HCH100:

BEHAVI
OURALSCI
ENCES-SOCI
ALPSYCHOLOGY

UNI
VERSI
TYOFNAI
ROBI

COLLEGEOFHEALTHSCI
ENCES

SCHOOLOFMEDI
CINE

HCH100:BEHAVI
OURALSCI
ENCES

MODULE5:SOCI
ALPSYCHOLOGY

MODULEFI
VE:
SOCI
ALPSYCHOLOGY

Congr at
ulati
onsf orcomingthi
sf [Link] inthefif
thmoduleofbehavi
oural
[Link] egoi
ngtolearnhow peoplebehaveindif
fer
entsi
tuati
onsandhavea
betterunder st
andingofhow st er
eotypesar
ef [Link]
udyhow andwhy
peoplet hink,feeland do t
hings theydo dependi
ng upon t
he si
tuati
on t
heyfi
nd
themselvesi nandhowtheyfalli
nlove.

Thekeyf i
gureswhom y ouhav ealr
eadybeeni ntroducedtoint hepr evi
ousmodul esand
havecont r
ibutedtremendouslyt osocialpsy chologyandpar t
icularl
yt oourcont ext
i
ncludes:Allport(
1920)whoi ntr
oducedt heideaofsoci alf aci
lit
at i
ontheorythatt he
presenceofot her
scani mproveone’sperformancei nawelllearnedt askbutdecrease
performanceinanewl ylearnedordiff
icul
ttaskduet osocialinhibiti
[Link]
tBandur a
(1963)intr
oducedt hesociallearni
ngt heorywher ehealludedt hatbehav i
ourint he
socialworl
dcanbemodel l
edt hr
ought herewar dsy st
em .Fest i
nger( 1950)descri
bed
thecogni ti
vedi ssonancet heorywherehebr oughti nt hei deat hatwhenwehol dbeliefs,
atti
tudes,orcogni t
ionswhi ch are dif
ferentt herei san i nconsistencyt hatcauses
discomf ortthathecal l
edcogni ti
vedissonance. Tajfel( 1990)descr ibedsocialidentit
y
theorywhi chal l
udest hatindivi
dualsneedt omai ntainaposi tivesenseofper sonaland
socialidentityev enwheni nagr [Link]( 1986)expl ai
nedt hathumanbei ngslook
forexpl anationsoft heirbehav i
oursinasoci alwor l
d duet o experiencesofbot h
successandf ailure;thiswascal l
edtheat t
ributiontheor y
.Mi l
gram (1963)conduct ed
theshockexper i
mentwher ehewasabl etodemonst ratet hatobediencei smostl i
kely
tooccuri nanunf ami li
arenv i
romentandi nt hepr esenceofaut hori
tyfigureespeciall
y
when cov ertpr essur ei s appli
ed on the peopl et o obey .Zimbar do etali n 1973
conduct edt hepr isonst udyandconcl udedt hatconf or mityt osocialrolesoccurredas
partofsoci alinteractionandl ossofasenseofi dentit
y .

I
nthismodulet
heref
orewewilldescr
ibetheexperi
ment
sandstudiesofsomeoft
hese
psy
chol
ogist
sinthecont
extofhumanr el
ati
onsthatwewil
lst
udy.

Thi
smodul
eisdi
vi
dedi
ntot
hreeuni
tsasf
oll
ows:

Uni
tOne:
Soci
alr
elat
ionsandI
nfl
uence

Uni
tTwo:
Conf
li
cts,
Peacemaki
ng,
Cogni
ti
veDi
ssonance

UNI
TONE:
SOCI
ALRELATI
ONSANDI
NFLUENCE

Wеlсоmеtot hefir
stuni
tofModul [Link] hatyouareеnjоyi
ngl еаr
ningаbоut
humanbеhаviоurandpsyсhоl
оgy.I
nt hi
sunitwear
egoingtodiscussthequalit
yofour
soci
alrel
ati
onshipsandhow t heyinfl
uencementalheal
th,physi
calhealt
handour
behavi
our
.

Asy ougot hr
oughthesecti
onsintheuni
t,youwi
l
lfi
ndsomequestionsandact
ivi
ti
es.
Makesur eyouanswerthequest
ionsandper
formt
heexer
cisesast
hesewill
hеl
pyоutо
соnsоl
idаtеyоurl
еаrni
ng.

Thi
suni
tisdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wosесt
iоnsasf
oll
ows:

Sесt
iоn1:
Soci
alRel
ati
ons

Sесt
iоn2:
Soci
alI
nfl
uence

Bef
orewepr
oceedont
othespeci
fi
csect
ions,
her
ear
etheuni
tobj
ect
ives.
 Uni
tObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hisuni
tyoushoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
ibeSocial
Relat
ions
[Link]
scussSocialI
nfl
uence

Good!Weshal
lnowpr
oceedt
othef
ir
stsect
ionoft
hisuni
t.

UNI
TONE:
SOCI
ALRELATI
ONSANDI
NFLUENCE

Wеlсоmеtot hefir
stuni
tofModul [Link] hatyouareеnjоyi
ngl еаr
ningаbоut
humanbеhаviоurandpsyсhоl
оgy.I
nt hi
sunitwear
egoingtodiscussthequalit
yofour
soci
alrel
ati
onshipsandhow t heyinfl
uencementalheal
th,physi
calhealt
handour
behavi
our
.

Asy ougot hr
oughthesecti
onsintheuni
t,youwi
l
lfi
ndsomequestionsandact
ivi
ti
es.
Makesur eyouanswerthequest
ionsandper
formt
heexer
cisesast
hesewill
hеl
pyоutо
соnsоl
idаtеyоurl
еаrni
ng.

Thi
suni
tisdi
vi
dedi
ntot
wosесt
iоnsasf
oll
ows:

Sесt
iоn1:
Soci
alRel
ati
ons

Sесt
iоn2:
Soci
alI
nfl
uence

Bef
orewepr
oceedont
othespeci
fi
csect
ions,
her
ear
etheuni
tobj
ect
ives.

Uni
tObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hisuni
tyoushoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
ibeSocial
Relat
ions
[Link]
scussSocialI
nfl
uence

Good!Weshal
lnowpr
oceedt
othef
ir
stsect
ionoft
hisuni
t.
SECTI
ONONE:
SOCI
ALRELATI
ONS

1.
1Sесt
iоnI
ntr
оduсt
iоn

Welcomet othi
ssectiononsocialr
elat
ions.I
nthi
ssect
ionwearegoi
ngt
ofi
ndouthow
wer el
atetoothers.
Thissесti
оnwillpr
оvidеyоuwit
hаnоvеrv
iеwonhowpeopl
ethi
nk
about,i
nfl
uence,andrel
atetooneanother.

Her
efi
rsti
sal
ookatt
heobj
ect
iveswewi
l
lcov
eri
nthi
ssect
ion.

1.
2Sect
ionObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hissect
iony
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
nterpersonalattr
action.
[Link]
udicei nsocialr
elations.
[Link]
naltr
uisti
cbehav i
orf r
om t heperspect
iveofsoci
alexchanget
heor
yand
socialnor
ms.
[Link] alpsychol
ogycontext
.

SECTI
ONONE:
SOCI
ALRELATI
ONS

1.
1Sесt
iоnI
ntr
оduсt
iоn

Welcomet othi
ssectiononsocialr
elat
ions.I
nthi
ssect
ionwearegoi
ngt
ofi
ndouthow
wer el
atetoothers.
Thissесti
оnwillpr
оvidеyоuwit
hаnоvеrv
iеwonhowpeopl
ethi
nk
about,i
nfl
uence,andrel
atetooneanother.

Her
efi
rsti
sal
ookatt
heobj
ect
iveswewi
l
lcov
eri
nthi
ssect
ion.

1.
2Sect
ionObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hissect
iony
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
nterpersonalattr
action.
[Link]
udicei nsocialr
elations.
[Link]
naltr
uisti
cbehav i
orf r
om t heperspect
iveofsoci
alexchanget
heor
yand
socialnor
ms.
[Link] alpsychol
ogycontext
.
1.
3Int
erper
sonal
Att
ract
ion

Hav
eyoueveraskedy
oursel
fwhyweli
ke-andareatt
ract
edt
o-cer
tai
nindi
vi
dual
s
moret
hanother
s?Well
,l
et’
sfi
ndoutasyoureadon.

It'
simportanttonotethatwhenwet al
kaboutattr
act
ion,wearen'
tal
waystal
ki
ngabout
sexualat
tract
[Link] i
nit
ion,at
tracti
onisj
ustsomet hi
ngthatdr
awspeopletoget
her
.
Therearefactor
st hatdeter
mi nei
fwear eat
tract
edtosomeoneenoughtodev el
opa
rel
ati
onshi
pwi ththatperson.

Thesef
act
orst
hati
nfl
uenceat
tract
ionar
e:

[Link],
[Link]
mi lar
ity
,
[Link]
iki
ng,
and
d.I
ngrat i
ati
on.

Act
ivi
ty1.
1
Explai
ninyourownwor
dshowpr
oxi
mit
yandsi
mil
ari
tycani
nfl
uencei
nter
per
sonal
att
racti
on.

Ihopey
ougott
hem r
ight
.Nowcompar
eyourr
esponsewi
tht
het
extt
hatf
oll
ows.

1.
3.1Pr
oxi
mit
y

Pr
oximit
yi swhenpeopl et endtol i
kepeoplewhoar ecl
osert
ot hem (moreproximal
,
gr
eaterproxi
mi t
y)ratherthanpeopl ewhoar efar
therawayfr
om t [Link]
cl
osergeographical
l
y,thent heyaremoreli
kelytorunint
ooneanot her
.Iti
sdif
ficul
tto
makefri
endswi thpeoplethaty ouseeinfr
equentl
yornotatal
[Link]
l
ongdist
antrelati
onshipsarediff
icul
t.

Proxi
mity
—geographi
calnearness—promotesattr
act
ion;
inpar
tbecausei
tincr
easesthe
opport
unit
iesf
orint
eract
ionandi npartbecauseoft
hemer eexposur
eef
fect(repeat
ed
exposur
etonovelsti
mulienhancesli
king)
.

1.
3.2Si
mil
ari
ty

I
magineyoumeetsomeonefort
hefi
rstt
imeanddi
scovery
ouhavealotincommon.
Youcheerf
ort
hesamesport
steam,
enjoywat
chi
ngthesameTVshows,andevenl
ove
thesamer estaurant
[Link] t
hsomuchi ncommon, chancesarethaty
ou'dbeattractedto
thi
[Link] l
ari
ty,oramat chofpersonalaspect
swi tht
hoseofanotherper son,i
s
one oft he mostpower fulforces behi
nd attr
acti
on and the creat
ion ofcl ose
rel
ati
[Link] heoldsay i
nggoes,andasy ouhavelikel
yexper
iencedfory oursel
f,
bir
dsofaf eatherdoflocktogether.

Wear eattract
edtootherswhoshar eourat
ti
tudes,val
ues,personali
tycharacter
isti
cs,
communi cati
onstyl
e,background,[Link] erandoveragain,researchhasshown
thatthemor esimil
araper sonis,themoreli
keablewef i
ndt [Link]
estingl
y,
researchhasalsoshownthatev enmoreimport
antthansimil
arit
yisper cei
vedsimilari
ty.

Forexampl e,oneparticul
arstudywasdesi gnedt o compareactualandper cei
ved
si
mi l
ari
tybet weenpersonali
ti
esofcol l
eger oommat [Link]
stsfoundthat
fr
iendshipsgr ew bet
weenr oommat eswhoshar edv aluesandpersonali
tytr
ait
s,but
evenmor esowhent heysimplypercei
v edtheirroommat esassimilar
.Thiswast he
samer esultofamor erecentmeta-
analysis.

A diff
erentgroupofpsy chologi
stsfoundthatinl ong-t
erm r
elati
onships,perceived
simil
ari
tywasabetterpr
edictorofli
ki
ngandat t
ract
ionthanactualsi
mi l
arit
[Link]
thatsimil
ari
tyinr
eali
tymat t
ers,butthesi
mplebeli
eft hatsomeonei ssimilartousi s
actual
lymoreimport
ant.

Bynow, y oumaybewonder i
ngaboutt heoldsay i
ngt hat'
opposi tesat t
ract.
'Toacer t
ain
extent
,itdoesmakesenset hattwopeopl ecouldhav eper sonal
itytrait
sorst rengt
hs
thatwoul dcompl ementt heotherperson,completi
ngwhati smi [Link]
probabl
yt hi
nkofar omant i
ccoupl eortwowhov i
ewt heirdiffer
encesas
complement ar
y,especiall
yifoneissignif
icantl
ymor eout goingthant heot [Link],
resear
chhasbeenunabl etoconf i
rmt hi
[Link] hatatleastfort
he
vastmaj orit
yofus, si
milari
ty,notcomplement ar
it
y,iswhatpr omotesl iki
ngand
attr
acti
on.

In-
textQuest
ion1.1
Whati
sreci
procall
i
kingandhowdoesi
tinf
luenceaf
fect
ion?

1.
3.3Reci
procal
Liki
ng

Beyondsimil
ari
ty,anotherextremelypowerfulpr
edict
orofl iki
ngandat tract
ionisour
percept
ionofanotherperson'sli
[Link] iketobel i
ked,andjustknowingthat
someone li
kes us is enough f orus tof eelatt
racted tot [Link] sisa
phenomenonknownasr ecipr
ocalliki
[Link]
call
y,discover
ingthatsomeonewhom
wef i
ndappeali
ngr eal
l
yl i
kesusseemst ogetourenginesgoi [Link]
mentsconfi
rm
thatpeopl
ewhoar
etol
dothersli
kethem usual
l
yfeelaf
fect
ionforthem,[Link]
phenomenonmaywor
kbecauseknowingthatweareli
kedmakesusf eelgoodabout
oursel
ves,
andwel
i
kebei
ngaroundsomeonewhogivesusposit
ivef
eeli
ngs.

Reci
procalliki
ngissopower fulthatsomet imesitcanev enmakeupf oral ackof
simi
lari
ty.I
nonewel l
-knownst udy,malepar t
ici
pantsexpressedincreasedinter
estina
femaleconfederat
ethatdisagreedwitht hem onimportantissues,simplybecauseshe
madeey econt act,l
eanedi n,andl i
stenedat t
enti
vel
[Link] tappearedthatthe
femaleconfederat
ewasi nt
erestedinthemal e,t
hemalewasi nter
estedinretur
n.

Onewayt ogetsomeonet ol i
key [Link]
onissuppor
tedbyt he
recipr
ociynor
t m,whichstatesthatwhateverisdonetoy oushoul
dbedonei nr et
urn.
Ther eci
proci
tynormisver
ypower f
[Link] hi
nggoodf orus,we
oftenfeeli
ndebtedt
othatperson,sowewi l
loft
enreci
procat
etheacti
on.

1.
3.4I
ngr
ati
ati
on

As we wil
lsee i
n Secti
on Two on sociali
nfl
uence,i
ngrat
iat
ion i
nvol
ves gai
ning
someone’
sappr
ovalsotheywi
llbemor
el i
kelyt
oappeaseyourdemands.

1.
3.5Phy
sical
Att
ract
iveness

Anotherf actori n att

ract
ion is physi
calattr
acti
[Link] e who are physi
cal
ly
att
racti
veenj oysev er
albenefi
ts,astheyarebett
erthoughtof( e.
g.,ki
nder
,gentl
er,more
abl
e)t han unat tract
ive [Link],t her
ei s often a halo eff
ectwith physi
cal
att
racti
veness, suchthatpeoplewhoar eabov eaverageinattr
acti
venessarethoughtt
o
beabov eav erageinotheraspectsaswel l
.

