Nature, History and

Scope of Social
Psychology
 NATURE
 Social Psychology is a scientific study of how a person’s thoughts, feelings
and behaviors are influenced by the actual, imagined or implied presence
of others.
• Scientific: uses empirical method of investigation
• Thoughts, feelings, Behaviors: psychological attributes that are measurable
in a human being.
• Presence of others: Suggests that we are prone to social influence.
 For example: how people’s attitudes might change after hearing a particular
advertising message, and why people behave more aggressively when they
are in a group setting than when they are alone.
 Social psychology studies the causes of social behavior and social
thought
 identifies factors that shape our feelings, behavior, and thought in social
situations.
 It seeks to accomplish this goal through the use of scientific methods,
 and it takes careful note of the fact that social behavior and thought are
influenced by a wide range of social, cognitive, environmental, cultural,
and biological factors.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SOCIOLOGY
AND SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
 Sociology
• examines general rules and theories about groups, ranging from small
groups to large societies, and specifically how such groups affect
people’s attitudes and behavior.
• Sociologists are likely to focus on broad group-level variables such as
culture, social class, and ethnicity.
• For example, a sociologist might examine why rates of homicide in the
United States are much higher than in other countries.
 Social Psychology
• social psychologists study how individual people behave in groups, as
well as how one’s group or culture can influence a person’s behavior.
• However, social psychologists are more likely to focus on the effects of
immediate and specific variables, such as mood, temperature, and other
people, on attitudes and behaviors,
• and to examine the influence of the group on the individual, not simply
the effect of the group in general.
 HISTORY OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
Early Years:
 There is no sort of confirmation regarding how social psychology started.
 Between 1908 and 1924, social psychology became an independent
field.

 William McDougall:
• the word “Social Psychology” was first used in 1908 in a book ‘Intoduction
to Social Psychology’ by William McDougall.
• Viewed social behavior as stemming from innate tendencies/instincts.
 Floyd Allport:
• the word “Social Psychology” was again used in 1924 in Floyd Allport’s
book .
• Viewed social behavior as stemming from many different factors,
including the presence of other persons and their specific actions.
• Emphasized the value of experimentation and contained discussions of
actual research that had been conducted on such topics as conformity,
the ability to recognize others’ emotions from their facial expressions and
the impact of audiences on task performance.
• Allport’s view is much closer to the modern orientation of social
psychology.
 1930s:
• The decade following publication of Allport’s text were marked by rapid
growth in the field of social psychology.
• New issues were studied and new methods for investigating them were
devised.

 Muzafer Sherif (1935): studied the nature and impact of social norms (rules
indicating how individuals ought to behave).
 Kurt Lewin (1939): carried out research on the nature of leadership and
other group processes.
 The Youth of Social Psychology: 1940s, 1950s
and 1960s
 A break due to World War II (1939-1945).
 Social psychology again started its expansion after WW-II in the areas
such as the influence of groups and group membership on individual
behavior, link between personality traits and social behavior.

 Leon Festinger (1957):

• Student of Kurt Lewin
• Developed the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance: sense of discomfort that
occurs when a person’s behavior does not correspond to that person’s
attitudes.
 1960s:
The number of social psychologists rose dramatically, and the field
expanded to include practically almost every aspect of social interaction
like
• Interpersonal attraction and romantic love,
• Impression Formation,
• Attribution,
• Social Influence (conformity, compliance, obedience)
• Causes and prevention of human aggression,
• Effects of physical environment on social behavior
Maturation Phase: 1970s, 1980s and 1990s
 The expansion of the field accelerated in 1970s with topics such as:
• Gender Differences (investigation of the extent to which the behavior of
women and men actually differs)
• Sex Discrimination (studying impact of negative stereotypes concerning
the traits supposedly possessed by both genders)
• Environmental Psychology (the investigations of the effects of the physical
environment- noise, heat, crowding, air quality, on social behavior)

 Two larger-scale trends took shape during 1980s:

• Cognitive Perspective
• Applications
 SUMMARY
Early Years
 1908 - William McDougall (instincts)
 1924 - Floyd Allport (factors, experimentation)
 1935 – Muzafer Sherif (Social Norms)
 1939 – Kurt Lewin (Leadership and group processes)

Social Psychology’s Youth

 1939 to 1945 - Break due to WW-II
 1940s and 50s – expansion into several directions (group
membership, personality and social behavior)
 1957 – Leon Festinger (Cognitive Dissonance)
 1960s – social psychology expanded into every aspect of social
interaction (interpersonal attraction, romantic love, impression formation,
attribution, social influence, aggression, physical environment)

Maturation Phase
 1970s – Gender differences, Sex Discrimination, Environmental
Psychology
 1980s – Cognitive Perspective, Applications
 MODERN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY/
SCOPE/FUTURE/MODERN TRENDS OF
SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY
 Following are the modern disciplines which will be the focus of attention
in the near future:
1. Cognitive Processes
2. Role of Emotions
3. Relationships
4. Social Neuroscience
5. Implicit Processes
6. Multicultural Perspective
Cognitive Processes:
 In the past, social psychologists could be divided into two distinct
groups:
• those who were primarily interested in social behavior: how people
act in social situations
• those who were primarily interested in social cognition—how
people attempt to make sense out of the social world and to
understand themselves and others.
 This division has now totally disappeared.
 In modern social psychology, behavior and cognition are seen as
intimately, and continuously, linked.
 we cannot understand how and why people behave in certain ways in
social situations without considering their thoughts, memory, intentions,
emotions, attitudes, and beliefs.
 Focus on a continuing and complex interplay between social thought
and social behavior.
 What we think about others influences our actions toward them, and the
consequences of these actions then affect our social thought.
 So, the loop is continuous and in trying to understand the social side of
life, modern social psychology integrates both.
Role of Emotions:
 Emotions play a key role in many aspects of social life.
• For instance, imagine that you want a favor from a friend—when would
you ask for it, when this person is in a good mood or a bad one?
• Research findings indicate that you would do much better when that
person is in a good mood, because positive moods (or affect,) do
increase our tendency to offer help to others (e.g., Isen & Levin,1972).
 Our impressions of others (and our thoughts about them) are strongly
influenced by our current moods.
• For example, if you are meeting someone for the first time, your current
mood might influence your reactions to this person.
Relationships:
 relationships with others are the building blocks of social life.
 Social psychology focuses on how the relationships develop, change,
strengthen or end.
 When they are successful and satisfying, they add tremendously to our
happiness, but when they go “wrong,” they can disrupt every other
aspect of our lives, and undermine our psychological health and well-
being, and even our own self-concept.
 In recent years, interest in these topics has increased greatly, and
relationships are now receiving more research attention than ever
before. The results of this research have been and continue to be
remarkably revealing.
Social Neuroscience:
 An area of research in social psychology that seeks knowledge about
the neural and biological bases of social processes.
 Social psychologists has started using the same basic tools as other
scientists—they study events in the brain (through the use of fMRI and
other kinds of brain scans), other neural activity, and even changes in
the immune system in order to determine how these events are related
to important social processes.
 For example: It has been suggested that mirror neurons play a key role
in empathy.
 For example: It has been suggested that mirron neurons play a key role
in empathy.
• A study by Montgomery, Seeherman, and Haxbyan (2009):
• Hypothesis: people who score high on empathy would show more
activity in the frontal operculum (where mirror neurons are located)
when they view social facial expressions shown by others.
• Two groups—ones who scored high in empathy and ones who scored
low to video clips of others’ facial expressions (e.g., smiling, frowning) or
to faces that showed nonsocial movements (i.e., movements not
associated with particular emotions).
• Activity in the brains of both groups of participants was recorded
through fMRI scans as they watched the videos.
• Results: as predicted, people high or moderate in empathy did indeed
show higher activity in frontal operculum than people low in empathy.
Implicit (Non-conscious) Processes:
 In many cases, we really don’t know why we think or behave as we do
in social situations.
 Our thought and actions are shaped by factors and processes of which
we are only dimly aware and which often take place in an automatic
manner without any conscious thought or intensions on our part.
 This is why social psychologists are reluctant to trust common sense as a
basis for reliable information about social behavior or social thought.
 We are unaware of many of the factors that influence how we think and
how we behave, thus cannot report on them accurately.
Multicultural Perspective:
 Refers to the focus on understanding the cultural and ethnic factors that
influence social behavior.
 Earlier, it was considered that cultural, ethnic and gender differences
are relatively unimportant.
 They have been increasing sensitivity to the fact that an individual’s
cultural, ethnic and racial heritage often play a key role in self-identity
and that this, in turn, can exert important effects on behavior.
Field Theory
 INTRODUCTION
 Developed by Kurt Lewin (Father of Modern Social Psychology).
 Also known as the Neo-Gestalt, Topological, Vector-Valence, or Dynamic
Theory or Conceptual Model of Human Behavior.
 Examines the patterns of interaction between the individual and the total
field/ environment.
 based on homeostatic or equilibrating principles, i.e., the ultimate goal of
behavior is to return to the state of equilibrium.
 Lewin translated the Gestalt principle into social experience suggesting that
an individual should be considered as a whole instead of being composed
of different parts, i.e., a person is a whole system consisting of subsystems.
 ASSUMPTIONS
1. Realities: Psychological laws must be based on realities because only
what is concrete can have effect.
2. Total Environment: All aspects of a situation/environment must be taken
into account.
3. Interdependence of events: There is an interdependence of events in any
given field. Focus should be on more global factors as simple associative
links in behavior are insufficient.
4. Principle of Contemporaneity: Only that which is present in the situation
can influence it's outcome (in contrast to Freud, behaviorists and humanistic
psychologists).
 CONSTRUCTS
Lewin's theory can be broadly divided into:-
A. Descriptive Constructs
1. Life Space
2. Locomotion

B. Dynamic Constructs:
1. Need
2. Tension
3. Force
4. Valence
Descriptive Constructs
Provide description of the behavior.
1. Life Space:
 each individual exists in a psychological space, called life space.
 is the totality of all possible events that influence the individual.
 represents the person and his environment as one constellation of
interdependent factors.
 Therefore, Behavior is a function of a person interacting with his environment.
B = f (P.E)
 Since, the life space is an interaction of the person and the environment, it can be
concluded that behavior is a function of life space.
B= f (LSp)
2. Locomotion:
 The literal meaning of locomotion is ‘movement.’
 Here, it doesn't mean the actual movement in space but the change
in psychological space, a restructuring of life space.
 Thus, locomotion is a behavior which may be an overt act, an attitude
shift, or a newly established connection between two events, etc.
 Motivation is the reason behind Locomotion.
 Lewin holds that even those behaviors, which seem to be unmotivated
or merely automatic, are in fact caused by tensions in the life space.
 Therefor, All behavior, all locomotion, is motivated.
Dynamic Constructs
Provide dynamism to the behavior.
These constructs are motivational in nature.

