryimagesisbett
erbecausethememoryfor
conceptimageisstoredbot
hasani magi
nalcodeandv erbalcodethuspr
ovi
ding2
potent
ial
avencesbywhichi
nfor
mat i
oncanberetr
iev
ed.

Al
thoughi
mager
yiswi
del
yaccept
ed asani
mpor
tantaspectofmemor
y,t
her
eis
cont
rov
ersyov
erwhet
herwehav
esepar
atecodesf
orwor
dsandi
mages.

2.
4.5Or
gani
zat
ion

Researchershavef oundthati
fpeoplesimpl
yar eencouragedt oor ganizematerial
s,
theirmemor yofthemat er
nali
mprovesevenifnowarningisgiv enthattheirmaternal
willbetested.I
nmanyi nst
anceswer ememberinf
ormati
onbet terwhenweor ganizeit
hierar
chical
[Link]
chyisasystem inwhichit
emsar eor ganizedf r
om generalto
specifi
cclasses.

Chunki ngi
sanotherbenefi
cialorgani
zat
ionmemorystr
ategythati
nvol
vesgr
oupi
ngor
“packing”i
nfor
mationint
ohi gherorderuni
tst
hatcanber ememberedasasingl
euni
t
[Link]. It
’seasi
erwhenchunkedasOldHarol
d
andy oungBen.

2.
5For
get
ti
ng

Toretr
ievesomet
hingfr
om y ourment
aldatabank,yousear
chy ourstor
eofmemor
yto
fi
ndtherelev
anti
nfor
[Link]
earevar
iousconceptsonret
ri
ev al
.

[Link]
poft
het
onguephenomenon.(
TOTst
ate)

Iti
sat y
peof“ ef
for
tfulr
etr
iev
al”thatoccur
swhenpeopl ear
econf
identt
hey
knowsomet
hingbutj
ustcan’
tquit
eseem topull
itoutofmemor
y.

[Link]
alposit
ionef f
ect–t
hatrecal
lissuper
iorf
oritemsatthebeginni
ngandatthe
[Link]
ngdi
rect
ion,t
urnleftt
henrightoncentr
al,keepstr
aightt
hen
ri
ghtonparksi de.

2.
5.1Ret
ri
evalCuesandRet
ri
evalTask

Twoot
herf
act
orsi
nvol
vedi
nret
ri
eval
are

a) Thenat
ureoft
hecuest
hatcanpr
ompty
ourmemor
y

b) Ther
etr
iev
alt
askt
haty
ousetf
ory
our
sel
f.

Cueshel
py [Link]
hroughthealphabetgener
ati
ngnamesthatbegin
wit
heachlett
ermayhelpyoust umbl
eont heri
[Link] l
ecueshel
p,yoursuccess
i
nretr
iev
inginf
ormati
onalsodependsont hetaskyousetforyour
sel
fe.
[Link]
ngif
somethi
ngisfamil
i
ariseasiert
hanremember i
nghername.

These2factor
scuesandret
ri
evalt
askar
einv
olv
edi
nani
mpor
tantmemor
ydi
sti
nct
ion
recal
lver
susrecogni
ti
onmemory.

Recal
li
samemor
ymeasur
einwhi
cht
hei
ndi
vi
dual
mustr
etr
iev
epr
evi
ousl
ylear
ned
i
nfor
mat i
[Link]
ionisamemor
ymeasur
einwhichtheindi
vi
dual
onl
yhastoident
if
y(Recognizelear
neditems,
asonMCQtest
[Link]
efer
MCQf ort
heyareeasi
erthanessaytest.

Doy
our
ememberf
aces(
Recogni
ti
on)bet
tert
hannames(
Ret
ri
eval
).

2.
5.2Pr
imi
ng

Retr
iev
alalsobenef
it
sfrom pr
imi
ng,whi
chinvol
vesacti
vat
ingpar
ti
cularconnect
ionsor
associ
ati
onsinmemor y
.Inmanycases,
theseassoci
ati
onsareunconsci
ous.

2.
5.3Reasonsf
orFor
get
ti
ng

1.I
nter
fer
ence

Inter
ferencetheoryst
atesthatweforgetnotbecausememor
iesar
eactual
l
ylostf
rom
storage,butbecauseotherinf
ormati
[Link]
kindsofinter
ference.

a)Pr
oact
ive:
-occur
swhenmat
eri
alt
hatwasl
ear
nedear
li
erdi
srupt
sther
ecal
lof

mat
eri
all
ear
nedl
ater
.

b)Ret
roact
ivei
nter
fer
ence:
-occur
swhenmat
eri
all
ear
nedl
aterdi
srupt
sret
ri
eval
of

i
nfor
mat
ionl
ear
nedear
li
er.

[Link] heorystat
est hatwhensomet
hingnewislear
ned,
aneur ochemical
memory
tracei
sf ormedbutov erti
met hi
str
acet
[Link]
mesol dermemori
eswi
ll
remainintactevenaft
eral ongti
meespeci
all
yift
heywereemotional.

2.
5.4Amnesi
a

Amnesiai
slossofmemoryandtherear
e2t y
[Link]
ogradeamnesi
a:
thi
sisamemorydi
sor
dert
hataf
fect
stheret
ent
ionofnewi
nfor
mationorevent
s.

Retrogr
adeamnesia:thisismemor ylossf
orasegmentofthepastbutnotnewevents.
I
tismor ecommont hanant erogradeamnesi
aandf r
equentl
yoccursfr
om headinj
ury.
Thekeydiff
erenceist hatAnterogradeamnesi
aisthatt
hef or
gott
eninfor
mati
onisold
(pr
iortotheev entt hatcaused amnesi a)and t
heperson’sabil
it
yto acqui
renew
memor i
esisnotaff
ect ed.

2.
6Sect
ionSummar
y

Memor
yist
her
etent
ionofi
nfor
mationov
ert
[Link]
aisl
ossofmemor
[Link]
ear
e
f
ourmemor
ypr
ocessesand3typesofmemory
.
 2.7Act
ivi
ty
Di
scusshowyoucani
mpr
ovey
ourmemor
y