Physicalattr
acti
venessalsoincreasesopport
uni
ti
esforinteracti
[Link]
eferbeing
wit
hat tracti
vepeopleandper ceivethem asheal
thi
er,happi er,moresensi
ti
ve,mor e
successful,andmor esocial
l
yski l
[Link]
sofattracti
v enessvarybycul
ture,and
astimegoesbywef i
ndthosewecar eaboutt
obemor eattractive.

Phy si
cal att
racti
venesscanbeadi sadv ant
agetoo,[Link],peopl ewho
arephy sical
lyattr
activemaythinkt hatothersaredoi
ngthingsforthem,praisingthem,
[Link] elybecauset heyareat
[Link],
theymaycomet odoubtanyt hing
positi
veany oneel sesay st
othem, becauset heyatt
ri
butethattothei
rattr
activeness,
ratherthant otheirself
.

Acti
vit
y1.2
I
nthecontextofint
erper
sonalat
tract
ion,whati
stheef
fectofphy
sical
att
ract
iveness?
Whati
nfluencedoesithavei
nourr el
ati
ons?Putdowninyournot
ebook.
Ef
fect
sorI
nfl
uenceofphy
sical
att
ract
iveness

Wel i
ket obear oundattracti
vepeoplebecauseoftheesthet
icpleasureweobt ai
n,and
becausei nt
eractionswithat tr
act
ivepeoplearegeneral
lyposit
iveandpl [Link]
commonst ereotypeofattracti
vepeopl
eisthattheyar
ewar m,fr
iendly
,andsocial
.This
ster
eotypebecomessel f-ful
fi
ll
i
ngwhenpeopl eactdif
fer
entl
yaroundat tr
acti
vepeople
becauseoft heirexpect
ations,whi
chasar esul
tbri
ngsoutthebestinattr
acti
vepeople.

Thei
mpor t
anceofphy si
calatt
ract
ivenessdi
ff
ersf
orpeopl
ewi
thhi
ghandl
ow sel
f-
moni
torper
sonal
i
ties,
andf ormenandwomen.

Highsel
f-
monit
or saremoresensi
ti
vet
ot hei
renvi
ronment
,andpl
acemor
eval
ueon
physi
cal
att
ract
ivenesst
hanlowsel
f-
moni
torsdo.

I
nl ong-ter
mr elati
onshi
ps,menat t
achmor eimpor t
ancet ophysi
calattr
activ
enessthan
[Link] om anev ol
uti
onaryperspectivethi
sisexpl ai
nedbydiff
erencesi npar
ental
i
nv estmentsf [Link] nvestmentf ormeni ssmall,thusmencan
maxi mizetheirrepr
oducti
[Link] orbeauti
fulwomenbecauset hisisani ndi
cat
or
ofwomenbei ngy oung(somor ef erti
l
e)andheal thy .Forwoment heinv est
mentis
bigger,sot heysearchforasuppor t
ingmal e,andt husseekf orindicator
sofmen' s
resources,suchasdomi nance,st
atus,etc.

1.
3.6Lov
e

Liki
ngisof
tenonestageonthewaytolovi
[Link]
s,l
i
fepar
tner
sty
pical
l
y
l
ikeeachot
herbef
oretheyl
oveeachot
her.

Therei
sadi sti
ncti
ondr awninty pesoflove-passionatelov eandcompani onatelove.
Passi
onateloveist heiniti
alatt
racti
onbetweent wopeopl e,whi chleadstof eeli
ngsof
l
ustwhent heattr
act i
oni smutualandt ofeel
ingsofdespai rwhent heattracti
oni snot.
Companionatelovef ol
lowspassionat el
ove,anditislessintensebutmor einti
mat e,
as
thei
ndiv
idualsf
eel comf ort
ablesharingt
heirpersonalthoughts,hopes,dreams, et
c.

Fi
gur
e1t
hatf
oll
owsi
l
lust
rat
est
het
woi
mpor
tantr
equi
rement
sofcompassi
onat
elov
e:

[Link]
tyand
[Link]
fdiscl
osur
e.
Fi
gur
e1:
Compassi
onat
elov
e

Wewi
l
lnowshi
ftourf
ocusonanot
heraspectofsoci
alr
elat
ionst
hati
s,pr
ejudi
ce.

1.
4Pr
ejudi
cei
nSoci
alRel
ati
ons

Thisisanunjusti
fi
abl
eat t
itudet
owar
[Link]
ejudi
sm usual
l
yinvol
ves
ster
eotypedbeli
ef(
s)aboutagr oupofpeopl
e.I
tisoftendirect
edtowardsdif
fer
ent
cult
ural
,ethni
corgendergroups.

Prejudi
cei spr ejudgment ,orf orminganopi nionbef orebecomi ngawar eoft herelev ant
[Link] di sof tenusedt or efert opr econceived,usual lyunf av
our able,
j
udgment stowar dpeopleoraper sonbecauseofgender ,poli
ticalopinion, soci
alcl ass,
age,disabili
ty,religi
on,sexual it
y,race/ethnicit
y ,language,nat i
onal i
ty,orot herper sonal
characteri
stics.I nthiscase,i treferstoaposi ti
veornegat i
v eev aluationofanot her
person based on t heirper ceiv ed group member ship. Prej
udi ce can al so refert o
unfounded bel i
efs and may i nclude "any unr easonabl e at
titude t hati s unusual ly
resi
stantt orationalinf
luence" .Gor donAllportdef i
nedpr ejudi
ceasa" feeling,favourabl e
orunfav ourable,towardaper sonort hi
ng,priort o,ornotbasedon, actual experi
ence" .

1.
4.1Component
sandFor
msofPr
ejudi
ce

Prej
udicei sanat t
itudecomposedofbel i
efs,emot i
ons,andpredi
sposi
tionstoacti
on.
Thebeliefsaref r
equentlyst
ereotypes(somet imesaccuratebutof
tenov er-
gener
ali
zed
beli
efs)
.Theemot ionsaremostof tennegative,andtheacti
onisusuall
ydiscri
minat
ion
(unj
usti
fiablenegativebehav
iour)
.
I
tmani
fest
sas:

a.I
n-gr
oup:
peopl
ewi
thwhom oneshar
esacommoni
dent
it
y“US"
.

[Link]-
group:
peopl
eper
cei
vedasdi
ff
erentanddoNOTshar
eacommoni
dent
it
y
“THEM"

c.I
n-gr
oupbi
as:
thet
endencyt
ofav
ourani
ndi
vi
dual
from one’
sowngr
oup.

Prejudi
ceworksattheconsci
ousbutmor
eatt
heunconsci
ousl
evelmeani
ngi
tismor
e
orlessli
keakneejerkr
esponse.

Theot
herf
ormsofpr
ejudi
cear
e:

[Link]
tprejudice,suchasdenyingapart
icul
aret
hni
cgr oupt heri
ghttovote,i
s
di
scri
minati
ont hatexpl
i
cit
ly(
openl
yandconsci
ousl
y)expressesnegat
ivebel
ief
s
andemotions.

[Link]
udice,suchasf eel
i
ngfear
fuli
nthepresenceofastrangerwitha
part
icul
arethnicbackgr
ound,isanimpli
cit(
oft
enunconsci
ous)expressi
onof
negati
vebeli
efsandemotions.

c.1.
4.2Reasonf
orPr
ejudi
cei
ntheWor
ld

d. Act
ivi
ty1.
3
[Link]
li
nethefact
orst
hatcont
ri
but
etopr
ejudi
cei
nthesoci
ety
.
f.

[Link]
esever
alfactor
sthatcont
ri
butet
oorhelpcreat
epr
ejudi
cei
nthewor
ld.
Thesecanbesoci
alfact
orsorcogni
ti
vepr
ocesses.

h.1. Soci
alf
act
ors

i
. Onesoci alfactorcontr
ibuti
ngt oprej
udi
cei sinequalit
y(unequaldist
ributi
onof
money ,power ,andpr esti
ge)wi t
hinagr oup;insuchcondi t
ions,the“ haves”
usuall
ydev elopnegativeatti
tudestowardt he“hav e-
nots”tojusti
fytheirmor e
priv
il
egedposi t
[Link]
ti
onsofsociali
dent i
ty(“we”theingr
oupv ersus“ t
hey”
theoutgroup)ar eanot hersourceofprejudicebecauset heypr omotei ngroup
bias(atendencyt ofav
orone’sowngr oup)anddi scri
minati
on.

j
. 2. Cogni
ti
vepr
ocesses
[Link] ti
vepr ocesseshel pcreateandmai ntainprejudi
[Link] mpli
fythewor l
d
aroundusbycr eatingcat egor i
es,butwhenwecat egori
zepeopl e,weof ten
stereotypet hem, overgeneralizi
ngthei
rchar acteri
sti
csandunder esti
mat i
ngt hei
r
di
f f
er [Link] so t end toj udget hef requencyofev ent
sbyv i
vi
d cases
(v
iolence,f orexampl e)t hatcomet omi ndmor ereadil
ythant helongst ri
ngof
l
ess v i
vid eventsi nvolving the same gr [Link] mayj usti
f ypeople’
sl ess-
priv
ilegedorpuni shedposi t
ionbyt hejust-
wor ldphenomenon, assumingt hatthe
wor l
di sjustandpeopl egetwhatt heydeser [Link](thetendencyt o
beli
ev e,afterlearni
nganout come,thatwewoul dhav epredicteditbeforehand)
maycont ri
butet othistendencyt oblamet hev ict
im.

l
. A common i l
lustrati
on tot he emot i
onalcomponentof pr ej
udice i
st he
scapegoatingtheor [Link]
edtimes,especi
all
ythosethatremindusofourown
mortali
ty,producef eeli
ngsoff [Link] n-
grouployal
tyandout-gr
oup
prej
udiceintensify,peoplemaysear chforascapegoat —someonet oblamef or
thetroubli
ngev [Link] grat
ingofdespi sedotherscanboosti n-gr
oup
member s’self-
esteem.

[Link]-
GoatTheor
y

[Link]
desanoutl
etforangerbypr
ovi
dingsomeone
[Link] hatt heyusethegrouptheydisl
i
keasthetargetofthei
r
[Link]- goati
ngrequi
resthein-
groupmemberst osettl
eon
specif
ict
argetforthei
rpr oblems.

[Link] chologyi sthestudyoft hewaypeopl er elatetoot [Link] uley ou

wil
lmeetal lthesepeopl eandy ouri nteracti
onwi tht hem wi l
lhav eani mpacton
yourtreatmentout [Link] ceivecul turebyourf ivesensesshowi ngt he
scapegoat i
ngr equi
resthemani fest ati
onsofourdeepermeani ngofcul tureof
whatwet hink,f eeland [Link] etyteachescul t
urebot hformal lyand
i
nformal l
y,iti slearnedandshar [Link] tur
ei ssy mbol icthroughourbehav iour
,
ourwor dsandobj [Link] eweknowt hecul turesofot hers,themor eopen
minded,t olerantwebecome.I tal lowsust of unctionwi thoneanot herwi thout
negotiat
ionsev erymomentwei nt [Link] hropologist,Edwar [Link] l
or
descri
bedi tasapower fultoolforsur vival
,butasaf ragil
ephenomenont hatis
constantl
ychangi ngandi seasil
yl ostsi nceitsonlyi nexistenceinourmi nds.

[Link]
[Link]
eont
oal
tr
uism.

q.1.5Altr
uism
r. Al
tr
uism istheunsel
fi
shr
egar
dfort
hewel
far
eofot
her
[Link]
esofal
tr
uism
 i
ncl
udehel
pingvi
cti
msofanat ur
aldi
saster
,giv
ingblood,ordonat
ingt
olocal
f
oodpant
ri
eswit
hnoexpect
ati
onofpersonalr
eward.

[Link] standereffectisthetendencyf oranygi venobservertobel

essl ikelyto
helpifot her
sar epr [Link] ferhel p,aper sonmustnot i
cethei ncident,
i
nterpretitas an emer gency,and assume r esponsibi
li
tyforoffer
ing help.
Diff
usionofr esponsibil
i
tylowerst [Link] e
hi
ghestwhent hev ict
imi ssi
milart ousandappear stoneedanddeser vehel p,
andwhenweobser v
eot her
shel ping,ar ef eel
i
nggui l
ty,arenoti
nahur ryor
preoccupied,ar
einasmal lt
ownorr ur
al area,andar ei
nagoodmood.

t. 1.5.1SocialExchangeTheor y
[Link] alexchange t heorypr oposes thatoursocialbehav i
ors—even al tr
uist
ic,
helpfulacts—arebasedonsel f-
inter
est:maxi
mizi
ngourbenef it
s( whi chmay
i
ncludeourowngoodf eeli
ngs)andmi ni
mizi
[Link]
alnormsi nfl
uence
altr
uist
icbehav i
orsbyt el
li
ngushowweshoul [Link] eci
procitynormi s
theexpect at
ionthatwewi llhel
pt hosewhohelpus,andt hesocial
-responsibil
i
ty
normi stheexpectati
ont hatwewi ll
helpthosewhoaredependentonus.

v
.Last
ly,
insoci
alr
elat
ionswenowl
ookataggr
essi
onnext
.

w.1.6Aggression
[Link]’
sdefinit
ionofaggr
essi
oni s“
anyphysi
calorv
erbalbehavi
orint
ended
to harm ordest roy.”Thi
si s mor
e preci
se t
han the ever
ydaydef i
nit
ion of
aggressionandincludesbehavi
ors(suchaski
ll
i
ngi ncombat)thatmightnotbe
i
ncludedi never
ydayusage.

y
. I
n-t
extQuest
ion1.
2

z.
Whati
sthecauseofaggr
essi
vebehav
iour
?

aa.

ab.
Readont
hecont
entt
hatf
oll
owst
ofi
ndoutmor
e.

ac.
1.6.1TheBiologyofAggr ession
ad.
Therear ethreel evelsofbi ologi
cali
nfluencesonaggr [Link] chologi
sts
dismisstheideat hataggressionisi
nst
inctualandconf
ir
mt hati tr
esultsfrom an
inter
acti
onbet weenbi ologyandexper [Link] ession,for
examplebyi nfluencingourt [Link]
sst i
mul ati
ngpor ti
onsof
 thebrai
n(suchastheamy gdalaandf ront
allobes)demonst rat
et hatthebrain
hasneuralsyst
emst hatfacili
tateorinhibi
[Link]
esoft heef f
ectof
hormones(suchastestosterone),al
cohol(whichreleasesinhi
bit
ions),andother
subst
ancesshowthatbiochemi cali
nfl
uencesalsocont ri
butet
oaggr ession.

ae.1.6.
2ThePsy chologyofAggr essi on
[Link]
ogicalcondi ti
onssett het hreshol df oraggr essiveness,butpsy chological
fact
orst ri
ggeraggr essivebehav ior
[Link] ersiv eevents( suchasenv ironment al
conditi
onsorsoci alrejecti
on)cancr eatef rust r
ati
on, l
eadingtofeel i
ngsofanger
andhost il
it
[Link] nforcementf oraggr essiv ebehav i
or(suchasgai ningat r
eat
from anot herst udentbybul l
ying)canest abl i
shlearnedpat ter
nsofaggr ession
thataredi ffi
cultt o [Link] ecan al so l
earn aggression and become
desensitized tov i
olence by obser ving model s actaggr essivelyi n person
(watchingv i
olencewi t
hint hef amilyornei ghborhood,f orexampl e)ori nt he
medi a( watchingv iolenceorsexualaggr essiononTV ori nmov ies).Medi a
depict
ionsofv iolencecant riggeraggr essioni nanotherway :bypr ovidingsoci al
scri
pts( cultur
allysanct ionedway sofact i
ngi nagi vensituat
ion).