1. Need:
 Any motivated state resulting from physiological conditions, the desire
for an environmental object or an intention to achieve goal.
Genuine needs Quasi needs
• Arise from biological conditions • Purely psychic needs
important for survival.
• Example: Hunger, Thirst • Example: stress arising from
tensions
2. Tension:
 tensions are emotional states that accompany a need.
 serves to motivate behavior in the direction of tension reduction.
 Tension leads to disequilibrium
 Tension Reduction leads to Equilibrium
 Whenever psychological need exists, a state of tension exists within the
individual. Tension is a state of the system which tries to change itself in such
a way that it become equal to the state of surrounding system.
• For example: When an infant needs food, he is thrown into a state of tension,
which is reduced by food.
 Features of Tension
1. In the absence of a suitable goal object, the tension may be
discharged by a substitute action that obtains the same end.
• For example: if a person has an intention to write to a friend, this
establishes a tension in him which would persist until the letter is
written. However, the tension may be discharged, if the person phones
his friend instead.
2. A task that has been interrupted is likely to be resumed subsequently if
the subject is given a chance to do so, because the tension for
completing the task has not been discharged.
3. Zeigarnik effect: Interrupted tasks are recalled more than the
completed ones, simply because the tension to complete the task still
persists in individual.
3. Force:
 Force is generated by the environment whenever a need exists.
 It has four explicit attributes:
i) Magnitude
II) Direction
iii) A point of application
It makes things happen. It leads to change in the environment or the
iv)
person himself.
4. Valence:
 It helps to account for choices in behavior.
 It is a conceptual property of the objects.

Positive Valence Negative Valence

• Objects that satisfy needs or are • Objects that threaten the
attractive have positive valence individual or are repellent have
negative valence

• Example: to a hungry child ,an • Example: to a child who is

apple has positive valence. experiencing the ill effects of
having eaten 7-8 apples, an
apple has negative valence.
 Lewin holds that all behavior is motivated.
 It is driven by tensions, moved by forces, directed by valence, and
addressed to goals.
 The ultimate goal of all motivated behavior is to return to a state of
equilibrium or homeostasis in which individual obtains relief from
tension.
 DIAGRAMATIC REPRESENTATION
Ellipse:
 A large ellipse represents the individual's life space, which is
differentiated into various regions with the help of boundaries.
 Regions can be anything, a Group or Class membership (family);
Roles and Status (being a teacher); Self Percepts (I am beautiful);
Objects, Events, Other people (a doll, 15th August, a nephew).
 Example: A blank circle can represent the life space of a new infant
since he is too immature to have differentiated regions in his life
space. On the other hand, the highly educated and imaginative man
shows a well-differentiated life space.
Vector:
 A vector indicates the force that acts upon the person.
 Length of the Vector = Intensity of the force
 Orientation of the Vector = Direction of force
 Arrowhead = Point of application.
Psychological Distance:
 The distance of any region from the individual represents the
psychological distance.
 Behavior implies locomotion from one region to another.
 Locomotion takes places because the system is motivated to return
to equilibrium from disequilibrium.
 The more the psychological distance, the less the force acting upon
the individual.
 Disequilibrium exists due to needs, tensions, and valence.
 Need = motivated state of the organism.
 Tensions = emotional states that accompany needs.
 Objects that satisfy need are attractive and have positive valence.
Objects that threaten the individual have negative valence.
 Thus, there are various external and internal forces acting upon the
individual.
 CONFLICTS
 If two equally balanced vectors are operating, the result is a conflict.
 Lewin(1936) has given the best framework for understanding various
types of conflict .
 Lewin defined a conflict situation as one in which the force acting on
the person are opposite in direction and about equal in strength.
 He has classified conflicts into 4 kinds:
i) Approach - Approach conflict
ii) Avoidance - Avoidance conflict
iii) Approach - Avoidance conflict
iv) Multiple Approach - Avoidance Conflict
Approach-Approach/ Double Approach Conflict:
 choice between two or more desirable goals.
 The choice of one implies the rejection of other.
For example: deciding weather to go for a movie or a picnic on
Saturday.
Avoidance-Avoidance/ Double Avoidance Conflict:
 forced choice between two or more equally undesirable goals.
 The individual is caught between the "devil and the deep sea".
 For example: the choice between fighting during war with possible
death or fleeing during war resulting in guilt feeling.
 In this case the individual is torn by indecision.
Approach-Avoidance Conflict:
 strong tendencies to approach and avoid the same goal.
 The individual is drawn to and repelled by the same situation at the
same time.
 For example: A woman may want to marry for sexual, social, or
security reasons but she also wants to avoid marriage due to the
responsibilities and loss of freedom it engenders.
Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict:
 choosing among several different goals that each have positive and
negative aspects.
 Each goal has its good and bad points.
 Foe example: For boys, there is often a choice between going for higher
studies or starting on job. Immediately getting a job may mean financial
interdependence but they wonder later whether studies would have helped
them to further their career. By continuing education, they delay financial
interdependence and reduce job alternatives for a rosier future.
 In most instances an impulsive decision rather than a logical one settles the
matter. After making the impulsive decision, the individual concentrates on
the advantages to be derived from selected goals and ignores the rejected
goals.
 CRITICISM
[Link] main objection is that the theory does not account for all behavior.
For example :
• It does not allow for spontaneous action or creative behavior since,
the individual only responds to disturbance.
• It does not account for altruistic behavior, which may even lead to the
destruction of the system itself.
2. This theory is descriptive but not explanatory.
3. The past of the person has been ignored.
4. The concept of homeostasis is thought to be necessary but not
sufficient as the theory of motivation. The richness of human experience
and complex structure of personality cannot be explained simply as the
avoidance of disequilibrium.
5. Lack of clarity in the theory due to overlapping constructs.
• For example: it is difficult to explain the difference between need and
force.
6. Lack of scientific basis.
• Critics allege that diagrammatic representation is just another way of
presenting a theory. It does not make the theory more valid.
Thank You
SOCIAL COGNITION
(Schemas)
 SOCIAL COGNITION
 Refers to the way in which we interpret, analyze, remember, and use
information about the social world.
 how we think about the social world, our attempts to understand it,
and ourselves and our place in it.
 focuses on the ways in which people think about other people and
how those cognitions influence behavior toward those other people.
 Schemas
 Basic component of social cognition.
 Mental structures that help us to organize social information and that
guide the processing of such information.
 develop through experience.
 Help in organizing the large amount of social information in an
efficient manner.
 Once formed, schemas are often resistant to change.
 schemas have powerful effects on what we notice (attention), enter
into memory (encoding) and later recall and remember (retrieval).
 Stronger the schema, stronger is its influence on social thinking and
memory.
 PRIMING
 Transitory increase in the ease with which specific schemas can be
activated produced by experiences relevant to the schemas.
 It is a situation that occurs when events increase the availability of
specific types of information in the memory.
 Schemas can be temporarily activated by priming.
 UNPRIMING
 The effects of schemas tend to persist until they are somehow
expressed in thought or behavior and after that it disappears.
 If some thoughts or actions are primed by a recent experience, this
priming only persists until it somehow finds expression. Once it does,
the effect disappears.
 Once primed, schemas are somehow expressed and then unpriming
occurs and the influence of the primed schemas disappears.
 Thus, although priming is a powerful effect, it does not last forever.
 But, if primed schemas are not expressed, their effects may persist
for a longer period of time.
 Priming and Unpriming
Schema is primed Effects persist
Schema is not
(activated by some expressed in (schemas influence
experience, event thought or behavior social thought or
or stimulus) behavior)

Effects of schema
Schema is Primed Unpriming dissipate
(activated by some (schema is expressed (schemas no longer
experience, event or in behavior or thought) influence social
stimulus) thought/behavior)
 PERSEVERANCE EFFECT
 Schemas can even distort our understanding of the social world.
• For example, schemas play an important role in forming stereotypes,
prejudice and making discrimination.
 Perseverance effect refers to the tendency for schemas to remain
unchanged even in the face of contradictory information.
 SELF-FULFILLING EFFECTS
 Also known as Self-confirming effects.
 Refers to the tendency of the schemas to influence our responses to
the social world in ways that make it consistent with the schema.
 Self-confirming effect of a schema causes us to behave in ways that
create confirmation of them.
 For example: a student would perform better, if his teacher believes
him to be academically bright.
 The self-fulfilling nature of schemas can be harmful in case of
prejudice, stereotypes and discrimination.
Thank You
COGNITIVE
DISSONANCE
 COGNITIVE DISSONANCE
 Dissonance: an inconsistency or lack of agreement.
 Cognitive Dissonance refers to an internal state that results when individuals
notice inconsistency between two or more attitudes or between their
attitudes and their behavior.
 an unpleasant state that occurs when we notice that our attitudes and our
behavior are inconsistent.
 For Example:
• when you become aware of saying what you don’t really believe (e.g.,
praise something you don’t actually like “just to be polite”),
• make a difficult decision that requires you to reject an alternative you
find attractive,
• discover that something you’ve invested effort or money in is not as
good as you expected.
 Cognitive Dissonance leads to increased activity in left frontal cortex.
DISSONANCE AND ATTITUDE CHANGE

Strong reasons for Dissonance Attitude Change

engaging in
is Is
attitude-discrepant
behavior Weak Small

Weak reasons for Dissonance Attitude Change

engaging in
is Is
attitude-discrepant
behavior Strong Large
Classic Experiment on Cognitive Dissonance
 by Leon Festinger and James Carlsmith (1959)
 each male student volunteer was given an hour-long, very boring task of
sorting wooden spools and turning wooden pegs.
 After the hour, the experimenters asked the participant to tell the female
volunteer in the waiting room that the task was enjoyable.
 While half of the participants were paid only $1 to try to convince the
waiting woman, the other participants were paid $20.
 Prediction: many researchers would have predicted that the more the
participants were paid to lie, the more they would come to like the task,
because they were getting more reinforcement ($20) for doing so.
 Result: those participants who were paid only $1 for lying actually convinced
themselves that the task was interesting and fun.
 Reason: Cognitive Dissonance. Participants who were paid only $1
experienced discomfort at thinking that they would lie to someone for only a
dollar. Therefore, they must not be lying.
 Those who were paid more experienced no dissonance, because they knew
exactly why they were lying (for lots of money) and the money was a
sufficient amount to explain their behavior to their satisfaction.
 Those who were paid only $1 had to change their attitude toward the task so
that they would not really be lying and could maintain their self-image of
honesty.
 Less-leads-to-more effect:
• Less reasons or rewards for an action often leads to more dissonance
and therefore, greater attitude change.
 Indeed, the more money or other rewards that are offered to people for
them to behave in an attitude-discrepant way provides a justification for
their actions and can undermine the likelihood that attitude change will
occur.
 Small rewards lead to greater attitude change especially when people
believe that they were personally responsible for both the chosen course
of action and any negative effects it produced.
 For instance, when ordered by an authority to do a particular behavior
that is inconsistent with our personal attitudes, we may not feel
responsible for our actions and therefore not experience dissonance.
 Thus, coercion will serve to undermine dissonance.
STRATEGIES TO RESOLVE DISSONANCE