ag.
Viol
entvideogamescanhei ghtenaggressivebehaviorbypr ovidingsocialscripts
andoppor tuni
ti
est oobservemodel edaggr essi
onandt or ole-pl
ayaggr ession.
Playi
ng these games can i ncrease arousaland f eel
ings ofhost i
li
ty;pr ime
aggressi
vet houghts and i
ncr ease aggression;and (in adol escent
s)l ead to
incr
easedpar t
ici
pati
oni nar
gument sandf i
ght sandfall
i
nggr [Link]
ualr eali
ty
gamesmayhei ghtentheseeffects.

ah.
1.6.3Frust
rat
ion-
AggressivePri
nci
ple
ai
.Whenpeopl epercei
vet hattheyar
ebeingpr
event
edf
rom achi
evi
ngagoal
,thei
r
frustr
ati
onisli
kel
ytoturntoaggressi
on.

aj
.Thecl oseryougett oagoal ,t
hegreat
ertheexcit
ementandexpect ati
onofthe
pl
easur [Link],
themorefrust
rat
edy ougetbybeingheldback.
Unexpect ed occur
rence oft he f
rust
rat
ion al
so increases t
he li
kel
ihood of
aggression.

ak.
Frust
rati
ondoesnotalwaysleadtoaggr
ession,parti
cul
arl
ywhenwedel iber
ately
suppressitbecauseeit
herweknow t hati tiswr ongorwef eart hesoci al
consequencesofbei
ngaggressi
ve(e.
g.l
osingf r
iendshi
poft ar
get
, cr
iti
cism from
other
s).Asar esul
t,weoftendispl
aceaggr essionint
oot heractiv
ity,suchas
sport
s,dri
vingf
astandsoon.

al
.Somepeopl
ear
emor
epr
edi
sposedt
oaggr
essi
onandf
indi
thar
dert
ocont
aini
t.
 Forsuchpeopl
e,f
rust
rat
ionismoreli
kel
ytothatl
eaddir
ectl
ytoaggr
essi
ont
han
forot
herpeopl
ewithacalmerdi
sposi
ti
onorgreat
ersel
f-
contr
ol.

am. Wel
[Link]
eist
hesummar
yofwhatwehav
elear
nt.

an.
1.7Sect i
onSummar y
ao.
Dearl earnerwehav ecomet otheendofthissect
iononsocialr
elat
[Link] e
learntabouti nterpersonalatt
racti
onandhow t hisisinfl
uencedbypr oxi
mit
y,
reciprocalliki
ng,simi l
ari
tyandphy si
calattr
acti
[Link] earntabout
prejudiceandf actorscontri
buti
ngtoiti
ncludingt
[Link]
ywe
discussedal tr
uism andaggression.

ap.
Int
henextsect
ion,
wewi
l
ldi
scusssoci
ali
nfl
uence.

SECTI
ONTWO:
SOCI
ALI
NFLUENCE

Wel comet othi

ssect iononsociali
[Link] hi
ssectionwear egoingtofindwhat
i
nfluenceourr elati
onsandi nt
eracti
onswi thot hersinasoci alcontext
.Thissесt
iоn
descr i
bessomespeci fi
cstudi
eswhosef i
ndingsexpl ai
ni ndi
vi
dualsbehavi
orinsocial
humani nt
eract
[Link] edgey ouwi l
lacqui refrom thissect
ioncanhel pyou
under st
andwhati nf
luencespart
icul
arhumanr el
ationsinthesociet
y.

Bef
orewemov
efur
therl
etusl
ookatt
heobj
ect
iveswewi
l
lcov
eri
nthi
ssect
ion.

2.
2Sect
ionObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hissect
iony
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
nesocialinf
luence
[Link]
bethecomponent sofsociali
nfl
uence
[Link]
ainresi
stancetosocial
inf
luence

2.
3Def
ini
ti
onofSoci
alI
nfl
uence

Socialinfl
uence ist he change i
n behaviort hatone per
son causes i
n another
,
i
ntenti
onall
yoruni ntent
ional
ly,asar esul
toft hewayt hechangedpersonpercei
ves
themselvesinrel
ati
onshiptotheinf
luencer
,otherpeopl
eandsociet
yingener
al.

Socialinf
luencei
sdefinedaschangeinanindivi
dual
’st
hought
s,feel
i
ngs,at
ti
tudes,or
behaviorst hatr
esul
tsf r
om i
nteract
ion wi
th anot
herindi
vi
dualora [Link]
i
nfl
uenceisdistinctfrom conf
ormit
y ,power,andaut hori
[Link]
ormi t
yoccur swhenan
i
ndi
vidualexpressesapar ti
cul
aropi
ni onorbehav iori
nordertofiti
nt oagivensituat
ion
ort
omeett heexpect at
ionsofagivenot her,thoughhedoesnotnecessar ilyholdthat
opi
nionorbeli
ev ethatthebehavi
orisappropr i
[Link] st
heabili
tytof
orceorcoer ce
par
ti
cularwaybycont r
oll
ingtheout [Link] hori
tyispowert hatisbelievedtobe
l
egi
timate(rat
hert hancoerci
ve)bythosewhoar esubjectedtoit
.

Socialinfluence,howev er,ist
hepr ocessbywhi chi ndivi
dualsmaker ealchangest o
theirfeeli
ngsandbehav iorsasar esultofint
eracti
onwi thotherswhoar eperceivedto
besi milar,desir
able,[Link] eadjusttheirbeliefswi t
hr especttoot hersto
whom t heyfeelsimilarinaccordancewi thpsy chol
ogicalpr i
nciplessuchasbal ance.
Indivi
dualsar ealsoinfl
uencedbyt hemaj ori
ty:whenal argepor t
ionofani ndi
v i
dual’s
referentsocialgroupholdsapar t
icularatt
it
ude, i
tisl
ikelythattheindivi
dualwil
ladopti t
aswel l.

2.
4Component
sofSoci
alI
nfl
uence

Thet
hreear
easofsoci
ali
nfl
uencear
e:

[Link]
ormi
ty

[Link]
i
ance

[Link]
ence

Tobeabletounder
standthesecomponent
swewi
l
lnowl
ookateachoft
hem i
nmor
e
det
ail
star
ti
ngwit
hconformity
.

2.
4.1Conf
ormi
ty

Conformit
yisat ypeofsociali
nfl
uencei nvol
vi
ngachangei nbehav i
or,bel
ieforthinki
ng
toalignwiththoseofot hersort oal i
gnwi [Link]
commonandper vasi
veform ofsocialinfl
uence.I
tischanginghow y oubehav et obe
morel i
[Link]
ay stobelongingandest eem needsasweseekt heappr oval
and fri
endshi
p ofot her
[Link] ormitycan run verydeep,aswe wi l
lev en change
ourbeli
efsandv al
uestobel i
kethoseofourpeer sandadmi r
edsuper i
ors.

I
ntextQuest
ion2.
1

Whati
ssoci
alconf
ormi
ty?
Socialconfor
mityisatypeofsociali
nfl
uencet
hatresul
tsinachangeofbehav ioror
beli
efinordertofi
tinwi
[Link]
stypeofi
nfl
uenceisbesti
ll
ustr
atedbyafamous
experi
mentconductedbySol
omonAschi n1951aswewi l
lseelat
erinthi
ssect
ion.

Confor
mitycanbeinappear
ance,oritmaybeacompl
eteconf
ormi
tyt
hati
mpact
san
i
ndiv
idual
bothpubl
i
clyandpri
vat
ely.

Inthecaseofpeerpr essure,aper sonisconvincedt odosomet hi

ng( suchasill
egal
drugs)whicht heymightnotwanttodo, butwhicht heyper cei
veas"necessary"t
okeep
aposi t
iverelati
onshi
pwi t
hot herpeople,suchast hei
rf r
[Link]
ormi t
yfrom peer
pressure general
lyresul
tsf rom identi
fi
cati
on withint he group member s,orfrom
compl i
anceofsomemember stoappeaseot her
s.

Acti
vi
ty2.
1
Di
ff
erent
iat
ebetweenconf
ormi
ty,
compl
i
anceandcongr
uencei
nsoci
ali
nfl
uence.

Compl iance(alsorefer
redtoasacquiescence)demonstrat
esapubl icconfor
mi t
ytoa
groupmaj ori
tyornorm whi l
etheindi
vi
dualconti
nuestoprivat
elydisagreeordissent,
holdingont otheirori
ginalbel
ief
soranal ter
nativ
esetofbel i
efsdi f
feri
ngfrom the
maj ori
[Link] i
anceappearsasconformit
ybutt herei
sadi vi
sionbetweenthepubl i
c
andt heprivateself
.

Whatappearstobeconformi
tymayinf
[Link]
i
ndivi
dual
’sbehavi
or,bel
i
eforthi
nki
ngi
salreadyal
i
gnedwi ththatoftheothersandno
changeoccur
s.

Insituati
onswher econf ormi ty( i
ncludingcompl i
ance,conv ersionandcongr uence)i s
absent,therear enon- confor mitypr ocessessuchasi ndependenceandant i-
conf ormity.
Independence( al
sor eferredt oasdi ssent)invol
vesani ndividual,throught heiractions
and/orinactions,ort hepubl i
cexpr essionofthei
rbeli
ef sort hi
nking, beingalignedwi t
h
theirpersonalst andar dsbuti nconsistentwiththatofot hermember soft hegr oup
(eit
heralloft hegr ouporamaj orit
y).Anti-
confor
mi ty(alsor eferredt oascount er-
conformity)mayappearasi ndependencebutl acksalignmentwi thper sonalstandar ds
andi sforthepur poseofchal lengingt [Link]
onsaswel lasst atedopi nionsand
beli
efsar eof tendiamet ricall
yopposedt othatoft hegr oupnor m ormaj orit
[Link]
underlyi
ngr easonsf ort hist ypeofbehav i
ormayber ebelli
ousness/ obstinacyori tmay
bet oensureal lal
ter
nat ivesandv i
ewpoi nt
saregivendueconsi deration.
Soci
alpsy
chol
ogyr
esear
chi
nconf
ormi
tyt
endst
odi
sti
ngui
shbet
weent
wov
ari
eti
es:

a.I
nfor
mat
ional
conf
ormi
tyand

[Link]
mat
iveconf
ormi
ty.

Tounder
standt
het
wov
ari
eti
esofconf
ormi
tyl
etusl
ookatAsch’
sexper
iment
.

Asch’
sEx
per
imentonConf
ormi
ty

Bef
orewepr
oceedgot
hrought
heact
ivi
tyt
hatf
oll
ows.

Activit
y2.2
Imaginey ou'vevol unteeredf [Link]
iveandsitattheendofar owt hathas
fourotherpar t
icipant [Link] esent
ergivesyoutwocards:onehasonel i
ne,andt he
otherhast [Link] easkedt ocomparethelengthoft heoneli
newi t
ht heother
threetodet erminewhi chi sthesamel engt
hastheorigi
nalli
[Link] herpart
icipant
s
givethei
ranswer s, [Link] mouslygi
veananswert hati
sclearl
ywr ong.
Wheni t'
sy ourtur n,doy ouchangey ouranswert
omat chtheirs,ordoyoustickwi tht
he
answery ouknowi scor rect?

Ty
pesofconf
ormi
ty

Wellregar
dlessofyourresponse,thescenariointheactivi
tyisactuallypartofafamous
experi
mentconduct edbySol omonAschi [Link] posewast ostudysoci al
conformit
[Link] edtoseehowof tenpeopl econform andwhy .Inhisexperi
ment ,
thepersonattheendoft herowwasact ual
lytheonlyparti
cipant;
theot herpeopleinthe
room wereactual
lyconfederates,oractors,andwer epurposefullygivingtheincorr
ect
answertosomeoft hequest i
[Link] edthenumberoft imeseachpar ti
ci
pant
conformedt otheobv i
[Link] oxi
mat el
y25% oft hepart
ici
pants
conformedmostoft hetime,andanaddi ti
onal50% oft hepar t
icipantsconformedat
l
[Link] hatonly25%nev erconformed.

Thisstudyi swel lknownanddemonst r

atesthepowerofsociali
nfl
[Link]
part
ici
pantswer easkedwhyt heywentalongwitht
heclear
lyi
ncorr
ectanswer
,mostof
them sai
dt hattheyhadjustgoneal ongwiththegroupi
nfearofbei
ngridi
cul
[Link]
ofthem evensai dtheybeli
evedthatthegroup'
sanswerwascorr
ectandthatt
heymust
havebeenmi ssi
ngsomet hi
ng.

Theseresul
tssuggestthatconf
ormit
ycanbeinf
luencedbothbyaneedt ofi
tinanda
beli
eft
hatotherpeoplearesmar t
erorbet
teri
[Link]
helevelofconfor
mity
seeninAsch'sexperiments,conf
ormit
ycanbeev enstr
ongerinreal
-l
if
esituat
ions
wher
est
imul
iar
emor
eambi
guousormor
edi
ff
icul
ttoj
udge.

Laterstudi
esalsosuppor
tedthisf
indi
ng(
Mor r
is&Mill
er,
1975)
,suggest
ingt
hathav
ing
socialsuppor
tisanimpor
tanttool
incombat
ingconf
ormity.

Thef
indi
ngsofAshexper
imentr
epr
esentt
het
wot
ypesofsoci
alconf
ormi
ty:nor
mat
ive
andi
nfor
mati
onal
.

Letusnowdi
scusseachoft
heset
ypesofconf
ormi
tyf
urt
her
.

1.
Nor
mat
iveConf
ormi
ty

Normat iv
econformityi sconformitythatoccursbecauseoft hedesiretobel i
kedand
[Link] obablythinkofpeerpr essureamongstteenswhent heythink
ofnormat i
veconformity,andforgoodr [Link] eensandpre-
teensareparti
cularl
y
vul
nerabletoinfl
uencebecauset heylongt obeaccept edbythei
rpeers.I
'm surewhen
youwer eat eenagery ouheardt hephr ase,'
Ifallofyourfri
endsjumpedof fabr i
dge,
wouldy oudoit,t
oo?'Peerpressur eiscertai
nlyagoodexampl eofnormati
veconf or
mity,
butithappenstoadults,too.

Forexampl e,hav eyouev erat t

endedaper f
or mancet hatwas, atbest
, mediocre?May be
i
twasapl ayy ousaw, andy outhoughti twasj [Link] er,
attheendoft hepl ay,
severalpeopl ear oundy oumayhav estoodwhi l
[Link]'
ttakev erylongf or
everyper soni ntheaudi t
orium,includingy ou,topar tici
patei nthest andi
ngov ati
on.
Event houghy oudi dn'tthinktheper for
mancewasnecessar i
lydeservingofthepr aise,
youjoinedi nr atherthanr emainingseated, soy ouwoul dn'tst
andoutl i
keasor ethumb.
Standingov at
ions,peerpr essure,fashi
ont rends,bodyi mage,andf ol
lowingt r
adi t
ions
arejustaf ewexampl esofnor mat i
veconfor mity.

2.
Inf
ormat
ionalConf
ormi
ty

Theot hertypeofconf ormit

yisi nfor mationalconf or
mity,whi chisconf ormitythat
occurs because oft he desir
et o be cor rect.I
n Asch's exper i
ment,some oft he
parti
cipantsstatedthattheybeli
ev edt heymustbewr ongsincenooneel seagreedwi th
[Link] hei
ranswersot hattheywoul dbe' r
ight.
'Infor
mationalconformi t
y
i
ssonamedbecausewebel i
evet hati tgivesusi nformati
ont hatwedi dnotpr evi
ously
[Link] e,imagineyouwal ki ntoaf oodcourtatamal l
.Ther
ear et hr
eest all
s
open, yettheentirecrowdisseat edandeat inginfrontofonlyoneoft [Link] dyou,
asthenewcomer ,assumet hatthatpar t
icularstal
lhasthebestf oodbecauseev ery
one
elseiseatingthere?