DIRECT METHODS:
1. Either change attitudes or alter behavior so that they are more consistent
with each other.
2. Acquire new information (justification) that supports the behavior.
3. Trivialization: Deciding that the inconsistency actually doesn’t matter. One
can engage in trivialization, concluding that the attitudes or behaviors in
question are not important, so any inconsistency between then is of no
importance.
INDIRECT METHOD:
 Here, the discrepancy between the attitude and behavior is left intact but the
unpleasant or negative feelings generated by dissonance are still reduced.
 This method is applicable when the attitude-behavior discrepancy involves
important attitudes or self-beliefs and thus, trivialization is not feasible.
 Self-Affirmation: restoring positive self-evaluations that are threatened by the
dissonance.
• Focus on positive self-attributes i.e., good things about oneself.
• For Example: when you praise s
• omething you don’t actually like and feel the dissonance, you can self-affirm
by saying “I did so just to be polite as I am a considerate person.”
Thank You
SOCIAL COGNITION
 SOCIAL COGNITION
 Refers to the way in which we interpret, analyze, remember, and use
information about the social world.
 how we think about the social world, our attempts to understand it,
and ourselves and our place in it.
 focuses on the ways in which people think about other people and
how those cognitions influence behavior toward those other people.
 Schemas
 Basic component of social cognition.
 Mental structures that help us to organize social information and that
guide the processing of such information.
 develop through experience.
 Help in organizing the large amount of social information in an
efficient manner.
 Once formed, schemas are often resistant to change.
 schemas have powerful effects on what we notice (attention), enter
into memory (encoding) and later recall and remember (retrieval).
 Stronger the schema, stronger is its influence on social thinking and
memory.
 PRIMING
 Transitory increase in the ease with which specific schemas can be
activated produced by experiences relevant to the schemas.
 It is a situation that occurs when events increase the availability of
specific types of information in the memory.
 Schemas can be temporarily activated by priming.
 UNPRIMING
 The effects of schemas tend to persist until they are somehow
expressed in thought or behavior and after that it disappears.
 If some thoughts or actions are primed by a recent experience, this
priming only persists until it somehow finds expression. Once it does,
the effect disappears.
 Once primed, schemas are somehow expressed and then unpriming
occurs and the influence of the primed schemas disappears.
 Thus, although priming is a powerful effect, it does not last forever.
 But, if primed schemas are not expressed, their effects may persist
for a longer period of time.
 Priming and Unpriming
Schema is primed Effects persist
Schema is not
(activated by some expressed in (schemas influence
experience, event thought or behavior social thought or
or stimulus) behavior)

Effects of schema
Schema is Primed Unpriming dissipate
(activated by some (schema is expressed (schemas no longer
experience, event or in behavior or thought) influence social
stimulus) thought/behavior)
 PERSEVERANCE EFFECT
 Schemas can even distort our understanding of the social world.
• For example, schemas play an important role in forming stereotypes,
prejudice and making discrimination.
 Perseverance effect refers to the tendency for schemas to remain
unchanged even in the face of contradictory information.
 SELF-FULFILLING EFFECTS
 Also known as Self-confirming effects.
 Refers to the tendency of the schemas to influence our responses to
the social world in ways that make it consistent with the schema.
 Self-confirming effect of a schema causes us to behave in ways that
create confirmation of them.
 For example: a student would perform better, if his teacher believes
him to be academically bright.
 The self-fulfilling nature of schemas can be harmful in case of
prejudice, stereotypes and discrimination.
 Heuristics
 Heuristics are simple rules for making complex decisions or drawing
inferences in a rapid and efficient manner.
 Cognitive rules of thumb used to save mental effort.
 At any given time, we are capable of handling of certain amount of
information; additional input beyond this level puts us into a state of
information upload.
 To deal with such situations, people adopt various strategies designed to
“stretch” their cognitive resources to let them do more with less effort.
 Types of Heuristics
1. Representativeness Heuristic
2. Availability Heuristic
3. Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic
4. Status Quo Heuristic
Representativeness Heuristic
 Strategyfor making judgements based on the extent to which current stimuli or
events resemble other stimuli or categories.
 Judgements are made on the basis of a relatively simple rule.
 The more similar an individual is to typical members of a given group, the more
likely he is to belong to that group.
Availability Heuristic
 Strategy
for making judgements on the basis of how easily a specific information
can be brought to mind.
 We can bring some types of information to mind quite easily suggests that it may
indeed be important so it should influence our judgments and decisions.
 But relying on availability in making social judgments can also lead to errors.
 Specifically,
it can lead us to overestimate the likelihood of events that are
dramatic but rare because they are easy to bring to mind.
 For
example: many people fear travel in airplanes more than travel in automobiles,
even though the chances of dying in an auto accident are hundreds of times
higher.
 Ease Rule: The easier it is to bring information to mind, the greater its impact on
subsequent judgments or decisions.
 Amount Rule: The more information we can think of, the greater its impact on our
judgements.

 Judgement related to emotions - Ease rule

 Judgement related to facts – Amount rule
Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic
 Strategyto use a number or value as an anchor or starting point or reference point
or focal point to which we then make adjustment.
 Tendency to deal with uncertainty in many situations by using something we do
know as a starting point, and then making adjustments to it.
 For example: The seller’s price provides an anchor (starting point), to which buyers
try to make adjustments in order to lower the price they pay. Such lowering makes
the buyer feel that, by comparison to the original asking price, they are getting a
very good deal.
Status Quo Heuristic
 Preferring things whose status quo i.e., current state of affairs remains same.
 Objects and options that are more easily retrieved from memory may be judged
as better because their status quo is same than objects and options that are new,
rarely encountered, or represent a change from the status quo.
 Forexample: people usually prefer a product which has been in the market for the
last twenty years as compared to a new product.
 Errors in Social Cognition
Basic/ General Errors Situation Specific Errors
1. Negativity Bias 1. Counterfactual Thinking
2. Optimistic Bias 2. Thought Suppression
a) Overconfidence barrier
b) Planning Fallacy
Basic/General Errors
Occur in wide range of social situations.

1. Negativity Bias
 Refersto the fact that we show greater sensitivity to negative information than to
positive information.
 Forexample: we are faster and more accurate in detecting negative facial
expressions than positive facial expressions.
2. Optimistic Bias
 powerful predisposition to overlook risks and expect things to turn out well.
 mostpeople believe that they are more likely than others to experience positive
events, and less likely to experience negative events.
a) Overconfidence Barrier:
 Thetendency to have more confidence in the accuracy of our own judgments
than is reasonable.
 Forexample: entrepreneurs who start a new business believe that their chances
of making it work are much higher than is actually true.
b) Planning Fallacy
 Optimism effects our ability to plan efficiently.
 The tendency to make optimistic predictions concerning how long a given task
will take for completion.
 Tendency to believe that we can get more done in a given period of time than
we actually can or that a given task will take less time than it really will.
 For
example: most of the students adopt unrealistically optimistic schedules for
completing their exam syllabus.
Situation Specific Errors
Occur only in certain kind of social situations.

1. Counterfactual Thinking
 The
tendency to imagine other outcomes in a situation than the ones that actually
occurred .
 “What might have been”
 Forexample: a student getting low grade doing counterfactual thinking as “If only
I had studied more.”
Effects of Counterfactual Thinking:
1. Influences the affective state:
• Can either boost or reduce the current mood of a person.

Upward counterfactuals Downward counterfactuals

• comparing one’s current outcomes • comparing one’s current outcomes

with more favorable ones. with less favorable/worse ones.

• Result: feelings of dissatisfaction and • Result: positive feelings of satisfaction

envy and hopefulness.
2. Mitigate (Reduce) Bitterness of disappointment:
• After tragic events, such as death of a loved one, people often find solace in
thinking: “Nothing more could be done; the death was inevitable.”