I
nfor
mat
ionalconf
ormi
tyt
ypi
cal
l
y comes f
rom t
he t
houghtof
,'They mustknow
somet hi
ngIdon' tknow.'
Inmanysituat
ions,weareunsur eofhowt oactorwhattosay .
So,anot herexampl eofinf
ormati
onalconfor
mi t
yi swhenwet r
avelt
oot hercountr
ies.
Typicall
y,we'r
eunsur eofhowt oactandrelyonourobser vat
ionsofotherstopointus
i
nt her i
ghtdirecti
[Link] iorbasedont heacti
onsofthelocals,
wear edemonst r
ati
nginf
ormati
onalconformit
y

Fact
orst
hatI
nfl
uenceConf
ormi
ty

Asch wenton t
o conductf
urtherexper
imentsin or
dert
o det
ermi
newhi
ch f
act
or
i
nfl
uencedhowandwhenpeopleconfor
[Link] oundt
hat:

[Link]
mitytendst
oincr
easewhenmorepeopl
earepresent
,butt
her
eisl
i
ttl
e
changeoncethegr
oupsi
zegoesbey
ondf
ourorf
ivepeopl
e.

[Link]
yalsoincr
easeswhenthetaskbecomesmor edi
ff
icul
[Link]
hef
aceof
uncert
aint
y,peopl
eturnt
ootherf
ori
nformati
onabouthowtorespond.

[Link]
yi ncr
easewhenothermember soft
hegroupareofahi ghersoci
al
stat
[Link] evi
ewtheothersint
hegr
oupasmorepowerf
ul,
infl
uent
ial
,or
knowledgeablethant
hemsel
ves,theyar
emorel
i
kel
ytogoalongwit
hthegroup.

[Link]
yt ends to decr
ease,however,when people are abletorespond
pr
ivatel
yoriftheyhavesupportf
rom atl
eastoneot
herindi
v i
dualinagr
oup.

e.2. 4.
2Compl iance
f. Compl i
ancei swhereapersondoessomet hi
ngthattheyareaskedtodoby
[Link],al
thought
hethoughtsof
soci
alrewar dandpuni
shmentmayleadthem t
ocompl i
ancewhentheyreal
l
ydo
notwantt ocomply.

[Link] i
anceist heactofr espondingfavorabl
ytoanexpl i
citorimpl i
citrequest
off
eredbyot [Link]
y,complianceisachangei nbehav iourbutnot
necessari
lyattit
ude-onecancompl yduet omer eobedience,orbyot herwise
opti
ngt owithholdone’spr i
vatethoughtsduet osoci
[Link] di
ngt o
Kelman’s(1958) ,t
hesatisfact
ionderivedfrom compl
ianceisduet othesoci al
eff
ectoft heaccept i
nginfl
uence( i
.[Link] edr ewardor
punishment-
av ersi
on).

[Link]
l
lnowl
ookatt
hecompl
i
ancet
echni
quesempl
oyedi
ncompl
i
ancenex
t.

i
. 1.
TheFooti
ntheDoorTechni
que
j
. Thefooti nthedoortechni
que(Freedman&Fraser
,1966)assumesagreei
ngtoa
smallrequestincr
easestheli
kel
ihoodofagr
eeingt
oasecond, l
argerr
equest
.So,
i
nit
ial
lyy oumakeasmal lr
equestandoncethepersonagreestothi
stheyfi
ndit
moredi f
ficul
ttoref
useabiggerone.

[Link],imagi neoneofy ourfri

endsmi ssedthelastpsychol
ogyclassand
askedtobor r
ow y [Link] lrequestt
hatseemsr easonable,so
youlendthenot estoyourfri
[Link] at
er ,
thesamef r
iendaskstoborrowall
[Link]
gerequest–woul dyouagreeornot?

l
. Thefoot
-in-
the-
doortechniqueworksont heprinci
pleofconsist
ency(
Pet
rovaet
al
,2007).Thismeanst hataslongast herequesti
sconsistentwit
horsi
mil
arin
nat
uretotheori
ginal
smal lrequest
,thetechni
quewillwor
k.

m.1.
TheLow-
Bal
lTechni
que

[Link]-balltechniqueref
erstoastrat
egytogai
ncompl
iancebymakingaver
y
att
ract
iveinit
ialoff
ertogetaper
sontoagreet
oanact
ionandthenmaki
ngt
he
ter
msl essfavourabl
e.

[Link]
cf orgett
ingpeoplet
oagreetosomet hi
[Link]
ani niti
alr
equestwi l
loftensti
llcompl
ywhent [Link]
whor ecei
veonlythecost l
yrequestar
elessl
ikel
ytocompl ywit
[Link]
sisat wo-
stepcompl i
ancest rat
egyi nwhi chtheinf
luencersecuresagreementwi t
ha
requestbyunder standi
ngitstruecost
.

[Link] chasesomet hingatagi venpri

ceincr
easest hel ikel
ihoodof
agreei
ngtopur chasei tatahigherpr
ice.I
nit
ial
l
yyougettheindi
vidual t
oagr eet
o
yourrequestandt henaf t
erwardsyouincr
easetheor
igi
[Link] int
o
agreei
ngmor et hant heyi
ntended.

[Link],whenbuyingacart hesalesmanagr eesaprice,butmust“check”

wit
hhismanagerifthi
sisacceptabl
[Link] l
ewait
ingy out
hinkyouhavesecureda
gooddeal
.Thesalesmanr et
urnsandsay shemanagerwoul dnotagr
eethedeal
andthepr
iceisrai
[Link]
ice.

r
. Thesuccessoft hi
st echni
quewor ksonthepri
ncipleofcommi t
[Link]
thepersonhassaid“ yes”oragreedtoanini
ti
alrequest,commi t
menthasbeen
[Link] easonable,
thepersonwil
l(t
oa
degree)find i
tdif
ficultto say“no”because ofhav i
ng origi
nal
lycommi t
ted
themselves.
 s.2.
Ingr
ati
ati
on

t
. Thisattempttoobtai
ncompl i
ancei
nvol
vesgaini
ngsomeone’sappr
ovalsothey
willbemor eli
kel
yt [Link]
msofi ngr
ati
ationt
hat
hav e been menti
oned are:use of flat
ter
y;opini
on confor
mity and sel
f
presentat
ion(pr
esenti
ngone’sownat t
ri
butesinamannert hatappealtothe
target
).

u.3.
Nor
m ofr
eci
proci
ty

v
.Thistechniqueexpl
ainst
hatduetotheinj
uncti
vesoci
alnormt hatpeoplewi l
l
r
etur
naf avorwhenoneisgrant
edtothem;compli
anceismorel ikel
yt ooccur
whentherequest
orhaspr
evi
ousl
ycompli
edwithoneofthesubj
ect’
sr equest
s.

[Link]
’snowt
urnt
oobedi
ence.

2.
4.3Obedi
ence

Her
eisani
n-t
extquest
ionf
ory
oubef
orey
oupr
oceed.

I
n-t
extQuest
ion2.2
Def
inet
heter
m obedience

Obedi
enceisaform ofsociali
nfl
uencewhereanindi
vidualactsi
nresponsetoadi
rect
or
derfrom anot
herindiv
idual,whoisusuall
yanaut hori
tyf i
gur
[Link]
wit
houtsuchanordert
heper sonwouldnothaveact
edint hi
sway.

Obedienceoccur
swheny ouaret oldtodosomething(authori
ty)
,whereasconformit
y
happensthroughsoci
alpressur
e( thenormsoft hemaj ori
ty)
.Obedienceinvolv
esa
hier
archyofpower/stat
[Link],t
heper
songi v
ingtheorderhasahi gherstat
us
thantheper
sonrecei
vi
ngtheorder.

Obedi
enceisdiff
erentfrom compli
anceint
hatiti
sobeyinganorderfr
om someonethat
youacceptasanaut horit
yfigur
[Link]
ance,youhavesomechoi ce.I
nobedi
ence,
youbeli
evet hatyoudonothav [Link] lit
aryof
ficer
sandcommer ci
al
managersareint
erestedonlyinobedi
ence.

Obedienceisafor m ofsocialinf
luencethatder
ivesfrom anauthorit
yf i
gur
[Link]
Milgr
am Exper
iment,Zimbardo’
sStanfordpri
sonexperi
ment,andtheHof li
nghospi
tal
experi
mentarethreeparti
cular
lywell-
knownexperi
mentsonobedi ence,andtheyall
conclude t
hathumans behav
e sur
pri
singl
yobedi
enti
nthe pr
esence ofper
cei
ved
l
egiti
mateauthor
it
yfi
gur
es.

Wewi l
lhowev
erconsi
dert
heMi
l
gram exper
imenti
nourdi
scussi
ont
ounder
stand
obedi
ence.

TheMi
lgr
am Exper
imentonObedi
ence

Milgram devel
opedani nt
imidati
ngshockgener ator,wi
thshocklevel
sstarti
ngat30
volt
sandi ncr
easi
ngi n15-voltincr
ementsallt hewayupt o450v olt
[Link]
switches werelabel
ed withterms incl
uding "
slightshock,
""moderate shock"and
"danger:sever
eshock."Thef i
naltwoswitcheswer elabel
edsimplywithanomi nous
"XXX."

Eachparti
cipanttookther ol
eofa" teacher"whowoul dthendel
iv
erashockt othe
"st
udent
"ever yti
meani ncorr
ectanswerwasgi [Link]
hepar
ti
cipantbel
iev
edthat
hewasdel i
v eri
ngrealshockstothest udent
,the“student
”wasaconf eder
ateinthe
exper
imentwhowassi mplypret
endi
ngtobeshocked.

Ast heexper i
mentpr ogressed,thepar t
icipantwoul d heart helearnerpleadt o be
rel
easedorev encomplainaboutahear tcondi t
[Link] he300-voltl
evel
,
thelearnerbangedont hewal landdemandedt ober el
[Link] ondthispoint,the
l
earnerbecamecompl etel
ysi l
entandr efusedt oansweranymor equest i
[Link]
experi
ment erthen i
nstructed the par
ti
cipantt ot r
eatt his sil
ence as an incorr
ect
responseanddeliv
eraf urthershock.

Most part
ici
pants asked t
he exper
iment
er whether t
hey shoul
d cont
[Link]
exper
iment
erissuedaseri
esofcommandstoprodthepart
ici
pantal
ong:

a."
Pleasecont
inue.
"

b."
Theexper
imentr
equi
rest
haty
oucont
inue.
"

c."
Iti
sabsol
utel
yessent
ial
thaty
oucont
inue.
"

d."
Youhav
enoot
herchoi
ce;
youmustgoon.
"

Themeasur
eofobedi
encewasthelevelofshockt
hatt
hepart
ici
pantwaswi
l
li
ngt
o
del
i
ver
.Howfardoy
outhinkt
hatmostpart
ici
pant
swer
ewil
li
ngt
ogo?

WhenMi l
gram posedt
hisquest
iontoagr oupofYaleUni
ver
sityst
udent
s,i
twas
pr
edi
ctedthatnomoret
han3outof100par
ti
cipant
swoul
ddel
i
verthemaxi
mum shock.
I
nreal
i
ty,
65%oft
hepar
ti
cipant
sinMi
lgr
am’
sst
udydel
iv
eredt
hemaxi
mum shocks.

Iti
simpor
tantt
onotethatmanyofthesubj
ect
sbecameext
remel
yagitat
ed,
distr
aught
andangr
yattheexper
iment
er,
butt
heyconti
nuedt
ofoll
owor
dersal
lthewaytotheend.

Whydidsomanyoft heparti
cipant
sinthi
sexperi
mentper
form aseemingl
ysadi
sticact
on the i
nst
ructi
on ofan authori
tyfi
gure?Accordi
ng t
o Mi l
gram,ther
e are some
si
tuati
onalf
actor
sthatcanexplai
nsuchhighl
evel
sofobediencewhichi
ncl
ude:

[Link]
sical
presenceofanaut
hor
it
yfi
gur
edr
amat
ical
l
yincr
easedcompl
i
ance.

[Link]
hatYal
e(at
rustedandaut
hori
tat
iveacademicinst
it
uti
on)sponsor
ed
thest
udyl
edmanypar
ti
cipant
stobel
i
evethattheexper
imentmustbesafe.

[Link]
ect
ionoft
eacherandl
ear
nerst
atusseemedr
andom.

[Link]
ti
cipant
sassumedt
hatt
heexper
iment
erwasacompet
entexper
t.

[Link]
esai
dtobepai
nful
,notdanger
ous.

Fi
gur
e2i
l
lust
rat
est
heMi
l
gram’
sex
per
iment
.
Fi
gur
e2:
TheMi
l
gram’
sExper
iment

Wellnow y
ouunder
standt
heef
fectofaut
hor
it
yonobedi
encebasedont
heMi
l
gram
st
udy.

2.
5Resi
sti
ngSoci
alI
nfl
uence

Ther
ear
emanyf
act
orst
hatmi
ghtmakeaper
sonr
esi
stsoci
ali
nfl
uence.

Act
ivi
ty2.
3
Li
stdownthefact
orst
hatl
eadt
oresi
stancet
osoci
ali
nfl
uence

[Link]
hroughsomeoft
hesef
act
orsnext
.

2.
5.1Resi
sti
ngPr
essur
est
oConf
orm

Letusbegi
nbyl
ooki
ngatt
her
olesofal
l
ies.

1. Ther
oleofal
li
es

Oneoft hekeyt hingsAsch’ sstudyhasshownusi show i mpor tanthavi

nganal l
yis
whenr esisti
ngsoci alinfl
[Link] scoul
dbebecausei tgi vesy oumor econfi
dencei n
yourownopi ni
oni ftheygi v
et hesameanswerasy [Link] er,evenanal l
ywhogi ves
a wrong answer ,butone t hatis diff
erentt othe maj ori
t y
,i ncreasesthe levelof
resi
stancet oconf [Link] heremustbeot herr easonsot herthant he
corr
ectanswert hatanal [Link]
dbet hatyoudon’tfeelsosi ngl
edoutasgoi ng
agai
nstt hemaj orit
y ,orthewayt heal l
yistreatedwhent heygi v
eaanswerdi f
ferentto
themaj ori
tycouldconv i
ncey outhatyouwon’ tsuff
erasar esul tofnotconforming.

2. Mor
alconsi
der
ati
ons

Mostoft heresear
chconductedinthi
sarea(forexample,Asch)askyoutodof airl
y
tr
ivi
altasks,soconf or
mingt othi
sdoesn’tnecessar
il
ymeany ouarebeingmor all
y
wrongbyconf or
ming,makingconf
ormingeasi
[Link],r
esearchshowsthatify ou
arebeingaskedt oconformt osomethi
ngy ouconsidertobemor al
lywrong,then
confor
mi nglevel
sdropdrasti
cal
l
y.

3. TheNon-
conf
ormi
stper
sonal
it
y

Somepeopl
ehav eapersonal
i
tyt hatmeanstheyarelessl
ikel
[Link]
tena
per
sonwhoresi
stsmaj
orit
yinf
luenceisj
ustlessconcer
nedwithsoci
alnor
ms,sothey
f
eellesspressur
eto“ f
itin”
.However
,somepeopl
earecompletel
yagainstmaj
ori
ty
i
nfl
uence,whatev
eri
[Link]
ewil
lgoagai
nstt
hesoci
alinfl
uenceatal
lti
mes,
t
heyareshowingant
iconformit
y.

2.
5.2Resi
sti
ngPr
essur
est
oObey

Thesei
ncl
udeaspect
sli
ke:

1.
Stat
usofenv
ironmentandaut
hor
it
yfi
gur
e

When Mi l
gram’sexperi
mentwasmov ed f
rom theprest
igi
ousYaleUniver
sit
ytoa
downtown of f
ice obedi
ence dr
opped massiv
[Link] s pr
obabl
y because t
he
part
ici
pantsfel
tthatt
heexperi
mentwasn’
tsoimportant
,sowit
hdrawi
ngwouldn’
tbeso
ter
ri
ble.

2.
Remov
ingt
hef
act
orswhi
chmakepeopl
eobey

Therearemanyf act
orst hatcausepeoplet oobey ,f
orexamplebuff
ers,agent
icshift
,
gradualcommit
mentet [Link] emovethesei tinst
ant
lybecomeseasiertodisobey.
ForexamplewhenMi l
gram mov edthe“learner”toapositi
onwher etheparti
cipant
couldseehim( r
emov ingt hebuffer
),obediencesharpl
[Link]
becausethepar
ti
cipantismor eawareoftheconsequencesofhisacti
onnowt hatthere
i
snobuf fer
.

3.
Mor
alconsi
der
ati
ons

Simil
arl
ytothereasonsmoralconsi
der
ati
onlowersconfor
mity,i
fpeopl
ethinkt
hatt
he
acti
onstheyar
ebeingaskedtoobeyaremoral
lyunj
ustthenobedi
encedrops.

4.
Soci
alHer
oism

Zimbardosay sthatsomepeoplehavea‘her
oicimaginat
ion’whi
chmeanst heyare
mor eli
kelytoactinaheroi
[Link] hatwhenfacedwithorder
stoobey ,
they
aremor elikel
ytoresi
st,
especi
all
yift
heorderismorall
yunjust
.Zimbardopoints
towardsNel sonMandelaandMichaelBer
nhardtascasesofsocialheroi
sm,resi
sti
ng
pressurest oobey
.

2.
6Sect
ionSummar
y

Wehav el
earntaboutsocialinf
luenceandhowi tshapesthebeliefs,t
houghtsand
att
it
udesofindiv
idual
sf r
om [Link]
componentsofsocialinf
luencewhi char econformity,
complianceandobedi enceand
l
ookedatMi l
gram’sstudyonobedi [Link]
lywedi scussedthef actor
sthatmay
makeani
ndi
vi
dual
resi
stsoci
ali
nfl
uence.

Dearlear
nerthatmarkstheendoft hi
sunitonsoci
alrel
ationsandinfl
[Link]
uni
twewi ll
lookatconfl
i
ct,peacemakingandcogniti
[Link]
tothatuni
t,answert
heselftestquest
ionsthatf
oll
owt oev al
uat
ey ourunder
standingof
thi
sunit.

UNI
TSELFTESTQUESTI
ONS

1. Descr
ibe the inf
luence ofpr
oxi
mit
y,phy
sicalat
tract
iveness,and si
mil
ari
tyon
i
nter
personal at t
racti
on.
(10mar ks)

2. Def
ineal
tr
uism,
andgi
veanexampl
e. (
3mar
ks)

3. Di
scussAsch’sexperi
mentsonconf
ormi
ty,anddi
sti
ngui
shbet
weennormat
iveand
inf
ormati
onalsoci
alinf
luence. (10marks)

4. Cont
rastov
ertandsubt
lef
ormsofpr
ejudi
ce,andgi
veexampl
esofeach. (
5
marks)

5. Di
scusst
hesoci
alf
act
orst
hatcont
ri
but
etopr
ejudi
ce. (
5
marks)

6. Ci
tefourway
sthatcogni
ti
vepr
ocesseshel
pcr
eat
eandmai
ntai
npr
ejudi
ce. (
4
marks)

7. Outl
ine f
ourpsy
chol
ogi
calt
ri
gger
s ofaggr
essi
on. (
4
marks)

UNI
T2:
SOCI
ALRELATI
ONSI
I

Wеlсоmеtоtheseconduni tofthismoduleonsocialpsychol
ogy.I
nunitoney oulear
nt
aboutsoci
alrel
ati
onsandi nfl
[Link]
suni
twecont i
nuetolookatotheraspectsof
soci
alrel
ati
[Link] l
ldi
scussthev ari
oust
ypesandcausesofsoci alconfl
ict
,the
conceptofpeacemaki ngandhow t hi
scanbeutil
i
zedi nconfli
ctr
esol
ut i
on;andlastl
y
di
scusscogniti
vedissonancetheory
.

Thi
suni
tisdi
vi
dеdi
ntоt
hreesесt
iоnsаsf
оll
оws:

Sесt
iоn1:
Soci
alConf
li
cts

Sect
ion2:
Peacemaki
ng
Sесt
iоn3:
Cogni
ti
veDi
ssonanceTheor
y

Her
ear
etheuni
tobj
ect
ives.

Cour
seObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hisuni
t,y
oushoul
dbeаbl
еto:

[Link]
alconf
li
ct
[Link]
heconceptofPeacemaki
ng
[Link]
nCognit
iveDi
ssonanceTheor
y

Good!Wewi
l
lnowpr
oceedt
othef
ir
stsect
ionoft
hisuni
t.

sSECTI
ONONE:
SOCI
ALCONFLI
CTS

Welcomet ot hef i
rstsect i
onoft [Link]
ssecti
ony ouwi l
llearnaboutsocial
confl
ict
[Link] elat
ions,disagr eementsareboundtooccurbet weentwoormor e
peopleindif
ferentformsandcont [Link]
softenti
mesi sduetoincompati
bleact
ions
[Link] heref
orey ouwi l
lbeabletounderstandvari
ouscausesand
ty
pesofsoci alconfli
ctsaswel lthemot i
vator
sofconfl
ictwit
hinthecontextofsocial
psychol
ogy.

Letust
akeal
ookatt
hesect
ionobj
ect
ivest
hencont
inue.

1.2Obj
ecti
ves
Byt
heendofthi
ssecti
ony
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
neSoci alconfli
ct
[Link]
ethecausesofsoci al
confli
ct
[Link]
inet hedifferentty
pesofsocialconf
li
cts
[Link]
al/psy chologicalmoti
vat
ionsforconfl
i
ct
5.1.
3Def init
ionofSoci alConfl
i
ct

6. In-textQuestion1.1
[Link] sConf li
ct?
[Link]
ctisthestruggl
ef oragencyorpoweri
[Link]
confl
ictor
groupconf li
ctoccurswhent woormor eact
orsopposeeachot heri
nsocial
int
eraction,reci
procall
yexert
ingsocialpoweri
nanef f
ortt
oat t
ainscarceor
 i
ncompat i
blegoal sandpr eventtheopponentf r
om attaini
ngt hem.I ti
sasocial
rel
ati
onshi pwher eintheact i
onisorientedi nt
enti
onall
yf orcarryi
ngoutt he
actor
'sownwi ll
agai nsttheresist
anceofot herpart
yorpar ti
es.
Asapr ocess, i
tist heanti-t
hesisofcooper ati
[Link] ds,conf l
i
ctisa
compet it
ioninitsmor eoccasional
,personal andhost i
leforms.I tisaprocessof
seeki
ngt oobt ai
nr ewar dsbyel i
minati
ngorweakeni ngt hecompet i
tor
s.
Throughi t,
onepar tyatt
empt stodestroyoranni hi
lateoratleastr educetoa
subordinatepositiont heotherpart
[Link] ther,
thoughnor mallyviolenceis
associatedwithconf l
ict
,itcanoccurwi thoutit.

9.1.4CausesofSocialConfl
i
ct
10.
Confli
ctari
sesduetovari
[Link]
hus,theeminenteconomi
stsay
sthat
reduced suppl
yoft hemeansofsubsi st
encei st herootcauseofconfli
ct.
Accordingtohi
m, conf
li
ctiscausedbytheincr
easeofpopulati
oningeometr
ical
progressi
onandthefoodsupplyinar
it
hmetical
pr ogr
essi
on.

11.
Accor
dingt
oCharl
esDarwi
n,thebiol
ogi
calpr
inci
plesof"
Str
uggl
eforexi
stence"
and"t
hesur
viv
aloft
hefi
tt
est
"arethemaincauseofconfl
i
ct.

12.
SigmundFreudandot
herpsy
chologi
sthol
dtheviewthattheinnat
einst
inctf
or
aggressi
oninmanisthemaincauseofconfl
i
[Link],vari
ouscausesleadto
confl
ict.

13.
Per
for
mtheact
ivi
tyt
hatf
oll
owsasy
oucont
inue.

14. Act
ivi
ty1.
1
15.
Whichar
ethemaincausesofconf
li
cti
nyourv
iew?Putt
hem downi
nyournot
e
book.

2.
4Component
sofSoci
alI
nfl
uence

Thet
hreear
easofsoci
ali
nfl
uencear
e:

[Link]
ormi
ty

[Link]
i
ance

[Link]
ence

Tobeabletounder
standthesecomponent
swewi
l
lnowl
ookateachoft
hem i
nmor
e
det
ail
star
ti
ngwit
hconformity
.
1.
4CausesofSoci
alConf
li
ct

Confli
ctarisesduet ov ari
ousr [Link],t
heemi nenteconomi stsaysthat
reducedsupplyoft hemeansofsubsi st
enceistherootcauseofconfl
ict
.Accordingto
him,conf
li
cti scausedbyt heincreaseofpopulati
oningeometri
calpr
ogressionandthe
foodsupplyinarit
hmeticalprogressi
on.

Accor
dingtoChar
lesDarwi
n,thebi
ologi
calpr
inci
plesof"St
ruggl
eforexi
stence"and
"
thesurvi
val
oft
hefit
test
"ar
ethemaincauseofconfli
ct.

Sigmund Fr
eud and ot
herpsychol
ogi
stholdt he v
iew thatthe innat
ei nst
inctfor
aggressi
oni
nmani st
hemaincauseofconf
li
[Link],var
iouscausesleadtoconfli
ct.

Per
for
mtheact
ivi
tyt
hatf
oll
owsasy
oucont
inue.

Act
ivi
ty1.
1
Whi
char
ethemaincausesofconf
li
cti
nyourv
iew?Putt
hem downi
nyournot
ebook.

1.
4.1Mi
sper
cept
ionandMi
scommuni
cat
ion

1. Mi
sper
cept
ions

Manyconfl
ictscontai
nbutasmallcor
eoftr
ulyi
ncompat
ibl
egoal
s;t
hebi
ggerpr
obl
em
i
sthemispercepti
onsoftheot
her
’smotiv
esandgoal
s.

Since confli
ctist he productofa per cei
ved i ncompat i
bil
i
ty,i tisl i
kelythatby
mi sper
cepti
onofot hersactions,mostconf l
ictsar [Link] scoinci
deswi t
ht he
conceptofasel f
-serv
ingbias,inthatweof tenj usti
fyourownact ionsandt akecredit
foroursuccessesbutj usti
fyourmi st
[Link] hesamet i
mewet endt ojudgeothers’
act i
ons ormotives mor e harshl
yt han ourown,l eadi
ng us t o condemn ot hers
prematurely
. We can al so commi tthe f undament al attr
ibution error i
n our
mi sper
cepti
onsgivi
ngusaone- di
mensionalper cepti
onofanot herwhichcanbev er
y
i
naccur at
e.

Mi
sper
cept
ionMi
rr
or

Imageper cept
ionref
erstother ecipr
ocalviewsofoneanot heroftenheldbyparti
esin
conflict
;forexample,eachmayv i
ewi tsel
fasmoralandpeace- lovingandtheotheras
evilandaggr essi
ve.I
fmisperceptionsaccompanyconf l
i
ct,t
hent heyshouldappearand
disappearasconf l
ict
[Link] ocessthatcreatetheenemy’simage
canr eversethati
magewhent heenemybecomesanal ly
Whenoneput sfaithandtr
ustinanot her
,andthatconf i
denceisbr
oken,i
tcancr eatean
emotionalresponset hatelevatest oconfl
[Link] rustsomeoneistopl aceahi gh
confi
dencelev elthatther
elati
onshipwi l
lnotbecompr omisedinanyway .
..
thatIcan
expectyout odowhaty ousay .At r
usti
ngrelati
onshipleadstofeel
i
ngsofconf i
dence
andsecurit
[Link] eachoftrustunleashesourstrongestemotionst
hatfr
equentlyleadto
confl
ict
.

2. Mi
scommuni
cat
ion

Miscommuni cati
onTheabi l
i
tytocommunicateisoneofourmostcommonl yusedskill
s.
weuset ocommuni catedon'talway
sclear
lystatethepict
[Link] hi
s
occurs,err
orsoftenresultt
hatleadtofr
ustr
[Link]
ngonamul ti
tudeoff act
ors
(st
resslevelforone),t
heer r
orsometimesresult
sinconfli
cti
fneit
herpersoniswi l
l
ing
toacceptresponsibi
li
tyfori
t.

1.
4.2Per
sonal
i
tyCl
ashes

Thesenat ur
alsetsofdi
ffer
encesaresomeofourgr eateststr
engthsasi ndi
v i
dual
sand
teams;howev er,t
heyar
ealsosourcesofconf l
ict.I
fI,forexample,prefertolookatonly
the"bi
gpi ct
ure,"t
henImaybecomef rustrat
edbyy ourattemptstodiscussdet ai
l
[Link],
ont heotherhand,mayseemeasi rresponsiblefornotdoi ngt heanal y
[Link]
t:
potent
ialconfl
ict.

1.
4.3Escal
ateddi
sagr
eement

Disagreementsarenormal .Whent heyareleftunresol

ved,howev er,theassoci
ated
feeli
ngsand emotionswi llremaininf or
ce,atleastatsomel ev el
.When another
situat
ionbri
ngsthisdisagreementbackt otheforefr
ont
,t hesesuppr essedemotions
can er uptwi
thforce,usuallyfarin excess ofthose associat
ed wi ththe ori
ginal
disagreement
.Therefor
e,itiscri
ti
cal
lyimport
anttoresol
v edisagreement sassoonas
possibleandnotl
etthem fester

1.
4.4Di
ff
erencesi
nacqui
redv
alues

Valuesar ethebel i
efswehol dthathelpust omakedeci sionsaboutwhati sr ightor
wrong, [Link] aluescomef rom parent
s,si
bli
ngs, f
ri
ends, mentor
s, coaches,
teachers,books,churches,mov i
es,tel
evi
sion,andmusic...
li
[Link] e
everhav ethesamel i
feexper i
ence,soweul timat
elyhavedi f
ferentsetsofv aluesand
beli
efst hatguideourdeci sionsandbehav i
[Link]
est ruggleov errel
igi
on,pol it
ics,
race,humani t
ari
anissues, ethicsandmor als,
aborti
on,sex,andmor [Link]
emecases,
somepeopl ewil
l,l
it
erall
y,dief ort
heirbeli
efs
1.
4.5EgoPr
obl
ems

Egoi
sanot
herstr
ongdriv
erofourbehav
ioranddeci
[Link]
sust
obe"
ri
ght
,"
andmov
esusint
odefendi
ngourposi
ti
on,somet
imesunreasonabl
y

1.
5Ty
pesofConf
li
ct

Geor
geSi
mmel
hasment
ionedf
ourt
ypesofconf
li
ct:

a. War

b. Feudorf
act
ional
Str
if
e

c. Li
ti
gat
ionand

d. Conf
li
ctofi
mper
sonal
ideal
s.

Lookateachi
ngr
eat
erdet
ail
.