3. Helps to Perform Better:

• By imagining how we might have done better, we may come up with improved
strategies and ways of using our effort more efficiently.
2. Thought Suppression
 Trying to prevent oneself from thinking about certain topics.
 Forexample: if a person is feeling nervous while giving a speech in front of others,
he would probably try to avoid thinking (thought suppression) about all the ways
in which he could fail.
 Often successful, but such thoughts may sometimes actually increase in
frequency.
Thank You
Aggression
 AGGRESSION
 Behavior directed toward the goal of harming another living being
who is motivated to avoid such treatment.
 Direct Aggression: actions aimed directly at the target that clearly stem
from the aggressor (e.g., physical assaults, pushing, throwing something at
another person, shouting, making insulting remarks).
 Indirect Aggression: actions that allow the aggressor to conceal his or her
identity from the victim, and that, in some cases, make it difficult for the victim
to know that they have been the target of intentional harm-doing (e.g.,
spreading vicious rumors about the target person, gossiping behind this
person’s back, telling others not to associate with the intended victim, making
up stories to get them in trouble).
 Hostile Aggression: aggression in which the prime objective is inflicting
some kind of harm on the victim.
 Instrumental Aggression: Aggression in which the primary goal is not to
harm the victim but rather attainment of some other goal (for e.g., control
of valued resources, or praise from others for behaving in a “tough”
manner).
 PERSPECTIVES ON AGGRESSION
1. Biological Perspective
2. Drive Theories
3. Modern Theories
a) Social Learning Perspective
b) General Aggression Model
Biological Perspective (our basic nature as a species)
 oldest and probably most famous explanation for human aggression.
Sigmud Freud: aggression stems mainly from a powerful death wish
(thanatos) we all possess.
• this instinct is initially aimed at self-destruction, but is soon redirected
outward, toward others.
Konrad Lorenz: aggression springs mainly from an inherited fighting
instinct, which ensures that only the strongest males will obtain mates and
pass their genes on to the next generation.
 The fact that a given form of behavior is influenced by genetic factors does
not mean that such behavior must occur or is an essential part of “human
nature.”
 It
simply means that a potential for engaging in such behavior exists, and is
generated, at least in part, by biological factors.
Drive Theories (motive to harm others)
 Aggression stems from external conditions that elicit the motive to harm or
injure others.
 Externalconditions—especially frustration— elicit a strong motive to harm
others which leads to overt acts of aggression.
 Itcan be initiated by several factors like provocations from others or even
by the presence of a weapon in the room.
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis:
 most famous drive theory
 Proposed by Dollard et al.,1939
Frustration: anything that prevents us from reaching goals we are
seeking.
 Frustration leads to the arousal of a drive whose primary goal is that of
harming some person or object (primarily the perceived cause of
frustration).
 suggeststhat frustration is the strongest, or perhaps the only cause of
aggression.
 This hypothesis made two assertions:
(1) Frustration always leads to some form of aggression
(2) Aggression always stems from frustration
 In short, the theory held that frustrated people always engage in some
type of aggression and that all acts of aggression, in turn, result from
frustration.
Revised Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis:
 Revised by Leonard Berkowitz,1969
 States that frustration doesn’t always lead to aggression.
 Aggressionwould only occur in the presence of certain cues or triggers
(such as a casual joke, gesture or mild criticism) which would normally
be overlooked, but to the frustrated individual may be enough to
provoke an aggressive response.
 frustration,
caused by 'interference in goal-directed activity', does not
automatically result in aggression but produces a 'readiness' for
aggression which if 'triggered' can result in aggressive responses.
Modern Theories
 donot focus on a single factor (instincts, drives, frustration) as the primary
cause of aggression.
 Rather,
they draw on advances in many areas of psychology in order to
gain added insight into the factors that play a role in the occurrence of such
behavior.
a) Social Learning Perspective
b) General Aggression Model
Social Learning Perspective:
 Human beings are not born with a large array of aggressive responses at
their disposal.
 Humans acquire aggressive responses through direct experience or by
observing the behavior of others (i.e., social models—live people or
characters on television, in movies, or even in video games who behave
aggressively).
 Depending on their past experience and the cultures in which they live,
individuals learn
(1) various ways of seeking to harm others,
(2) which people or groups are appropriate targets for aggression,
(3) what actions by others justify retaliation or vengeance on their part,
(4) what situations or contexts are ones in which aggression is permitted or
even approved.
 The social learning perspective suggests that whether a specific person
will aggress in a given situation depends on many factors, including
• the person’s past experience,
• the current rewards associated with past or present aggression,
• attitudes and values that shape this person’s thoughts concerning the
appropriateness and potential effects of such behavior.
 Albert Bandura is the biggest supporter for this perspective.
General Aggression Model (GAM):
 Proposed by Anderson and Bushman in 2002
 aggression is triggered by a wide range of input variables that influence
arousal, affective stages, and cognitions.
a chain of events that may ultimately lead to overt aggression can be
initiated by two major types of input variables:
(1) Situational Factors- factors relating to the current situation
(2) Person Factors- factors relating to the individual involved
 SITUATIONAL FACTORS PERSONAL/INDIVIDUAL
FACTORS
• Related to the current situation • Related to people involved
• Frustration • Individual differences across people
• Some kind of provocation from another • Traits that predispose some individuals
person (e.g., an insult) toward aggression (e.g., high irritability)
• Exposure to other people behaving • Certain attitudes and beliefs about
aggressively (aggressive models, real or violence (e.g., believing that it is
in the media) acceptable and appropriate)
• Virtually anything that causes individuals • Tendency to perceive hostile intentions in
to experience discomfort—everything others’ behavior
from uncomfortably high temperatures to • Specific skills related to aggression (e.g.,
a dentist’s drill or even an extremely dull knowing how to fight or how to use
lecture. various weapons).
 According to the GAM, these situational and individual variables lead to
overt aggression through their impact on three basic processes:
1. Arousal: they may increase physiological arousal or excitement
2. Affective states: they can arouse hostile feelings and outward signs of
these (e.g., angry facial expressions)
3. Cognitions: they can induce individuals to think hostile thoughts or
can bring beliefs and attitudes about aggression to mind.
 Depending on individuals’ interpretations (appraisals) of the current
situation and restraining factors (e.g., the presence of police or the
threatening nature of the intended target person), they then engage
either in thoughtful action, which might involve restraining their anger, or
impulsive action, which can lead to overt aggressive actions.
 Individuals
who are exposed to high levels of aggression, either directly,
in the actions of others, or in films and video games, may tend to
become increasingly aggressive themselves.
 Repeated exposure to such stimuli serves to strengthen knowledge
structures (schemas) related to aggression.
 Asthese knowledge structures related to aggression grow stronger, it is
easier for these to be activated by situational or person variables.
 Thus, the people in question are truly “primed” for aggression.
General Aggression Model
 SUMMMARY
Perspectives on Aggression
• Biological Perspective (Freud, Lorenz)
• Drive Theories (frustration-aggression hypothesis)
• Modern Theories (Social Learning Perspective; General Aggression
Model)
 CAUSES OF AGGRESSION
Aggression doesn’t stem from one primary factor or just a few; rather, it is
influenced by a wide range of conditions that increase the likelihood that
people will engage in some form of aggression.
These conditions/situations/factors/causes are:
1. Basic (Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis, Provocation, Arousal)
2. Social (Social Exclusion, Exposure to Media Violence)
3. Cultural (Cultures of Honor, Sexual Jealousy, Male Gender Rule)
4. Personal (Personality and Gender)
5. Situational (Temperature, Alcohol)
Basic Causes of Aggression
a) Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis
b) Direct Provocation
1. Condescension
2. Teasing
c) Excitation Transfer Theory
Direct Provocation
 Actions
by others that tend to trigger aggression in the recipient, often
because they are perceived as stemming from malicious intent.
 physical
or verbal provocation from others is one of the strongest causes
of human aggression.
 When we are on the receiving end of some form of provocation from
others (criticism we consider unfair, sarcastic remarks, or physical
assaults) we tend to reciprocate, returning as much aggression as we
have received—or perhaps even more, especially if we are certain that
the other person meant to harm us.
Types of Direct Provocation
1. Condescension: expressions of arrogance on the part of others
(Harris, 1993).
• Harsh and unjustified criticism, especially criticism that attacks us rather
than our behavior, is another powerful form of provocation, and when
exposed to it, most people find it very difficult to avoid getting angry and
retaliating in some manner, either immediately or later on.
2. Teasing: provoking statements that call attention to an individual’s
flaws and imperfections, but can be, at the same time, somewhat playful in
nature.
• Teasing can range from mild, humorous remarks (e.g., “Hey! you look like
your hair just went through an electric mixer!”) through nicknames or
comments that truly seem designed to hurt.
• Research findings indicate that, the more individuals attribute teasing to
hostile motives, the more likely they are to respond aggressively.
Arousal (Excitation Transfer Theory)
 Proposed by Zillman(1983).
 This theory suggests that arousal occurring in one situation can persist
and intensify emotional reactions in later, unrelated situations.
 For instance, the arousal produced by a near miss in traffic can intensify
feelings of annoyance stemming from delays at an airport security gate.
 Such effects can occur when the people involved -
• are relatively unaware of the presence of residual arousal.
• recognize their residual arousal but attribute it to events occurring in the
present situation.
Excitation Transfer Theory
Social Causes of Aggression
a) Social Exclusion
b) Exposure to Media Violence
Social Exclusion
 Being rejected or excluded by others often leads to increases in
aggression against them by the excluded individuals, which, in turn,
could lead to even more exclusion—a kind of self-perpetuating, negative
cycle.
 Hostile Cognitive Mindset: rejection by others initiates a hostile cognitive
mind-set which activates cognitive structures in our minds that lead us to
perceive ambiguous or neutral actions by others as hostile in nature, and
to perceive aggression as common in social interactions and as an
appropriate kind of reaction.
 rejection by others is a strong antecedent of aggression, and it has such
effects because it leads us to perceive others’ actions as stemming from
hostile motives and a desire on their part to harm us.
Exposure to Media Violence
 Exposure to media violence has been found to increase aggression among
viewers.
 This is due to several factors, such as the priming of aggressive thoughts
and a weakening of restraints against aggression, and also to
desensitization to such materials.
 Playing violent video games increases aggressive cognition, aggressive
affect, and overt aggressive behavior.
• It also reduces empathy toward others and prosocial behavior.
• Individuals like to play these games not because of the aggressive content
but because the games satisfy motives for competence and mastery.
Cultural Causes of Aggression
beliefs, norms, and expectations in a given culture suggesting that
aggression is appropriate or required under certain circumstances.
a) Cultures of Honor
b) Sexual Jealousy
c) Male Gender Rule
Cultures of Honor
 Cultures
in which there are strong norms indicating that aggression is an
appropriate response to insults to one’s honor.
 Cohen and Nisbett (1994, 1997) suggest that they may be traced to the
fact that in some geographic areas, wealth was once concentrated
mainly in assets that could readily be stolen (e.g., cattle, slaves).
 Forthis reason, it became important for individuals to demonstrate that
they would not tolerate such thefts, or any other insult to their honor.
 Thus,
Norms condoning violence in response to insults to one’s honor
emerged and were widely accepted.
Sexual Jealousy
 It is the suspicion or fear of infidelity (unfaithful partner).
 In cultures of honor, infidelity by women is viewed as especially
threatening to male honor and can result in drastic responses—severe
punishment for both the women and men involved in such contacts.

From Evolutionary perspective:

 For men: sexual jealousy is focused on sexual infidelity.
• it may stem primarily from concern that children in the relationship are
not, in fact, theirs—they are the offspring of sexual rivals.
men are most likely to kill their intimate partners when they threaten to
leave the relationship, thus confirming suspicions of sexual infidelity.

 For women: it is focused on emotional infidelity—the withdrawal of

emotional support by a mate who is involved with other females.
• it may stem from the need for the resources and support that a mate
provides.
Male Gender Role
 Manhood is more precarious than womanhood: manhood can be lost
through many events (e.g., an inability to support one’s family, letting
others down, or losing face in front of his wife or friends).
 Moreover, physical aggression is part of men’s culturally defined gender
role in many cultures.
 This
suggests that threats to manhood may encourage aggression as a
means of restoring or protecting manhood.
 Research findings offer support for this view, and highlight the importance
of culturally defined gender roles in aggression.
Personal Causes of Aggression
While some individuals rarely lose their tempers or engage in aggressive
actions, others seem to be forever “losing it,” with potentially serious
consequences.
a) Personality (TASS model, Type A, Narcissism)
b) Gender Differences
Personality
1. The Traits As Situational Sensitivities Model (TASS Model)
 Developed by Marshall and Brown (2006)
 many personality traits function in a threshold-like manner, influencing
behavior only when situations evoke them.
 social behavior often derives from a complex interaction between
situational factors and personal traits.
 Individualshigh in a trait will manifest a relevant behavior at a lower level
of situational strength than the individuals who are low in the trait.
 Therefore, The tendency to behave aggressively (trait aggressiveness) will
only influence overt behavior when situational factors are strong enough
to activate it.
• People with High Trait Aggressiveness - weak provocations will stimulate
an aggressive reaction
• People with Low Trait Aggressiveness - very strong provocation is required
to trigger aggression.
 2. Personality Type and Aggression
Type A Type B
• High levels of competitiveness • Not highly competitive
• Time urgency (always in a hurry) • More relaxed
• Irritable, aggressive • Remain calm even in the face of
strong provocation
• Hostile Aggression: Aggression in which • Instrumental aggression: Aggression in
the prime objective is inflicting some which the primary goal is to attain other
kind of harm on the victim. goals aside from harming the victim
(control of valued resources or praise
from others for behaving in a “tough”
manner).
3. Narcissism and Aggression
 Narcissism: excessive self-love
 Forexample: individuals who agree with items such as “If I ruled the world
it would be a much better place” and “I am more capable than other
people” are high in narcissism.
 Narcissists react with exceptionally high levels of aggression when their
egos are threatened when other people say or do something that puts
their inflated self-image in danger.
 Narcissistic people may react strongly to even mild provocations
because they believe that they are so much better than other people,
and as a result, perceive even very mild critical comments from others as
strong insult to their inflated self-image.
Gender Differences
 Men are more likely than women to
1. engage in various forms of direct aggression.
2. aggress against others when they have not been provoked in any
manner.
• In situations where provocation is present, and especially when it is
intense, such differences tend to disappear.
Situational Causes of Aggression
1. Temperature:
 Hightemperatures tend to increase aggression, but only up to a point.
 Beyond some level, aggression declines as temperature rises. Because at
such levels, people feel very uncomfortable and their focus is to soothe
themselves rather than being aggressive.