1. War

Accordi
ngt oSimmel,warrepr
esent
sadeepseat edantagoni
sti
cimpulsei
[Link]
sa
worsttypeofconf l
ictwhi
chai msatthedestructi
onoft [Link]
eff
ort
st oresolv
etheconfl
i
ctbetweentwonati
onsf ai
l
,warf i
nal
lybr
eaksoutasi
tinthe
onl
yalternat
ivetot
hepeacefulmeansofsol
uti
on.

2. FeudorFact
ionalst
ri
fe

I
tisani
ntr
a-gr
oupconfl
i
ct.I
ttakespl
aceamongt
hemember
soft
hesamegr
[Link]
degr
eeoff
eudvar
iesi
ngroups.

3. Li
ti
gat
ion

Li
ti
gati
onisaj
udici
alf
orm ofconf
li
[Link]
akerecour
set
olegalmeansi
nthecourt
s
oflaw t
oprot
ectthei
rri
[Link]
stypeofconf
li
ctismoreobject
ivei
n
nat
ure.

4. Conf
li
ctofi
mper
sonali
deal
s

Wheni ndi
vidualsf i
ghtnotf ortheirpersonalgai
n,butforsomeideal,i
tiscal
l
edt he
confl
i
ctofi mper [Link] such a conf l
ict
,each par
ty at
temptstoj ust
if
y
tr
uthf
ulnessofitsowni [Link] e,apoli
ti
calpar
tyal
waystri
estopr
ovethatit
s
i
dealsarebetterthanthatoft heotherpoli
ti
calpart
ies.
 I
n-t
extQuest
ion1.
2

Whatar
ethef
ormsofconf
li
ct?

For
msofconf
li
cts

Letusnowl
ookatt
hesef
ormsofconf
li
ctal
i
ttl
efur
ther
.

1.
Per
sonalConf
li
ct

Personalconfl
i
ctoccursonpersonall
evel
.Itari
seswhent heideal
sandaimsoft
wo
i
ndividual
sclash wi
th each ot
her
.Thef i
ghtoft hestudentsf ortheof
fi
ceofthe
Students’
Unionpr
ovidesabri
ghtexampl
eofthisfor
m ofconfl
ict
.

2.
Raci
alConf
li
ct

Raci alconf li
ctis most l
y due t
ot he physicaldif
[Link] r aces consi
der
themsel vessuperi
ortoot herr
acesandt herearealsor aceswhi chfeelthattheyare
i
nf eriortoot [Link] eel
ingofsuperi
orit
yori nf
erior
ityi sther ootcauseofr aci
al
conf li
[Link]
ctbetweentheWhitesandNegr oesi
nt heU. [Link]
ov i
desanexampl eof
racial confl
ict
.

3.
Pol
it
icalConf
li
ct

Poli
ti
calconfli
ctari
seswhendiff
erentpoli
ti
calparti
eswi t
ht hei
rownideol
ogi
estryto
achi
ev ethei
rint
erest
.Themaincauseoft hi
skindofconf l
ictispowerwhi
chtheywant
[Link]
ictbet
weendif
ferentpol
it
icalpart
iesisanexampleofthi
stypeof
confl
ict.

4.
Int
ernat
ionalConf
li
ct

I
nternat
ionalconfl
ictoccur
samongt hedif
fer
entnati
onsoft
hewor l
d.I
tmaytakepl
ace
forpoli
tical,r
eli
giouseconomic,ideol
ogi
calorforanyot [Link]
i
ct
betweenI ndi
aandPakistanisanexampleofsuchty
peofconfli
ct.

5.
ClassConf
li
ct

Classconfl
icttakesplaceamongcl asseswi t
ht hei
rdiff
eri
ngint
erests.I
nthefeudal
societ
ytherewasconf li
ctbetweenthel andl
ordsandt [Link]
tal
ist
societ
yischaracter
izedbythebour
geoisi
eandpr olet
ari
at.
Inaddit
iont
ot heconf
li
ctsdi
scussedabov
ether
ear
eaf
ewot
herf
ormsofconf
li
[Link]
arestat
edbelow:

1.
Per
sonalandCor
por
ateConf
li
ct

Confli
ctmaybepersonalaswel
lascor por
[Link]
cttakesplacewit
hinthe
groups.I
tar
isesonaccountofv
ariousmotives,envy,
host i
l
ity
,treacher
[Link]
doesnotder
iveanybenefi
tfr
om t
hiskindofinter
nalconfl
ict.

Corporat
econfl
ictoccur
samongt hegroupswit
hinasociet
yorbet
weentwosoci
eti
es.
Race-r
iot
s,communalr i
ots,warbetween nati
ons ar
e some ofthe exampl
es of
corpor
ateconf
li
ct.

2.
Lat
entandOv
ertConf
li
ct

Confli
ctmaybel atentorovert
.Somet i
mesi ndi
vidual
sorgr oupsdonotwantt oexpr
ess
thei
rfeel
ingofconf l
ictduetosomer [Link] l
i
ctisknownasthe
l
atentconf l
i
ct.I n otherwor ds,socialtension and di ssat
isf
acti
ons,beforethei
r
expressi
onintheform ofhosti
leacti
on,aret woimportantkindsoflat
entconfl
i
ct.

Ont heotherhand,
theovertconf
li
cti
stheconfli
ctexpr
essedbyapar torpar
ti
[Link]
confli
ctbecomesov er
tconf l
i
ctwhenani ssueisdeclaredandwhenhost i
l
eact i
oni s
[Link]
stanisanexampl eofover
tconfl
ict
.

Letusnowl
ookatt
hemot
ivat
ionsf
orconf
li
ctnext
.

1.
6Soci
alorPsy
chol
ogi
cal
Mot
ivat
ionsf
orConf
li
ct

Theori
esofsoci
al-
psychologicalmoti
vati
onsforconf
li
ctl
ocatet hesourcesofconfl
i
ct
i
nt hewayinwhichindi
vidualspercei
vethei
renvir
onment,l
ocatethemselvesini
t,and
onthatbasi
sfor
mi ndi
vi
dual andgroupident
it
iest
hatgui
detheirbehavi
ourandacti
ons.

Themosti mport
antsoci
al-
psy chol
ogi
caltheori
esofconfl
ictar
ereal
ist
icgroupconf
li
ct
theor
y,soci
ali
denti
tyt
heory,andpsychoanalyt
ic/
psychody
namictheori
es.

Wewil
lnow proceedtodiscusseachoft
heset
heor
iesi
nsomedet
ailst
art
ingwi
th
r
eal
i
sti
cgroupconfl
ictt
heor
y.

1.
6.1Real
i
sti
cGr
oupConf
li
ctTheor
y

Thi
st heor
ywasf ir
stf ormul
atedbyMuzaferSherifi
n1966andt henrevi
sitedi
n1988.
Thetheoryadoptsbasicpremisesoft
herati
onalchoiceappr
oachinassumingthati
nter
-
groupconf l
ictori
ginatesinthepercept
ionsofgr oupmember swi t
hregardt oreal
competiti
onforscar cer esources,thussuggestingt hathost
il
it
ybetweengroupsresults
from r
ealorper cei
vedconf l
icti
nggoal sbecauset heygenerateint
er-gr
oupcompetit
ion.
Inotherwords, t
hedy namict hatevolveswhengr oupsar eengagedi ncompet
it
ivezero-
sum compet it
ionsleadst oeachgr oupdev elopingnegativ
est ereot
ypesabout,and
enmitytoward,theot hergroup( s)wit
hwhi chitcompet es.

Sheri
fetal .(1988)v eri
fi
ed t
hese basic pr
emises i
nthe so-cal
led Robbers'Cave
experi
menti nv
olvi
ngboy sinasummercampwhohadnev [Link] hey
werespli
tintotwogroupsengagingincompet i
ti
veacti
vi
ti
eswi t
hconfli
cti
nggoals(i.
e.,
goalsthatcanbeachi ev
edonlyatt heexpenseoft heothergroup,suchasspor ts
tour
nament s)i
nter
-gr
ouphostil
i
tyemer gedver
yquickl
yandalmostautomatical
l
y .

1.
6.2Soci
alI
dent
it
yTheor
ies

Themosti mpor t
antt heori
stsinthesoci ali
dentit
yappr oachareHenr iTajfel(1981),
MichaelBi l
li
g( 1976),andDonal dHor owi t
z( 1985).Accordingt ot hi
st heor y
,ev ery
i
ndividualdivi
deshis/hersocialworl
dintodisti
nctclassesorso-caledsoci
l alcategories
andl ocatethemsel v
esandot hersinrelati
ont [Link] hebasi sofacumul ative
processofl ocati
ngonesel f
,indi
vidual
scanconst i
tut
et rsoci
hei alidenti
ty,i.
e.,defi
nes
themselvesi nsocialcategorysuchasgender ,geographiclocat
ion,class,pr of
ession,
ethni
city,et
c.

Thebasi cassumpt ionisthatpeopl estr

ivef ora positivesoci alident i
[Link] al
i
dentityisder i
vedfrom member shipingroups,aposi ti
vesoci ali
dent ityistheout come
offavour ablesoci
alcompar i
sonsmadebet weent hein-group( i
.e.,thegr oupt owhi ch
onebel ongs)andot hersoci
algr [Link] ongasmember shipi nagr oupenhances
one’s self-esteem,t hatis,as l ong as soci alcompar isons r emai n( on balance)
favourable,onewi llremai
namemberoft hatgr [Link] er,i fthegr oupf ail
st o
sati
sfyt hisrequir
ement ,t
heindividualmayt rytochanget hest ructureoft hegr oup
(soci
alchange) ,seekanewwayofcompar isonwhi chwoul df av
ourhi s/hergroup,and
hence,rei nf
orcehis/hersoci
alident i
ty(socialcreati
vi
ty),orleav e/abandont hegr oup
withthedesi retoj
oina'bett
er'one( soci
almobi l
ity
).

Forindi v
idualsthataremember sofami noritygroupt oachi eveaposi tivesociali
dentit
y
i
sv erydi ffi
cul
tbecausemi nori
ti
esalmostal way shav eani nferi
orst at usincompar i
son
witht hemaj ori
[Link],f
ormember sofmi nori
ti
es,differentstrategi esar erequir
edt o
confrontt hechall
engeofaachi evi
ngaposi tivesocialidentity
.First,ifthesoci alsy
stem
i
sper cei
v edaslegiti
mateandst abl
e,andt herear enov isibleal
ter nativestot hestatus
quo, orthereisnoconceivableprospectofanychangei nt henatur eoft hesystem (such
asinaf eudalsociet
y),t
heyjustacceptt heirinferi
orit
yandacqui [Link],i fthe
system i sperceivedasil
legit
imatebyt hemi nori
ty,verysoonal ternat i
vesbegi ntobe
envi
[Link] stem losesitsstabil
it
y,andoppr essionandt er
rorbythemaj ori
ty-
cont
roll
edst at
ebecomest heonlywayt omaintaini
[Link],i
fmaj ori
ty-mi
nori
tyrel
at i
ons
areperceivedasi llegi
ti
mat eandt hesy stem isnol ongerst abl
e,themi nori
tygr oup
member swi l
ltendt owardsar ej
ecti
onoft hei
rinfer
[Link] einterpret
andredefinetheirgroup'
schar acter
ist
icsand,thus,tr
yt otransformt hei
rsoci
alidentity
i
ntoaposi ti
veone.

Donal dHor owi t

z( 1985)of ferst hebest -
knownappl icati
onofsoci alidentitytheor yto
casesofet hnicconf li
ct.I tf ocuseson gr oup compar ison bet ween backwar d and
adv ancedgr oupsi nwhi chmember soft hebackwar dgr oupsmustdeci dewhet hert o
emul ateout -
groupbehav iouri nor dertocompet eoradoptdi fferentcopi ngst rat egies,
suchascl aimingpr eferenti
alt reatmentorcompensat ioni fbackwar dnessi sper ceived
tohav eemer gedf rom pasti njusti
cesanddi scriminat i
[Link] dgr oupshar bour
fears ext incti
on i ft heycannotcat ch up wi t h adv anced gr oups ori fpr efer ential
treatmenti sl imited,and t hei ranxi etyf l
ows f rom di ffuse dangerofexagger ated
dimensi ons,l imi t
s and modi fies perceptions,and pr oduces ext r
eme r eactions t o
modestt [Link] owitzal sost i
pulatesar elati
onbet weensel f-
esteem,anxi et yand
prejudice i nr el
at i
on t o conf l
[Link]-
esteem i sr aised byaggr ession,especi allyi f
aggr essioni spr ojectedonot her sasjustif
icationf orownact i
ons,i .
e.,prejudicesabout
othergr oups’aggr essi v
enesspr oducesandi ntensi f
iesanxi et
yandj usti
fi
esaggr essi on
(assel f-
def ense) .

Compar i
sonsbetweenet hnicgr oupscent eront heirrel
ativ
egr oupwor thandr elat
ive
groupl egit
imacyandmer geeasi lyi ntoapol i
ticsofet hni
cent i
tl
ementi nwhi cht he
questf orpoweri sbothi nstrument al( powerasameanst oanend,e. g.,averti
ngt he
threatofgr oupext i
ncti
on)andsy mbol ic( powerasaconf ir
mat i
onofst atus).This
meanst hatinunr ankedsy stems,gr oupswi l
lmakeef fort
st odomi nat eandav oid
domi nati
onbyot her
[Link] hushav ei niti
allybeenaconf li
ctov erneedsand
i
nterestsbecomessubor dinatet oconf li
ctsov erst atusandov ertherulesoft hepol i
ti
cal
system ( ci
ti
zenship,electoralsy st
ems,of ficiall anguages,const i
tution,et c.
).The
i
ntensityofensuingconf l
ictis,accor dingtoHor owitz,afunctionoft her elat
ivestrength
ofgr oupclaims:themor einv idi
oust hegr oupcompar i
sonandt hel argerthear eaof
unacknowl edgedclai
mst ogr ouplegitimacy ,themor eint
enset heconf li
ct.

1.
6.3Psy
choanal
yti
corPsy
chody
nami
cTheor
ies

Themosti mport
antr epr
esentat
ivesoft hepsychoanal
yti
capproach tointer
-gr
oup
confl
ictar
eVami kVol kan(1988,1992,1994,1998),[Link]( 1993,1995)and
JosephMont v
il
le(1990).

Thei
rtheor
iesmai
nlyseekt
oexpl
ainhow peopl
efor
mimagesaboutt
hemsel
vesand
other [Link] kanar guest hatt hereare sui t
ablet argetsofext ernalizati
on det ermined
ei
t herbycul t
ure( f
ami l
iarobj ectsofachi ld'
senv ironment ),orshownt othechi ldrenby
par entsandot [Link] t
abl etar getsofext ernalizati
onar esy mbolssuchas
fl
ags,songs,speci aldi shes,pl acesofwor ship,r el
igi
ousi cons,memor i
als,cer tain
animal s( Ross,1995) ,butal sopeopl e,andgr oupsofpeopl e( Volkan1988) ,andt hey
canhav ebot hposi ti
veandnegat i
veconnot ati
[Link] ,thisi snotsuf fi
cientf ort he
def i
niti
onofgr oupi dentity.I
naddi ti
ont ocul t
uralsy mbol sandr it
uals,agr oupi dentit
y
needsenemi es( whohel pthegr oupmember sdef i
newhot heyar enot )
,chosengl ories
(i
mpor tant,usuallymy thologizedandi deal i
zedachi evement st hatt ookpl acei nt he
past ),chosen t raumas ( l
osses,def eats,humi li
ations -also my thologized-t hatar e
usual lydiff
iculttomour n),andbor der s( physicaland/ orment al)thatf aci
li
tateacl ear
distincti
onbet weeni n-groupandout -group.

Mi norit
ies,especiall
yi ftheyar econsi der edi mpossibletoassi mi l
atei ntot hemaj orit
y
caneasi l
ybecomesui tabletargetsf orext ernali
zati
onoft hemaj ori
ty’
snegat i
vef eelings
andsel f
-i
mages.I nthiscase,mi noriti
esnotonl yattr
acthat red,suspi cion,andr ageof
themaj oritybecauseoft hechar acteristicst heyall
egedlyhav ebutt heyal soser veas
reser v
oirsoft hemaj orit
y'snegat i
vesel f-
imageswhosev eryexistencei sblamedont he
mi norit
y( e.g.
,maj or
ityaggr essivenessi snecessar yasasel f
-defenceagai nstmi norit
y
aggr essiveness).Relationsbet weenmi norityandmaj orit
ymaybecomeev enmor e
strainedi fthatmi nori
tyi slinkedt oast ateornat iont hatint hepasti nfl
ictedadeep
traumaupont hemaj oritygroup( e.g.,favour ed/r
uli
ngmaj ori
ti
esi ncoloni alregimes) .In
thatcase, andafterthebal anceofpowerchangesi nf avouroft hemaj or it
y,themi norit
y
oftenbecomesat ar
getofet hniccl eansing, massacres,andgenoci de.

1.
7Sect
ionSummar
y

Wehav enowcomet ot heendofsecti

ononeonconf l
ict
s.I
nt hi
ssect
ionwelearntthat
confl
ictisper
ceivedi
ncompat i
bil
it
yofact
ionsorgoalsandcanhav evar
iedcauses
i
ncludingmispercept
ionsandmi scommunicat
[Link]
ioustypesof
confl
ictsandthesocial
/psychologi
calmoti
vat
ionsforconf
lict.

SECTI
ONTWO:
PEACEMAKI
NG

Welcometot hi
ssect
iononpeacemaking.I
ntheprevi
oussect
ionwelear
ntaboutsoci al
confl
ict
sandt hei
[Link]
ctsandenhancesocialrelat
ions
peacemaking i
s necessar
[Link] sect
ion t
her
efore wi
llbe usef
ulin helping you
underst
and theconceptofpeacemaking and how youcanapplythi
si nr esol
v i
ng
confl
ict
s.

Tost
artwi
th,
her
ear
etheobj
ect
ivesf
ort
hissect
ion.
 2.
2Sect
ionObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hissect
iony
oushoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link]
ibetheConceptofpeacemaking.
[Link]
aintheFourCsofPeacemaking.

2.
3TheConceptofPeacemaki
ng

Peacemakingi sacompl icat

edconceptbecausepeacecanbedef inedinsomany
di
[Link],peacemakingi snotaprocessofpassi veacceptance
ofmi str
eatment,atur
ningoftheot hercheekint hefaceofclearinj
usti
ceorabuse,or
otherweaki magesofmeeknessornonr esi
stance.I
nstead,peacemakingisav ibrant
,
power f
ulconcept.

Atitsbest ,peacemaki ngcreatesr elationalandstructuraljust

icet hatallowsf orsoci al
andper sonalwel lbei
[Link] deal obj
ecti
ve,perhapsnotat tainableinal lconfli
cts.
Nev er
theless,peacemaki ngimpl i
est heuseofcooper ati
ve,const r
uctivepr ocessest o
resolv
ehumanconf l
i
cts,whilerestoringr el
ati
[Link] ngdoesnotdenyt he
essentialneedf oradv er
sarypr ocesses,butpeacemaki ngplacesadv ersarypr ocesses
i
ntoal argerper specti
[Link]
igatingdi sputesisnotseenasapr imar ydisputer esoluti
on
mechani sm, butasal ast-
resortprocess.

I
n-t
extQuest
ion2.
1

Whatdoy
ouunder
standbyt
het
erm negat
ivepeace?

Negat
ivePeace

Good!Letusbegi
nwi
thnegat
ivepeace.

1. Negat
ivePeace

Fir
st,ther
eisnegativ
[Link] heabsenceofv i
olence,t
ypi
cally
thr
oughcoer ci
onr at
herthancooperati
[Link] hertell
shersonTom t ostop
beati
nguponay oungersi
bli
ngJim,sheisimposi
nganegat ivepeaceinthehousehold.
Tom’ sconfl
i
ctwithJimisnotresol
ved,butmer
[Link]
v e
peace extends notonl yfrom ourmundane examplei nt he home,butal
so to
i
nternat
[Link]
ernat
ionalpeacei
ssai
dt oexi
stduri
ngacessat i
onofv
iol
ence
andhostil
it
[Link]
m ofpeaceisofteni
[Link]
s.

Agai n,peacei sdef i

nedasanabsenceofwarandi si mposedcoer civel
y .Ourl aw
enf orcementmechani sms,euphemi sticallycalledcr i
minaljust i
ce,creat eanot herf orm
ofnegat [Link] sar et akenof ft hest reetsot hatcrimesar er educed.
Thus,l aw enf or cementof f
icialsar ecal led “ peace”of f
icersev en though t heyuse
ext r
emel ycoer civ eandsomet i
mesv i
olentmeanst oachi evet [Link] nal
ly,thelegal
sy stem perpet uat esaf orm ofnegat [Link] ,
theciv i
ljusticesy stem render sa
fairandi mpar ti
aldeci [Link] er,ther esultisjustadeci sion,notar esolutiont oor
transf ormat i
onoft heconf li
[Link] udgment ,thel egalconf li
cti sfi
nishedandpeopl e
areexpect edt ogetonwi t
ht [Link] all
yspeaki ng,howev er,theunder lyi
ng
causesoft heconf lictarel eftunr [Link] isfi
edar eaf atheranddaught erafter
aj udgmenti nf av orofoneort heot heraf terabi tt
erlycont estedt ri
al?So,t helegal
sy stem doesnotpr ovidef orpeace; i
tonl ypr ovi
desf ordecisi
ons.

Posi
ti
vePeace

Act
ivi
ty2.
1
From t
hescenar
iodepi
ctedi
nnegat
ivepeace,
expl
ainy
ourunder
standi
ngofposi
ti
ve
peace.

Nowr
eadont
hecont
entt
hatf
oll
owst
ounder
standmor
e.

1. Posi
ti
vePeace

Thesecondwayofunder standingpeacei sasposi ti

v [Link] t
ivepeacei mplies
reconci
liati
onandr estor
ationthroughcr eativet ransformat ionofconf l
ict
.Inposi t
ive
peace,themot hersit
sTom andJi m downandi nv i
testhem t oexchangest oriesabout
whatledt ot heirfight
.Mom andJi ml earnforthef i
rsttimet hatTom f eelsangr yatt he
wayJi mi gnor eshi [Link]
v eminut es,theywor koutapl anthatal l
owsTom t hesaf ety
andsecur i
tyt ospeakoutaboutwhathei sf eeli
[Link] m promi sest oli
stenmor ecar efull
y
[Link] pr omisesnott ohitJi m whenhe,Tom,becomesf rust
[Link] i
ghting
hasstopped, butmor eimpor t
antlyt herelati
onshi phasbeenr econci l
edandr [Link]
theprocess, Tom andJi m havegr ownmor allyjustal i
[Link] hesameway ,alawy eras
peacemakerl ooksatconf l
ictnotj ustasanabst ract,intel
lect ualexerciseinanal ysis
andper suasion,butasanoppor t
uni t
yt ohelppeopl er econci [Link] econcili
ati
oni s
notpossi ble,separ ati
onandr esolutioni spossi blewi thami nimum ofhost i
l
ityand
acr
imony
.

Sopeacemaki ngconcernsadeeperwayofl ookingatconfli

ctsthanjustwi nni
ngor
l
osing.I
tlooksatconfl
ictsasoppor
tuni
ti
esforpeopletogrow,toacceptresponsibi
l
ity
fort
herelat
ionshi
pstheyarein,
andfort
hepotent
ialofapol
ogyandf or
giveness.

Ideali
stic?Notatal l!Timeaf tertime,whenpeopl ear eplacedi nasaf eandsecur e
environment ,t
heynat urall
yseekoutt heircapaci
[Link] ent hemostcy ni
cal
,
hardenedbusi nesspeopl ehav erecognizedt heimpor tanceofr el
ationshi pswhent hey
areinv i
tedandal l
owedt [Link]’ tseethi
ssi deofpeopl eoftenonl ybecause
theyar enotgi vent hespace,saf etyandsecur ityt oexpr esstheiranger ,theirtrue
concer nsandt heirinter
[Link] e,theyarenotpl acedinaposi t
ionwher et hey
canhonest l
yli
stenandheart heper spect i
[Link] hegr eatestdifference
betweenpeacemaki ngandot herformsofconf li
ctr esolut
ionist hatoppor t
unitiesfor
exploit
at i
onaret akenaway .Oncet hef earofv ulnerabil
it
yi sneut r
alized,peopl ecan
aspiret othei
rhighergoodandr eall
yf indexcell
entsolutionstotheirconf li
cts.

[Link] y
ouunder
standt heconceptofpeacemaki
[Link] l
ookatt
he
pr
ocessofpeacemaki
ngbydiscussi
ngthe4C’sofpeacemaki
ngnext
.

2.
4The4C'
sofPeacemaki
ng

Soci
alpsychol
ogi
stshav
efocusedonfourstr
ategiesf
orhelpi
ngenemiesbecome
[Link]’softhepeacemaki
ng:

[Link]
act
,

[Link]
ati
on,

[Link]
cat
ion,
and

[Link]
l
iat
ion.

Letusnowexpl
aineachoft
heseaspect
sofpeacemaki
ngi
nmor
edet
ail
star
ti
ngwi
th
Contact
.

1. Cont
act

Mightput
ti
ngpeopl eintocl
osecontactreducethei
rhostil
i
ties?Therearegoodr easons
tothi
[Link],despit
esomeencour agingear
lystudi
esofdesegr egat
ion,otherstudi
es
showthatinschoolsmer edesegr
egationhasli
ttl
eeffectuponr aci
alortri
balatti
tudes.
Acasewor thment ioni
ngisthestudybysoci alpsychologistWalterStephan( 1986).
Accordi
ngt ohim,someti
mesdesegr egat
ionhasledtoincreasedprej
udi
ce(especi
all
y
byWhi t
estowardBlacks)andsomet i
mest odecr
easedpr ej
udice(
especi
all
ybyBlacks
towardsWhi t
es).Butonbalancet heef fect
saremi nimalforbothBlackandWhi te
student
[Link],i
nterr
acialcontacti
sseldom prol
ongedorinti
[Link]
i
sst r
uctur
edtoconveyequalstatus,hosti
l
iti
esoft
enlessen.

Here equal-
stat
us contactmeans the contactmade on equalbasi [Link] a
rel
ati
onshipbetweenpeopleofunequalst at
usbr eedsatt
it
udesconsistentwit
ht hei
r
rel
ati
onship,so do rel
ati
onshi
ps between those [Link],t oreduce
prej
udice,
contact(
forexamplei
nter
racial
)shouldbebetweenpersonsequalinst
atus.

2. Cooper
ati
on

Alt
houghequal-statuscontactcanhelp,i tissomet i
[Link] act
sar e
especi
all
ybenefici
alwhenpeopl eworkt ogethert
oov ercomeacommont hr
eatort o
achi
eveasuper ordinat
[Link]
egoalisashar edgoalthatnecessit
ates
cooper
ativeef
fort;agoalt
hatoverr
idespeople’sdi
ff
erencesfr
om oneanother.

Inhisboy s’campexper i
ment s,Sher i
fusedt heuni f
yingef f
ectofacommonenemyt o
creat
ecohesi [Link] heunifyingpowerofcooper at
iveef
forttosettl
e
theconf li
cti
ng [Link] theircuef r
om exper imentsoncooper ati
vecont act,
severalresearchteamshav er eplacedcompet it
iveclassroom lear
ningsit
uationswith
opportunit
ies forcooperati
v el [Link] rhear teni
ng result
s suggesthow t o
constructi
vel
y i mplement desegr egati
on and st rengthen our conf i
dence t hat
cooperativeacti
vi
tiescanbenefithumanr el
ationsatall l
evel
s.

Extendi
ngt hesef i
ndi
ngs,SamuelGaert
nerwi t
hhi sf el
l
ows( 1990,1991)r eport
st hat
working cooperati
vel
yhas especial
lyfavor
able effects underconditi
ons t hatlead
peopletodef ineanew,inclusi
vegroupthatdissolv
est heirformersubgr [Link],for
example,themember soft wogroupssitalt
ernatel
yar oundat abl
e,(ratherthanon
opposit
esi des),gi
vethei
rnew groupasingl
ename,andt henwor ktogether,thei
rol d
feel
ingsofbi asagainsttheformerout
sider
swi lldiminish.“Us”and“ them”become
“we”.

3. Communi
cat
ion

Confl
i
cting par
ti
escan also seektor esol
vet hei
rdif
fer
encesbybar gai
ning ei
ther
di
rect
lywithoneanotherort
heycanaskat hi
rd-part
ytomediat
ebymakingsuggesti
ons
and facil
i
tati
ng thei
r negoti
ati
ons. Or they can arbi
trat
e by submitti
ng their
di
sagreementtosomeonewhowi l
lst
udytheissuesandimposeaset
tl
ement.

Whenapi
eoff
ixedsi
zei
stobedi
vi
ded,adopt
ingat
oughnegot
iat
ingst
ancet
endst
o
gainoneal
argerpi
ece(f
orexample,
abett
erpri
ce).Whenthepi
ecanv
aryi
nsi
ze,
asi
n
thedil
emmasit
uati
ons,
toughnessmoreof
tenbackfi
res.

Thir
d-party mediators al so help r esolve conf l
ict
s by f acil
i
tati
ng const r
uctive
communi cati
[Link] rfi
rsttaskistohel pthepar ti
esr et
hinkt heconf l
i
ctandt ogain
i
nformationaboutt heot herparty
’si [Link] oddingt hem to setasi det heir
confl
ict
ingdemandsandopeni ngof fersandt othinkinsteadaboutunder l
yingneeds,
i
nterestsandgoal s,themedi at
oraimst or eplaceacompet it
ive“win-l
ose”or i
entati
on
wit
hacooper at
ive“ win-win”or
ient
ationt hatai msatamut uall
ybenef i
cialresol
ution.
Mediatorscanalsost r
ucturecommuni cati
onst hatwillpeelawaymi spercepti
onsand
i
ncreasemut ualunderstandingandtrust .

4. Conci
li
ati
on

Somet imest ensionandsuspi cionr unsohi ght hatcommuni cati

onbecomesal lbut
i
mpossi [Link] hreaten,coerceorr et
ali
ateagainsttheother
.Unf
ortunately
,
suchact st endtober eci
procated,thusescal ati
ngt heconf l
i
[Link],smal l
concili
atorygesturesbyonepar tymayel icitrecipr
ocalconcili
atoryact
sbyt heot her
[Link] ensionmayber educedt oal ev elwherecommuni cati
oncanoccur .One
suchconci li
atorystr
ategyisGRI T(Graduat edandReci pr
ocatedI ni
ti
ati
vesinTensi on
reducti
on)whi chaimstoallevi
atet enseinternationalsit
uat
ions.

Thosewhomedi atetensel abor-

managementandi nternat
ionalconf
li
ctssomet imes
useoneot herpeacemaki ngst r
[Link]
uctthepar ti
cipant
sinthedy namicsof
confl
ictand peacemaki [Link] hope i st hatunder standi
ng – understanding how
confl
ictsaref edbysoci alt
raps,perceivedinj
usti
ce,compet i
ti
onandmi spercepti
ons
and under st
anding how conf li
cts can be resol
ved t hrough equal
-st
atus cont act
,
cooperati
on,communi cati
on and conciliat
ion – can hel p us est
abli
sh and enj oy
peaceful,
rewar di
ngrel
ati
onships.