2. Alcohol:
Consuming alcohol can increase aggression in both men and women,
perhaps because this drug reduces the individual’s capacity to process
information.
 SUMMARY
Causes of Aggression:
1. Basic (Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis; Provocation: Condescension,
Teasing; Arousal: Excitation Transfer Theory)
2. Social (Social Exclusion, Exposure to Media Violence)
3. Cultural (Cultures of Honor, Sexual Jealousy, Male Gender Rule)
4. Personal (Personality: TASS Model, Type A Personality, Narcissism;
Gender)
5. Situational (Temperature, Alcohol)
Thank You
Social Influence:
Conformity,
Compliance,
Obedience
 SOCIAL INFLUENCE
 The process through which the real or implied presence of others can
directly or indirectly influence the thoughts, feelings and behavior of
an individual.
 Following are the major types of social influence:
1. Conformity
2. Compliance
3. Obedience
 CONFORMITY
 Changing one’s own behavior to match that of other people.
A type of social influence in which individuals change their attitudes or
behavior to adhere to existing social norms (rules indicating how
individuals are expected to behave in specific social situations).
 thepressure to behave in ways that are viewed as acceptable or
appropriate by a group or society generally.
Muzafer Sherif’s Research (1936):
 TASK: Participants were shown into a darkened room and exposed to a
single point of light. Under those conditions, a point of light will seem to
move because of tiny, involuntary movements of the eye (Autokinetic
Movement).
 The
participants were not told of this effect and reported the light moved
anywhere from a few inches to several feet.
 RESULTS: When a confederate (a person chosen by the experimenter to
deliberately manipulate the situation) also gave estimates, the original
participants began to make estimates of motion that were more and more
similar to those of the confederate.
 CRITICISM: This early experiment on conformity has been criticized
because the judgments being made were ambiguous as the light wasn’t
really moving so any estimate within reason would sound good).
Solomon Asch’s Classic Study (1951):
7 participants were told that they were participating in an experiment on
visual judgment. They were then shown a white card with only one line on it
followed by another white card with three lines of varying lengths.
 TASK: to determine which line on the second card was most similar to the
line on the first card.
 Inreality, only the next-to-the-last person in the group was a real
participant. The others were all confederates who were instructed by the
experimenter to pick the same incorrect line from the comparison lines.
 Participants conformed to the group answer a little over one-third of the
time.
Number of confederates and Conformity:
• Conformity increased with each new confederate until there were four
confederates; more than that did not increase the participants’ tendency to
conform.
• In a later experiment, Asch (1956) found that conformity greatly decreased
if there was just one confederate who gave the correct answer (same as the
participant).
• if participants knew that there was at least one other person whose answer
agreed with their own, the evidence of their own eyes won out over the
pressure to conform to the group.
Culture and Conformity:
• High level of conformity in collectivist cultures, such as Hong Kong, Japan,
and Zimbabwe.
• This cultural difference may exist only when face-to-face contact is a part
of the task as one study found that when the Asch judgment task is
presented in an online format (participants were in communication but not
able to see each other), the cultural difference disappears (Cinnirella &
Green, 2007).
Gender and Conformity:
• Research shows that gender differences are practically nonexistent unless
the situation involves behavior that is not private.
• Private Response: conformity is equal for women than for men.
• Public Response: women show more conformity than men. This effect
may be due to the socialization that women receive in being agreeable
and supportive.
Causes of Conformity
Normative Social Influence:
• the need to act in ways that we feel will let us be liked and accepted by
others.
• We use the behavior and attitudes of other people as our “measuring stick”
of what is “normal.”
• We then judge how we are doing against that “norm.”
• For e.g., laughing at a joke you really didn’t get because everyone else was
laughing.
Informational Social Influence:
• we take our cues for how to behave from other people when we are in a an
ambiguous situation (unclear).
• the behavior of the people around us provides us with information about
how we should act, and so we conform to their actions.
 SUMMARY
Social Influence
Conformity
• Muzafer Sharif’s Research
• Solomon Asch’s Classic Study (number of confederates, cultutr,
gender)
• Causes of Conformity (Normative and Informative Social
Influence)
 COMPLIANCE
 change one’s own behavior as a result of another person or group
asking or directing him/her to change.
 The
person or group asking for the change in behavior typically doesn’t
have any real authority or power to command a change.
 Highly used for marketing of the various products.
 Techniques
1. Ingratiation
2. Foot-in-the-Door Technique
3. Lowball Technique
4. Door-in-the-Face Technique
5. “That’s-Not-All” Approach
6. Playing Hard to Get
7. Fast-Approaching-Deadline Technique
Ingratiation
 Based on friendship or liking.
 getting
others to like us so that they will be more willing to agree to our
requests.
Flattery: praising others in some manner.
Self-promotion: informing others about our past accomplishments or
positive characteristics (for example, “I’m really very organized” or “I’m
really easy to get along with”).
Incidental Similarity: calling attention to small and slightly surprising
similarities between them and ourselves.
 Other techniques that seem to work are improving one’s own
appearance, emitting many positive nonverbal cues, and doing small
favors for the target people.
Foot-in-the-Door Technique
 Based on Commitment or Consistency.
 Askingfor small commitment and after gaining compliance, asking for a
bigger commitment.
 For
e.g., A neighbor asks you to keep an eye on his house while he is on
vacation. It’s a small request, so you agree. Later that day the neighbor
asks if you would kindly water his plants while he’s gone.
 This
is called the foot-in-the-door technique because the first small
request acts as an opener.
 Individualist
cultures (United States) - more likely to comply with the
second request than are people in collectivist cultures (such as Japan).
 Because people in collectivist cultures are not as concerned with being
consistent with previous behavior because they are less focused on their
inner motivation than are people in individualist cultures, who are more
concerned with their inner motives and consistency.
Lowball Technique
 Based on Commitment or Consistency.
 Common in the marketing area.
 Once a commitment is made, the cost of that commitment is increased.
 Here, cost does not necessarily mean money; cost can also mean time,
effort, or other kinds of sacrifices.
 For e.g., The commitment to buy the car at one low price is quickly
followed by the addition of other costs: extended warranties, additional
options, taxes and fees, and so on, causing the buyer to spend more
money than originally intended.
Door-in-the-Face Technique
 Based on the principle of reciprocity
 Opposite to Foot-in-the-door technique.
 The
larger request comes first, which is usually refused. This is followed by
a second smaller and more reasonable request that often gets
compliance.
 Fore.g., if the neighbor first asked you to take care of his dog and cat in
your home. After you refused to do so, the neighbor might ask if you
would at least water his plants, which you would now be more likely to
do.
“That’s-Not-All” Approach
 Before
the target person can say yes or no, the initial request is followed,
by something that sweetens the deal, like a small extra incentive.
 For example, a “free” knife or a “free”cookbook
 Basedon the principle of reciprocity: People on the receiving end of this
approach view the “extra” thrown in by the other side as an added
concession, and so feel obligated to make a concession themselves
and thus, They are more likely to say “yes.”
Playing Hard to Get
A technique that can be used for increasing compliance by suggesting
that a person or object is scarce and hard to obtain.
 often used in the area of romance.
a person using this technique drop hints that he have very little interest in
the target person—the one toward whom playing hard to get is directed.
 It is also sometimes used by job candidates to increase their
attractiveness to potential employers, and hence to increase the
likelihood that these employers will offer them a job.
• People using this tactic let the potential employer know that they have
other offers and so are a very desirable employee.
Fast-Approaching-Deadline Technique
 Based on the scarcity principle.
A technique for increasing compliance in which target people are told
that they have only limited time to take advantage of some offer or to
obtain some item.
 For
e.g., many stores state that a special sale will end on a certain date,
implying that after that, the prices will go up.
 Inmany cases, the time limit is false: the prices won’t go up after the
indicated date and may, in fact, continue to drop if the merchandise
remains unsold.
 SUMMARY
Social Influence
 Compliance

• Techniques used for compliance

1. Ingratiation (flattery, self promotion, incidental similarity)
2. Foot-in-the-Door Technique (based on commitment; small to large
request; more in individualistic culture)
3. Lowball Technique (based on commitment; cost of commitment is
increased)
4. Door-in-the-Face Technique (based on reciprocity; large to small
request)
5. “That’s-Not-All” Approach (based on reciprocity; extra incentive)
6. Playing Hard to Get (based on scarcity; used in romance, job
candidates)
7. Fast-Approaching-Deadline Technique (scarcity principle)
 OBEDIENCE
 Changing one’s behavior at the direct order of an authority figure.
 authorityfigure is a person with social power such as a police officer, a
teacher, or a work supervisor— who has the right to demand certain
behavior from the people under the authority figure’s command or
supervision.
Stanley Milgram’s Classic Study (1963):
 PURPOSE: To know how far will people go in obeying the commands of an
authority figure.
 Through ads placed in the local newspaper, Milgram recruited people who
were told that they would be participating in an experiment to test the
effects of punishment on learning behavior.
 Theparticipants believed that they had randomly been assigned to either
the “teacher” role or the “learner” role, when in fact the learner was a
confederate already aware of the situation.
TASK: The task for the learner was a simple memory test for paired words.
 The
teacher was seated in front of a machine through which the shocks
would be administered and the level of the shocks changed.
 Foreach mistake made by the learner, the teacher was instructed to
increase the level of shock by 15 volts.
 The learner (who was not actually shocked) followed a carefully arranged
script by pounding on the wall and playing a series of pre-recorded audio
responses (sounds of discomfort, asking for the experiment to end,
screaming) or remained silent as if unconscious or dead.
 As the teachers became reluctant to continue administering the shocks,
the experimenter in his authoritative white lab coat said,
• for example, “The experiment requires you to continue” or “You must
continue,”
• and reminded the teacher that the experimenter would take full
responsibility for the safety of the learner.
 RESULTS:

• In the first set of experiments, 65% of the teachers went all the way through
the experiment’s final 450-volt shock level
• Although many were obviously uncomfortable and begged to be allowed
to stop.
• Of those teachers who did protest and finally stopped, none of them quit
before reaching 300 volts.
REASONS:
Foot-in-the-Door Technique: participants more likely to go on with
each next demanding step of the experiment because they had already
agreed to the smaller increments of shock.

Social Identity: The participants identified themselves more in line with the
experimenter than the learner, and acted in a way that demonstrated their
commitment to the larger scientific process, rather than to the ordinary
community
• Instead of blindly following orders, the participants were actively working to
reach a goal established by the leader (experimenter).
Transfer of Responsibility: the people in authority relieve those who obey
of the responsibility for their own actions.
• “I was only carrying out orders” is the defense many offer after obeying
harsh or cruel commands .
 SUMMARY
Social Influence
Conformity
• Muzafer Sharif’s Research
• Solomon Asch’s Classic Study (number of confederates, cultutr,
gender)
• Causes of Conformity (Normative and Informative Social
Influence)
 SUMMARY
Social Influence
 Compliance

• Techniques used for compliance

1. Ingratiation (flattery, self promotion, incidental similarity)
2. Foot-in-the-Door Technique (based on commitment; small to large
request; more in individualistic culture)
3. Lowball Technique (based on commitment; cost of commitment is
increased)
 SUMMARY
Social Influence
 Obedience

• Stanley Milgram’s Classic Study

• Reasons for Obedience
1. Foot-in-the-Door Technique
2. Social Identity
3. Transfer of Responsibility
4. Door-in-the-Face Technique (based on reciprocity; large to small
request)
5. “That’s-Not-All” Approach (based on reciprocity; extra incentive)
6. Playing Hard to Get (based on scarcity; used in romance, job
candidates)
7. Fast-Approaching-Deadline Technique (scarcity principle)
Thank You
Group Processes
 GROUP PROCESSES
 Group: two or more interacting persons who share some common
goals, have a stable relationship, are somehow dependent upon one
other.
 A group is a collection of individuals interacting with each other under
a recognized structure.
 For example: a group of friends, a political party, a cricket club.
 TYPES OF GROUPS
 Primary-Secondary
 Formal-Informal
 Ingroup-Outgroup
 Inclusive-Exclusive
 PRIMARY GROUP SECONDARY GROUP
• Small in size • Large in size

• Fulfils personal needs, thus informal • Fulfils professional needs, thus

in nature formal in nature
• Helps in forming personal identity • Helps in forming social identity

• Formed naturally • Formed deliberately

• Once formed, stays forever • Person can resign anytime

• Example: Family • Example: School

 FORMAL GROUP INFORMAL GROUP
• Pre-conceived structure and • More relaxed, lack proper
precise goal structure
• Clear division of labour • No division of labour

• Failure to follow norms is an • Highly flexible norms

offense (inflexible norms)
• Group goal is the utmost priority • Common goal is there but
individual satisfaction is more
important
• Example: Religious Groups, • Example: Family, friends, people
workplace groups you meet at park
 EXCLUSIVE GROUP INCLUSIVE GROUP
• Also known as Closed groups. • Also known as Open Groups

• Restrictions on the membership • No restrictions on the membership

• Persons having particular • Open to all

characteristics are given entry
• Example: Caste-based groups, • Example: political parties, social
LGBT club welfare groups
 In-Group and Out-Group
 The group to which a person is affiliated with – Ingroup
 The group to which the person is not affiliated with – Outgroup
 Membership is possible in only one type of group because the other
group automatically becomes the outgroup.
 The boundaries between the groups are distinct and often result in
conflict.
 There is a tendency of evaluating the ingroup members more
positively than the members of the outgroup.
 GROUP DEVELOPMENT MODEL
 Proposed by Bruce Tuckman (1965)
 Also known as the Stages of Group Formation:
1. Forming (orientation)
2. Storming (power struggle)
3. Norming (cooperation and integration)
4. Performing (synergy)
5. Adjourning (closure)
 STAGE DESCRIPTION
1. FORMING Members get to know each other and share expectations
about the group.
2. STORMING Discussion about the duties to be assigned, who will lead,
positions, conflict, struggle for power
3. NORMING Establishment of common rules to govern the group,
cooperation, integration
4. PERFORMING Members start working together on the group goals
5. ADJOURNING Group becomes non-functional either because it was
unable to achieve the goal or it has achieved the goal
and now there is no reason to continue the group.
 GROUPTHINK
 discovered by Irving Janis (1972)
 kind of thinking that occurs when people within a group feel it is more
important to maintain the group’s cohesiveness than to consider the facts
realistically.
 For example: The sinking of the Titanic in 1912 (the group responsible for
designing and building the ship assumed she was unsinkable and did not
even bother to include enough lifeboats on board for all the passengers).
• The Challenger disaster of 1986 in which a part on the shuttle was known by
a few to be unacceptable (but no one spoke up to delay the launch)
 Characteristics of Groupthink
CHARACTERISTIC DESCRIPTION
Invulnerability • Members feel they cannot fail.

Rationalization • Members explain away warning signs and help each other rationalize
their decision.
Lack of Introspection • Members do not examine the ethical implications of their decision
because they believe that they cannot make immoral choices.
Stereotyping • Members stereotype their enemies as weak, stupid, or unreasonable.

Pressure • Members pressure each other not to question the prevailing opinion.

Lack of Disagreement • Members do not express opinions that differ from the group consensus.

Self-deception • Members share in the illusion that they all agree with the decision.

Insularity • Members prevent the group from hearing disruptive but potentially
useful information from people who are outside the group.
Ways to minimize Groupthink:
 Leaders should remain impartial
 The entire group should seek the opinions of people outside the group.
 Any voting should be done on secret ballots rather than by a show of
hands.
 Itshould be made clear that group members will be held responsible for
decisions made by the group.
 GROUP POLARIZATION
 the
tendency for members involved in a group discussion to take
somewhat more extreme positions and suggest riskier actions when
compared to individuals who have not participated in a group discussion.
 Also called as the “risky shift” phenomenon.
 For e.g., when a jury tries to decide on punitive damages during a civil trial:
Studies have found that if members of a jury individually favor a relatively
low amount of punitive damages before deliberation, after deliberation the
amount usually lessened further. Similarly, if the individual jurors favored
stiffer penalties, the deliberation process resulted in even higher penalties.
 SOCIAL INFLUENCE and
TASK PERFORMANCE
SOCIAL FACILITATION SOCIAL IMPAIRMENT
• the tendency for the presence of other • the tendency for the presence of other
people to have a positive impact on people to have a negative impact on
the performance of an easy task. the performance of a difficult task.

• Optimal amount of arousal • Very high level of arousal

 In
both social facilitation and social impairment, the presence of other
people acts to increase arousal.
 SocialFacilitation occurs because the presence of others, during an easy
task, creates just enough increased arousal to improve performance.
 Social
Impairment occurs because the presence of others, during a difficult
task produces a very high level of arousal, resulting in impaired
performance.
 SOCIAL LOAFING
 Tendency for people to put less effort into a simple task when working with
others on that task.
 People who are lazy tend not to do as well when other people are also
working on the same task, but they can do quite well when working on their
own.
 Itis easier for a lazy person (a “loafer”) to hide laziness when working in a
group of people because it is less likely that the individual will be evaluated
alone.
 But when the social loafer is working alone, the focus of evaluation will be on
that person only. In that case, the loafer works harder because there is no
one else to whom the work can be shifted.
 Social loafing depends heavily on the assumption that personal responsibility
for a task is severely lessened when working with a group of other people.
Culture and Social Loafing:
• Chinese people (collectivist culture) are less likely to exhibit social loafing
than people in the United States (Individualist Culture) because the
interdependent cultural viewpoint tend to assume that each member within
the group is as responsible for the group’s outcome as the group at large.
 DEINDIVIDUATION
 The lessening of personal identity, self-control and the sense of personal
responsibility that can occur when in a group or crowd.
 It would not occur if the individual was acting alone.
 When in crowd, people feel a degree of anonymity (being unknown and
unidentified), thus are more likely to act in an impulsive manner.
 For example: Stone pelters, Rioters, Online Gamers, Trollers
 SUMMARY
 Typesof Groups (primary-secondary, formal-informal, exclusive-inclusive,
ingroup-outgroup)
 Tuckman’s 5 Stage Model of Group Formation (Forming, Storming,
Norming, Performing, Adjourning)
 Groupthink (invulnerability, rationalization, lack of introspection,
stereotyping, pressure, lack of disagreement, self-deception, insularity)
 Group Polarization (social comparison, informational social influence)
 SocialFacilitation and Social Impairment (social influence on task
performance)
 Social Loafing (less in collectivist culture)
 Deindividuation
Thank You
Attitude
 ATTITUDE
 An attitude can be defined as a tendency to respond positively or
negatively toward a certain idea, person, object, or situation.
 Attitudes are not innate, but learned through experience and
interaction with others.
 This tendency, developed through peoples’ experiences as they live
and work with others, can affect the way they behave toward those
ideas, people, objects, and situations and can include opinions,
beliefs, and biases.
 Attitudes influence the way people view these things before they’ve
actually been exposed to them.
 ABC Model of ATTITUDE
 3 components of attitude: Affective, Behavior, Cognitive
AFFECTIVE COMPONENT BEHAVIOR COMPONENT COGNITIVE COMPONENT
• Feelings and Emotions • Action • Thought, cognition
• the way a person feels toward • action that a person takes in • the way a person thinks about
the object, person, or regard to the person, object, or himself, an object, or a
situation. situation. situation.
• These thoughts or cognitions
include beliefs and ideas about
the focus of the attitude.
• For example, a person might • For eg, a person who feels that • For example, the classical
feel that classical music is classical music is soothing is music lover might believe that
soothing and uplifting. likely to turn to a classical classical music is superior to
music station on the car radio, other forms of music.
buy classical music CDs, or go
to a classical music concert.
 ATTITUDE FORMATION
 Attitude formation is the result of a number of different influences with
only one thing in common, that is, they are all forms of learning.
 Attitudes can be formed through:
 Direct Contact
 Direct Instruction
 Interaction with others
 Observational Learning
Direct Contact: attitudes can be formed by direct contact with the
person, idea, situation, or object that is the focus of the attitude.
• For example, a child who tries spinach for the first time and dislikes it
will form a negative attitude about spinach.
• Later that negative attitude may be generalized to other foods that are
green or have a similar taste.

Direct Instruction: attitudes can be formed through direct instruction,

either by parents or some other individual.
• For example: Parents may tell their children that smoking cigarettes is
dangerous and unhealthy.
• Some children will form a negative attitude about smoking as a result.
Interaction with Others: an attitude can be formed when a person is
around other people with that attitude.
• For example: If a person’s friends, all hold the attitude that smoking is
cool, that person is more likely to think that smoking is cool as well.

Observational Learning or Vicarious Conditioning: formation of

attitudes through observation of other people’s actions and reactions to
various objects, people, or situations.
• For example: a child whose mother shows a fear of dogs may develop a
similar fear, a child whose mother or father shows a positive attitude
toward classical music may grow into an adult with a similarly positive
attitude.
 ATTITUDE CHANGE:
PERSUASION
 Because, attitudes are learned, thus they can also be changed by
new learning.
 Persuasion: the process by which one person tries to change the
belief, opinion, position, or course of action of another person through
argument, pleading, or explanation.
 Factors effecting the art of persuasion:
1. Source
2. Message
3. Target Audience
1. Source: the person delivering the message (communicator).
• There is a strong tendency to give more weight to people who are
perceived as experts, as well as those who seem trustworthy, attractive, and
similar to the person receiving the message.