Per
for
mtheact
ivi
tyt
hatf
oll
owsbef
orey
oucont
inue.

Act
ivi
ty2.
2

Out
li
net
hedi
ff
erencebet
weenGRI
TandTFTst
rat
egy

2.
5Sect
ionSummar
y

[Link] otheendofthissecti
ononpeacemaki
ng.I
nthi
s
sect
ionwedescri
bedtheconceptofpeacemakingandit
srel
evancei
nsoci
alr
elat
ions.
Wealsodescribedthef
ourC’
sofpeacemakingthati
scont
act,cooper
ati
on,
communicat
ionandconcil
iat
ion.I
nthenextsecti
onyouwi
lll
earnaboutcogni
ti
ve
di
ssonancetheory.

SECTI
ONTHREE:
COGNI
TIVEDI
SSONANCETHEORY

Welcomet othi
ssecti
ononcogni t
ivedi
ssonancetheory.I
nthissect
ionwewi l
lgetto
underst
andthemeaningofcognit
ivedi
ssonanceandtraceit
sorigi
nsaswellasexpl
ore
thespeci
fi
cconcept
softhistheor
yanditsrel
evanceinsoci
alpsychol
ogy.

Wewi
l
lst
artof
fbygoi
ngt
hrought
hesect
ionobj
ect
ives.

3.
2Sect
ionObj
ect
ives

Byt
heendoft
hissect
ion,
youshoul
dbeabl
eto:

[Link] ti
veDissonance
[Link]
nt heor i
ginofCogniti
veDissonance
[Link] heConcept sinCogniti
veDi ssonance
[Link]
ne" TheFoxandt heGr apes"il
lustr
ati
on
5.
6.3.3Def i
nitionofCogni t
iveDissonance
[Link]
edi ssonancerefer
st oasituati
oni nvol
vingconfl
ict
ingatti
tudes,bel
ief
s
orbehav [Link] eel
ingofdi scomfortleadi
ngt oanalter
ationi
n
oneoft heat t
it
udes,beli
efsorbehav ior
stor educethediscomf or
tandr est
ore
balanceet c.

[Link]
e,whenpeopl
esmoke(
behav
ior
)andt
heyknowt
hatsmoki
ngcauses
cancer(
cogni
ti
on)
.

3.
4Or
igi
nsofCogni
ti
veDi
ssonance

Cogni t
ive di
ssonance was fi
rsti
nvesti
gated by Leon Fest
inger,arising outofa
part
icipantobservati
onstudyofacultwhichbeliev
edthattheear t
hwasgoi ngt
obe
destroyedbyaf lood,andwhathappenedt oi t
smember s— par t
icularlyt
hereall
y
commi t
tedoneswhohadgi venupt
heirhomesandj obstoworkf ort
hecul t—whenthe
fl
ooddi dnothappen.

Whi
lefr
ingemember
sweremoreincl
i
nedt orecogni
zethatt
heyhadmadefoolsof
t
hemsel
vesandt
o"puti
tdownt
oexperi
ence"
,commi t
tedmember
sweremor
elikel
yto
re-
int
erpr
ettheev i
dencetoshow thatt
heywereri
ghtallal
ong(
theear
thwasnot
destr
oyedbecauseofthef
ait
hful
nessoft
hecul
tmembers)
.

Festi
nger'
s(1957)cognit
ivedi
ssonancet
heorysuggest
sthatwehaveaninnerdr
ivet
o
holdall
ouratti
tudesandbeli
efsi
nharmonyandavoiddi
sharmony(
ordi
ssonance)
.

Att
itudesmaychangebecauseoff actorswi t
[Link]
orhereis
the pri
nci
ple ofcognit
ive consistency,t he focus ofFesti
nger'
s( 1957)t heor
yof
cogniti
vedi
[Link]
stheoryst artsfrom theideat hatweseekconsistencyinour
bel
iefsandatt
itudesi
nanysituat
ionwher etwocogni t
ionsarei
nconsistent
.

Leon Fest
inger(1957)proposed cogni
ti
ve di
ssonance t
heory
,which stat
est hata
powerfulmotiv
et o maint
ain cogni
ti
ve consi
stencycan gi
ver i
se t
oi r
rat
ionaland
sometimesmaladapti
vebehavi
or.

AccordingtoFesti
nger,weholdmuchcogni ti
onaboutt heworl
dandoursel
ves;when
theyclash,adiscr
epancyisevoked,resul
tinginast at
eoftensi
onknownascogniti
ve
[Link]
ienceofdissonanceisunpleasant
,wearemoti
vat
edtoreduce
oreliminat
eit,
andachieveconsonance(i.
[Link]).

3.
5Concept
sinCogni
ti
veDi
ssonanceTheor
y

Accordi
ngt ocognitiv
edi ssonancetheor
y,therei
sat endencyfori
ndi
vi
dualstoseek
consi
stency among t hei
r cognit
ions (
i.
e.,beli
efs,opini
ons)
.When t her
ei s an
i
nconsistencybetweenat ti
tudesorbehav
ior
s( di
ssonance)
,somethi
ngmustchangeto
el
iminatethedissonance.

Di
ssonancecanber
educedi
noneoft
hreeway
s:

1. Fi
rst,i
ndivi
dual scanchangeoneormor eoftheatti
tudes,behavior,bel
ief
set [Link]
ast omaket her el
ationshi
pbet weent [Link]
ofthedi ssonantel ement sisabehav ior
,thei
ndivi
dualcanchangeorel i
mi natethe
behav i
[Link] er
,thismodeofdi ssonancereduct
ionfrequent
lypr esent
spr obl
ems
forpeopl e,asi tisof ten di
ff
icul
tf orpeopleto changewel l-
learned behavioral
responses( [Link]
ingupsmoki ng)
.

2. Asecond( cogni
ti
ve)met hodofreducingdissonanceistoacquirenewinformation
thatoutweighsthedi ssonantbeli
[Link] e,t
hinki
ngsmoki ngcausesl ung
cancerwi l
lcausedissonanceifaper [Link] er,new i
nfor
mationsuch
as“researchhasnotpr oveddefi
nit
elythatsmokingcauseslungcancer”mayr educe
thedissonance.
3. Athi
rdwayt oreducedissonanceistor
educet hei
mportanceofthecogniti
ons(i.
e.
beli
efs,atti
tudes).A personcouldconv i
ncethemsel
fthati tisbet
tert o"l
ivefor
today"thanto" savefortomorrow."I
notherwords,
hecouldtellhi
mselfthatashort
li
fefil
ledwi t
hsmoki ngandsensualpl easuresisbet
terthanal onglif
edev oi
dof
suchj [Link] ,hewoul dbedecr easi
ngtheimpor t
anceoft hedissonant
cogniti
on(smoki ngisbadf orone’
sheal
th).

Not i
cethatdi
ssonancet
heorydoesnotst at
ethatthesemodesofdi
ssonancereduct
ion
willact
uall
ywork,onlyt
hatindivi
dualswhoar einast at
eofcogni
ti
vedissonancewil
l
takestepstoreducetheextentoftheirdi
[Link]
ntsthatdi
ssonance
theori
stsarefondofmaki ngist hatpeoplewillgotoallsor
tsoflengthstoreduce
dissonance.

At
ti
tudeChange

Var
iousfact
orsthathav
ebeeni dent
if
iedwhi
chmaybei
mpor
tanti
nat
ti
tudechangecan
bedi3.
6Reducti
onofDissonance

Cognit
ive di
ssonance theoryisf ounded on the assumpt ion thatindi
vidual
s seek
consi
stencybetweentheirexpect
ationsandthei
rreali
[Link] hi
s,peopleengage
i
napr ocesscall
eddissonancereductiontobri
ngt heircogni t
ionsandact ionsi
nl i
ne
withoneanot [Link]
scr eat
ionofuni f
ormi
tyallowsf oral esseningofpsy chol
ogical
tensi
onanddistress.

Bef
orey
ougof
urt
her
,her
eisanact
ivi
tyf
ory
ou.

Act
ivi
ty3.
1

Out
li
net
hest
rat
egi
esf
orr
educt
ionofdi
ssonance.

v
idedi
ntot
hreemai
nar
eas:

[Link]
cedcompl
i
ancebehav
ior

[Link]
sion-
maki
ng

[Link]
for
t.

Wewi
l
llookatt
hemai
nfi
ndi
ngst
ohav
eemer
gedf
rom eachar
ea.
1. For
cedCompl
ianceBehav
ior

Whensomeoneisforcedtodo(publ
i
cly)somet
hingt
hey(pri
vat
ely
)real
l
ydon'
twantto
do,di
ssonancei
screatedbet
weent hei
rcogni
ti
on(Idi
dn'twanttodothi
s)andthei
r
behav
ior(
Ididi
t)
.

Forcedcompl i
anceoccurswhenani ndi
v i
dualperformsanactionthatisinconsi
stent
wit
hhi sorherbelief
[Link]
orcan'tbechanged,sinceitwasalreadyinthepast,
sodissonancewillneedtobereducedbyr e-ev
aluati
ngthei
ratt
it
udetowhatt heyhav e
[Link]
cti
onhasbeentestedexperimental
ly:

In an intr
iguing experiment,Festi
ngerand Car l
smi t
h( 1959)asked part
ici
pantsto
perform aser i
esofdul ltasks(suchast urni
ngpegsi napegboar dforanhour).Asyou
cani magine,participant'
sat t
it
udestowar dthistaskwer ehi
ghl
ynegativ
[Link] e
thenpai deither$1or$20t otel
lawai t
ingparti
cipant(rel
ayaconfederat
e)t hatt
he
taskswer er eall
yi nterest
[Link] lofthepar ti
cipant
sagreedtowal kintothe
waitingroom andper suadethesubjectaccomplicethatthebori
ngexperi
mentwoul dbe
fun.

2. Deci
sionMaki
ng

Li
fei
sfi
l
ledwi
thdeci
sions,
anddeci
sions(
asagener
alr
ule)ar
ousedi
ssonance.

Forexampl e,supposey ouhadt odecidewhet hert

oacceptaj obinanabsol ut
ely
beaut
ifular
eaoft hecountr
y,ortur
ndownt hejobsoyoucoul
dbeneary ourfr
iendsand
famil
[Link]
herway ,y
ouwoul dexper
iencedi
ssonance.I
fyout
ookthejobyouwoul dmi ss
yourlovedones;ifyouturnedthejobdown,youwoul dpi
neforthebeauti
fulstreams,
mount ai
ns,andvall
eys.

Bothalt
ernat
iveshav ethei
rgoodpointsandbadpoint
[Link] ubisthatmakinga
deci
sioncutsoffthepossibil
i
tythatyoucanenjoyt
headv ant
agesoft heunchosen
al
ter
nati
ve,yetitassuresyouthatyoumustacceptt
hedisadvantagesofthechosen
al
ter
nati
ve.

Peoplehav esever alwayst or educedissonancet hatisarousedbymaki ngadeci si

on
(Festi
nger ,
1964).Onet hingt heycandoi stochanget hebehav i
[Link] edearl
i
er,thi
s
i
sof tenv erydif
ficult
,sopeopl efrequentl
yempl oyav ar
iet
yofment almaneuvers.A
commonwayt or educedi ssonancei stoi ncr
easet heat t
racti
venessoft hechosen
alt
ernativ
eandt odecr easet heattr
acti
venessoft herej
ectedalter
[Link]
sisreferr
ed
toas" spreadi
ngapar tthealternati
ves.
"

3. Ef
for
t
I
tal
soseemst obethecasethatweval
uemosthi
ghl
ythosegoal
sori
temswhi
chhav
e
r
equi
redconsi
derabl
eef
fortt
oachiev
e.

Thisi sprobablybecausedi ssonancewoul dbecausedi fwespentagr eateffortto

achievesomet hingandt henev aluat
editnegati
vel
[Link],ofcourse, spendy ear
sof
effortintoachievingsomet hingwhi chturnsoutt obealoadofr ubbishandt hen,in
ordertoav oidthedi ssonancet hati
tproduces,tr
ytoconvi
nceour selvest hatwedi dn'
t
reall
yspendy ear sofeffort
,orthattheeffortwasreal
lyqui
teenjoy
abl e,ort hati
twasn't
reall
yal otofeffort.

Infact,t
hough,itseemswef i
nditeasi
ertopersuadeoursel vesthatwhatwehave
achiev
edi sworthwhil
eandt hat
'swhatmostofusdo,ev aluati
nghighl
ysomethi
ng
whoseachievementhascostusdear-whetherot
herpeoplet hinkit
'smuchcopornot!
Thismethodofreducingdi
ssonancei
sknownas'effor
tjust
if
ication'
.

I
fweputef for
tint
oat askwhi chwehavechosentocar r
yout,andthet
asktur
nsout
badly
,weexperi
[Link]
educethi
sdissonance,
wear emoti
vat
edtotr
yto
thi
nkthatt
hetasktur
nedoutwel l
.

3.
6Reduct
ionofDi
ssonance

Cognit
ive di
ssonance theoryisf ounded on the assumpt ion thatindi
vidual
s seek
consi
stencybetweentheirexpect
ationsandthei
rreali
[Link] hi
s,peopleengage
i
napr ocesscall
eddissonancereductiontobri
ngt heircogni t
ionsandact ionsi
nl i
ne
withoneanot [Link]
scr eat
ionofuni f
ormi
tyallowsf oral esseningofpsy chol
ogical
tensi
onanddistress.

Bef
orey
ougof
urt
her
,her
eisanact
ivi
tyf
ory
ou.

Act
ivi
ty3.
1

Out
li
net
hest
rat
egi
esf
orr
educt
ionofdi
ssonance.

3.
7TheFoxandt
heGr
apesi
l
lust
rat
ion

Aclassici
ll
ustr
ati
onofcogniti
vedissonancei sexpressedi nt
hefable"TheFoxandt he
Grapes".Inthestory
,af oxseessomehi gh-hanginggrapesandwi shestoeatt hem.
Whent hefoxisunabletothi
nkofawayt or eachthem,hedeci desthatthegrapesare
probabl
ynotwor t
heating,wi
ththejusti
fi
cati
ont hegr apesprobabl
yarenotr i
peorthat
theyaresour(hencethecommonphr ase"sourgr apes").Themoralthataccompanies
thestoryi
s"Anyfoolcandespi
sewhathecannotget
".Thisexamplefol
lowsapat ter
n:
one desir
es somethi
ng,finds i
tunatt
ainabl
e,and reduces one'
s dissonance by
cri
ti
cizi
ngit
.

Thi
spat
ter
ncanal
sober
efer
redt
oas"
adapt
ivepr
efer
encef
ormat
ion"
.

Her
enowi
sthesummar
yoft
hesect
ion.

3.
8Sect
ionSummar
y

Congratulat
ions!Youhavenowcomet otheendoft hi
ssectiononcogni ti
vedissonance.
Inthissecti
onwedef i
nedthet er
m cognit
ivedissonanceanddi scussedi t
sor i
[Link]
also descri
bedt heconceptsincogni t
ivedissonancet heoryincludi
ng reductionof
[Link]
ntthatatt
it
udechangei skeyinreduct
ionofdi ssonance.

ThatmarkstheendofUnit2oft
hemoduleonsoci
alpsychol
ogy
.Ihopeyoufoundthe
l
earni
nginter
est
[Link]
oreyoutakeabr
eak,makesurey ouat
tempttheendofunit
questi
onsthatf
oll
ow tofi
ndouthow muchyoucanr ememberfrom whatyouhave
l
earntint
heenti
reuni
t.