2. Message: The actual message should be clear and well organized.

• It is usually more effective to present both sides of an argument to an
audience that has not yet committed to one side or the other.
• Messages that are directed at producing fear are more effective if they
produce only a moderate amount of fear and also provide information
about how to avoid the fear-provoking consequences.
3. Target Audience: The characteristics of the people who are the
intended target of the message of persuasion are also important in
determining the effectiveness of the message.
• For example, the age of the audience members can be a factor,
Researchers have found that people who are in the young adult stage of
the late teens to the mid-20s are more susceptible to persuasion than are
older people.
Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion
 Developed by Petty & Cacioppo, 1986
 States that how easily a person can be influenced is related to the way
people tend to process information.
 Assumes that people
• either elaborate (add details and information) based on what they hear
(the facts of the message) or
• they do not elaborate at all, preferring to pay attention to the surface
characteristics of the message (length, who delivers it, how attractive the
message deliverer is, etc) and
• the future actions of those who do elaborate are more predictable than
those who do not.
Types of Processing
 Central-route processing: people attend to the content of the message.

 Peripheral-route processing: relies on peripheral cues.

• involves attending to factors not involved in the message.
• For example, the appearance of the source of the message, expertise of
the message source, the length of the message, and other non-content
factors.
• causes people not to pay attention to the message itself but instead to
base their decisions on those peripheral factors.
 SUMMARY
 Attitude
 ABC Model of Attitude (Affective, Behavior, Cognitive
Components)
 Attitude formation (Direct Contact, Direct Instruction, Interaction
with others, Observational Learning)
 Persuasion (Factors: Source, Message, Target Audience)
• Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion by Petty & Cacioppo
(Central-route and Peripheral-route processing)
Thank You
Prosocial
Behavior
 PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR
and
ALTRUISM
 Prosocial behavior: socially desirable behavior that benefits
others.
 Altruism: prosocial behavior that is done with no expectation of
reward and may involve the risk of harm to oneself.
• helping someone in trouble with no expectation of reward and often
without fear for one’s own safety.
 MOTIVES FOR PROSOCIAL
BEHAVIOR
 Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis
 Negative-State Relief Model
 Empathic-Joy Hypothesis
 Competitive Altruism Theory
 Kin Selection Theory
 Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis:
• Given by Batson et al. (1981)
• states that some prosocial acts are motivated solely by the desire to help
someone in need.
• We experience empathy toward others when we see them in need and this
leads us to help them out of concern for their well-being.
• Empathy- Emotional reactions that are focused on or oriented toward other
people and include feelings of compassion, sympathy, and concern.
• 3 components of Empathy:-
1. Emotional Empathy: sharing the feelings and emotions of others
2. Empathy Accuracy: perceiving others’ thoughts and feelings accurately
3. Empathic concern: feelings of concern for another’s well-being
 Negative-State Relief Model:
• Given by Cialdini et al. (1981)
• prosocial behavior is motivated by the bystander’s desire to reduce his or
her own uncomfortable negative emotions or feelings.
• It doesn’t matter whether the bystander’s negative emotions were
aroused by something unrelated to the emergency or by the emergency
itself.
• In either instance, you engage in a prosocial act primarily as a way to
improve your own negative mood.
• In this kind of situation, unhappiness leads to prosocial behavior, and
empathy is not a necessary component.
 Empathic-Joy Hypothesis:
• Given by Smith et al. (1989)
• The view that helpers respond to the needs of a victim because they want
to accomplish something, and doing so is rewarding in and of itself.
• Help is given because it feels good to have a positive effect on other
people.
• The helpers enjoy the positive reactions shown by others whom they help.
• It is crucial for the person who helps to know that his actions had a
positive impact on the victim as otherwise it would not guarantee the
occurrence of empathic joy.
 Competitive Altruism Theory:
• people sometimes engage in prosocial behavior because doing so
provides them with large gains in status and reputation.
• This ultimately brings them large benefits, ones that more than offset the
costs of engaging in prosocial actions.
• Because often, helping others is costly, and this suggests to other people
that the individuals engaging in such behavior have desirable personal
qualities; they are definitely the kind of people a group or society wants to
have around.
• For example: This kind of outcome is visible on many university campuses,
where buildings or entire schools are named after persons who make
large donations.
 Kin Selection Theory:
• Given by Cialdini et al. (1997)
• Based on evolutionary perspective
• we are more likely to help others to whom we are closely related than
people to whom we are not related.
• Because a key goal for all organisms is getting our genes into the next
generation.
Reciprocal altruism:
• explains why do we help people unrelated to us because helping is
usually reciprocated: If we help them, they help us, so we do ultimately
benefit, and our chances of survival could then be indirectly increased.
 Bystander Ef fect
 finding that the likelihood of a bystander (someone observing an
event and close enough to offer help) to help someone in trouble
decreases as the number of bystanders increases.
 If only one person is standing by, that person is far more likely to help
than if there is another person, and the addition of each new
bystander decreases the possibility of helping behavior even more.
Classic Experiment by Bibb Latane and John Darley (1969)
Task: participants had to fill out questionnaires in a room
3 conditions:
1. Participants were alone in the room
2. Three participants in the room.
3. One participant with two confederates
 In each condition, the room was made to fill with smoke.
 In the third condition, the confederates were instructed to notice the smoke
but ignore it afterwards.
Results:
• “Participant Alone” condition-
3/4th of the participants left the room to report the smoke.
• “Three Participants” condition-
only a little over 1/3rd of the participants reported the smoke
• Participants with Confederates-
only 1/10th of the participants reported the smoke.

The reason for highest reporting rate while being alone was Diffusion of
Responsibility.
Dif fusion of Responsibility
 phenomenon in which a person fails to take responsibility for either
action or inaction because of the presence of other people who are seen
to share the responsibility.
 For example: “Other people were doing it,” and “There were a lot of
people there, and I thought one of them would do something”
 When there are too many potential “helpers,” people tend not to take the
responsibility to intervene as they think that surely someone else is doing
something about it.
Decision Points to Help
 Latane and Darley gave the following cognitive decision points that a
bystander must face before helping someone in trouble.
1. Noticing:
• Realizing that there is a situation that might be an emergency.
• For eg, Hearing a loud crash or a cry for help.

2. Defining an Emergency:
• Interpreting the cues as signaling an emergency.
• For eg, Loud crash is associated with a car accident, people are
obviously hurt.
3. Taking Responsibility:
• Personally assuming the responsibility to act. A single bystander is much
more likely to act than when others are present

4. Planning a course of action:

• Deciding how to help and what skills might be needed.
• People who feel they have the necessary skills to help are more likely to
help.

5. Taking Action:
• Actually Helping
• Costs of helping (e.g., danger to self) must not outweigh the rewards of
helping.
Other Factor influencing the
decision to help
 Ambiguity: the more ambiguity in a situation, the less likely it will be
defined as an emergency.

 Good Mood: People in a good mood are generally more likely to help
than people in a bad mood, but oddly enough, they are not as likely to
help if helping would destroy the good mood.

 Gender of the Victim: women more likely to receive help than men if
the bystander is male, but not if the bystander is female.
 Physical attractiveness: Physically attractive people are more likely
to be helped.
• Victims who look like “they deserve what is happening” are also less likely
to be helped.
• For example, a man lying on the side of the street who is dressed in
shabby clothing and appears to be drunk will be passed by, but if he is
dressed in a business suit, people are more likely to stop and help.

Race and Ethnicity: Racial and ethnicity differences between victim

and bystander also decrease the probability of helping.
 SUMMARY
 Prosocial Behavior and Altruism
 Motives for Prosocial Behavior (Empathy-Altruism Hypothesis,
Negative-State Relief Model, Empathic-Joy Hypothesis, Competitive
Altruism Theory, Kin Selection Theory)
 Bystander Effect
 Classic Experiment by Latane-Darley
 Diffusion of Responsibility
 Decision points to help (noticing, defining an emergency, taking
responsibility, planning a course of action, taking action)
 Other Factors effecting the decision to help (ambiguity, mood,
gender, attractiveness, race)
Thank You
Attribution
 ATTRIBUTION
• Understanding the causes of behavior or assigning reasons
to the behavior.
• attribution refers to our efforts to understand the causes
behind our own behavior and behavior of others.
 Biases/Er rors in Attribution
When we assign reason to the behavior of other people, so many
biases/errors occur.
 Correspondence Bias
 Actor-Observer Effect
 Self-serving Bias
 Saliency Bias
 Halo or Horn Effect
Correspondence Bias:
• Also known as ‘Fundamental Attribution Error’ or ‘Attribution Effect’
• Basic error that almost all the individuals commit while assigning
causes to behavior.
• Refers to the tendency to explain the actions of others stemming
from dispositional (internal) causes, even in the presence of clear
situational causes.
• over-emphasize dispositional, or personality-based explanations for
behaviors observed in others while under-emphasizing situational
explanations.
Actor-Observer Effect:
• Given by Jones and Nisbett (1971)
• The tendency to attribute our own behavior mainly to situational
causes but the behavior of others mainly to internal (dispositional)
causes.
• When we are the actors, i.e., when we are doing things we assign
situational causes to our own behavior.
• When we are the observers, we attribute the personal factors as the
causes of other person’s behavior.
• “You fell, I was pushed”
• For eg, I scored low - paper was tough; But if some other person has
scored low- he is dull.
Self-serving Bias:
• The tendency to attribute positive outcomes to internal causes (e.g.,
one’s own traits or characteristics) but negative outcomes or events
to external causes (e.g., chance, task difficulty).
Positive Result = Internal Factors
Negative Result = External Factors
• For eg, If something good has been done, it has been done by me
and if something bad has been done, it is because of the task
difficulty, or bas situation or fault of others.
• Attribution to internal factors is higher after success and less after
failure.
Salience Bias:
• The tendency of the observer to assign greater responsibility to
individuals in a group who are distinct in some way.
• Salience: how noticeable or observable something is.
• People tend to emphasize the most noticeable or salient information
when explaining causes of behaviors or situations.
Halo or Horn Effect:
• The tendency to overgeneralize a single trait of a person to other
aspects of that person.
• One trait, either good (halo) or bad (horn), overshadows other traits,
behaviors, actions, or beliefs
• For example: there is a general assumption that a student who is
excellent in studies is also good in character and behavior and other
dimensions of life (Halo effect).
• For example: if a student who is not good in studies, it is assumed
that he is also mischievous, irresponsible or a defaulter (Horn effect).
 SUMMARY
 Attribution (assigning causes to behavior)
 Correspondence Bias (fundamental attribution error; basic;
dispositional causes)
 Actor-Observer Effect (Jones and Nisbett; Actor- situational
factors for own behavior; Observer- Dispositional factors for
other’s behavior)
 Self-serving
Bias (positive outcome- internal factors; negative
outcomes- external factors)
 Saliency Bias (distinct members)
 Halo or Horn Effect (overgeneralize a single trait to other aspects)
Thank You
Theories of Attribution
Father of Attribution: Fritz Heider
 Heider didn’t so much develop a theory himself as emphasize
certain themes that others took up.
 There were two main ideas that he put forward that became
influential: dispositional (internal cause) vs situational (external
cause) attributions.
 The Cor respondent Theor y
 Developed by Edward Jones and Keith Davis (1965)
 Correspondence Inference: how we use information about others’
behavior as basis for inferring their stable dispositions/traits.
 This
theory is concerned with how we decide, on the basis of others’
overt actions, that they possess specific stable traits or dispositions.
 Jonesand Davis analyzed the relationship between the effects of an
action and the disposition revealed by those effects.
 We are most likely to conclude that other’s behavior reflect their
stable traits under three conditions or we are likely to reach
correspondent inferences about then when that behavior is:
1. Freely Chosen
2. Yields Distinctive, Non-Common effects
3. Low in Social Desirability
1. Freely Chosen Behavior:
 We consider only that behavior which seem to have been chosen
freely while ignoring ones which was somehow forced on the person.
 It is difficult to draw inferences or conclusions if there are restrictions.
 For e.g, if there is no compulsion of attending the class lectures, even
then a student attends the classes. It can be inferred that this
students is really interested in studying.
2. Non-Common Effects:
 We pay careful attention to actions which show noncommon effects-
those effects that can only be caused by one specific factor but not
by any other apparent factor.
 For e.g, a person has decided to marry a girl and the girl is very
beautiful, highly educated, belongs to a good family and has a
handsome property on her name. it is difficult to infer the cause of
boy’s choice.
• But if the girl is beautiful and the rest three things are not there, we
infer that the boy has given importance to physical appearance.
3. Social Desirability:
 Social desirability means performing actions according to the social
norms.
 We pay more attention to those actions of other people which are
low in social desirability.
 We learn more about other’s traits from actions they perform that are
somehow different from actions that are very much like those of most
other persons.
 The Causal Theor y of
Attribution
 Developed by Horald Kelley (1972)
 Alsoknown as Kelley’s Theory of Attribution or Kelley’s Analysis of
Variance Model.
 Statesthat people assign the cause of behavior to the factor that
covaries most closely with the behavior.
Behavior can be attributes to two main causes:
• Internal/Dispositional Causes:
traits, motives, intensions, beliefs, values that lie within the person.

• External/Situational Causes:
physical surroundings, social aspects, temperature, arousal etc.

Kelly’s theory tries to answer when the behavior can be

attributed to either internal or external causes or both.
Types/Sources of Information:
 Toknow the causes of behavior, Kelley gave the following three
types of information:

CONSENSUS CONSISTENCY DISTINCTIVENESS

• The extent to which • The extent to which the • The extent to which the
other people react to a person in question person in question
given stimulus or event reacts to the stimulus or reacts in the same
in the same manner as event in the same way manner to other,
the person in question. on other occasions, different stimuli or
over time. events.
CAUSES CONSENSUS CONSISTENCY DISTINCTIVENESS

External high high high

Internal low high low

Both low high high

 For example: If a student praises a teacher and we want to know
whether the cause is internal or external, we will analyze the situation
on the basis of the three types/sources of information.
• Consensus:
if many other students also praise- High
If other students do not praise- Low

• Consistency:
he praises the teacher always- High
If praise is done by student only near exam- Low
• Distinctiveness:
Student praises one particular teacher- High
Student praises all teachers- Low

 If all the three are high, this means that the teacher is actually
praiseworthy. Causes are external.
 But if the three are low, the teacher is not actually praiseworthy.
Causes are internal.

This theory was further elaborated by Bernard Weiner.

 Attribution Theor y of
Achievement
 Developed by Bernard Weiner (1985)
 Also known as Weiner’s Attribution Theory of Success and Failure
 Weineradded two more dimensions to attribution along with internal
and external causes, thus this theory is based on three dimensions:
1. The Locus: Internal-External
2. The Stability: Stable-Unstable
3. The Controllability: Controllable-Uncontrollable
The Locus: refers to the perception of the cause of any event as
internal or external.
• For e.g, if a student believes that she failed an exam because she
lacked the ability, she is attributing to internal cause. If she blames the
shortage of time or the teacher, she is attributing to external cause.
 People feel the sense of pride in their accomplishment, especially
when they believe that it was their effort which lead them to success.

The Stability: whether the cause changes over time and situation.
• Causes do not change over time- Stability (e.g, ability);
• Caused change over time- Unstable (e.g, being sick during the exam)
The Controllability: refers to whether or not the cause of any event is
under the control of the person.
• For e.g, if the student believes that he could have done better in the
exam if he had practiced more, the cause is controllable.
• For e.g, if the student believes that he could have done better in the
exam if he was not ill, the cause is uncontrollable.

 People who believe that they have a control over the cause, attribute
the failure to their lack of effort.
 On the other hand, those who believe the cause to be uncontrollable
attribute the failure to the situational factors.
 SUMMARY
• Father of Attribution: Fritz Heider

 Correspondent Theory (Jones and Davis)

• Freely Chosen; Non-Common effects; Social Desirability

 Causal Theory of Attribution (Kelley)

• Cause: Dispositional, Situational
• Types of Information: Consensus, Consistency, Distinctiveness

 Attribution Theory of Achievement (Weiner)

• Locus: Internal-External; Stability: Stable-Unstable; Controllability:
Controllable-Uncontrollable
Thank You
 LEADERSHIP
 Leadership is the ability to direct or inspire others to achieve goals (Chemers,
2001; Hogg, 2010).
 the processes involved in leading others, including organizing, directing,
coordinating, and motivating their efforts toward achieving certain group or
organizational goals.
 Leadership tends to be:
• Reciprocal (leaders influence followers, and followers influence leaders)
• Transactional (leaders and followers exchange their time, energies, and skills
to increase their joint rewards)
• Transformational (leaders inspire and motivate followers)
• Cooperative rather than coercive (followers voluntarily accept the leader’s
suggestions).
 Leadership Styles
Leadership style means the pattern of behavior which a leader adopts to
influence the behavior of his followers.
Following are the main dimensions of leadership styles:
1. Autocratic
2. Democratic
3. Laissez-Faire
 Autocratic Leadership Style
 also known as authoritative / directive style.
 leader determines policy and makes decisions without seeking input from
followers, rejects any suggestions from others, assigns tasks to group
members without considering their preferences, and dominates interactions
through frequent criticism.
 All the power lies with the leader.
 Very quick decision because decisions are taken by only one person.
 This leadership style may be negative because followers are uninformed,
insecure and are afraid of leader's authority.
 More dependence and less individuality in the organization because this
style does not develop future leaders.
 The followers lack motivation, frustration is high, morale is low and lot of
conflict is there in group.
3 categories of autocracy :
1. Strict Autocratic Leadership: the leader influences the followers behavior
through negative motivation i.e through criticism, penalty or punishment to the
subordinates.

2. Benevolent Autocratic Leadership: all the powers lie with the leader but
motivation style is positive.
• The leader may be efficient.

3. Incompetent Autocracy: some people adopt autocratic style just to hide

their incompetency.
• this style is not effective for a long period.
• is very dangerous because one side the style is autocratic and on other side,
the leader is incompetent.
 Democratic Leadership Style
 also
known as participative leadership style or consultative or group-centered
leadership style.
 participationis defined as the mental and emotional involvement of a person
in a group situation which encourages him to contribute to group goals and
share responsibilities.
 In this style, there is a decentralization of power and decisions.
 Any decision which is being taken is after the consultation of all the members.
 Provides high motivation and high productivity because of participation.
 Groups with democratic leaders tend to show greater originality, higher
morale, and less anxiety, aggression, and apathy than do groups with
authoritarian leaders or with laissez-faire leaders.
 Laissez-Faire Leadership Style
 Laissez-Faire:a French word which means “allow to do.”
 also known as Free-reign style.
 lies between autocracy and democracy.
 Few people in the group take decision at their own level and then give
that policy to the followers, it is the choice of the followers how they
implement it.
 the type of leader who provides little guidance for group activities,
interacts only minimally with the group members, and provides input
only when directly asked.
 Research suggests that groups with laissez-faire leaders are less
effective than are groups with democratic leaders or with authoritarian
leaders
 CONTINGENCY THEORY OF LEADERSHIP
 any of various models predicting that leadership performance depends on
the interaction of the personal characteristics of the leader and the nature
of the group situation.
 The prototypical contingency theory emerged from the conceptual
analysis of leadership effectiveness developed by Fred Fiedler in the 1960s.
• Situational leadership Model by Hersey and Blanchard is another model
that comes under the contingency theory of leadership.
 Fiedler’s Contingency model
 developed by Fred Fiedler in the 1960s.
 This model indicates which style of leadership is effective in which situation.
A single style is not suitable for all situations and different styles cannot be
equally effective in all situations.
 Fiedler’s
model differentiates between task-motivated and relationship-
motivated leaders.
 predictsthat task-motivated leaders will be most effective in extremely
favorable or unfavorable group settings,
 whereas relationship-motivated leaders will be more effective in
moderately favorable settings.
Two types of Leadership styles
i) Hard/Task oriented style:
• the leader is very strict and hard.
• He is only concerned about the task.
• wants to complete the task at any cost.
• is not concerned about the problems of the followers.

ii) Lenient/Human oriented style:

• the leader is not hard.
• He is concerned about the problems of the followers.
• Humanity is involved.
• Human relations are more important.
Two types of Situations
i) Favorable:
• Favorableness of the situation has been defined as the degree to which a
given situation enables the leader to show his or her influence over the
group.

ii) Unfavorable:
• If the leader is unable to influence the group members, it is unfavorable.
3 dimensions on the basis of which favorableness of a situation can be
determined:
1. Leader-Member relationship:
• If this relation is good, the situation is favorable
• if this relationship is bad, the situation is unfavorable.
2. Degree of Task Structure: whether the task is structured or not.
• If the task is structured, situation is favorable
• if unstructured, situation is unfavorable.
3. Leader’s Position-Power :
• if the leader has power and position both, he can control the group, situation
is favorable.
• If position is there, but no power, unfavorable situation.
 Situational Leadership Model
 developed by Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchar, thus also known as The
Hersey-Blanchard Model.
 Comes under the contingency models of leadership which states that
leadership performance depends on the interaction of the leader’s personal
characteristics and the nature of the group situation.
 According to this model, successful leadership is both task-relevant and
relationship-relevant.
 Itencourages adaptiveness and flexibility on the part of the leader whereby
leaders are encouraged to consider their followers as well as the factors that
affect the work environment before choosing how they will lead to ensure
the fulfilment of the goals.
MATURITY
 the
leaders who live by the model must choose the leadership style
according to the maturity level of followers.
 Forexample, if followers’ maturity is high, the model suggests the leader
provide minimal guidance. By contrast, if followers maturity is low, the
leader may need to provide explicit directions and supervise work closely
in order to ensure the team had clarity on their goals and how they are
expected to achieve them.
 The maturity level of followers is divided into 3 categories :
1. Hight maturity:
• includes highly capable and confident individuals who are experienced and
work well on their own.

2. Moderate maturity: is generally divided into two groups.

• The first are members who are capable, but lack enough confidence to take
on the responsibility to do so,
• the second has the confidence but is not willing to do the task at hand.

3. Low maturity: members are not skilled enough to do the task but are very
enthusiastic.
LEADERSHIP STYLES
a leader will have to adapt his style to the level of maturity of the group
members. As the maturity increases, the independence of the members also
increases accordingly.

 Four leadership styles:

1. Telling (Directing):
• high task (direction), low relationship (support) style.
• leader gives explicit directions and supervises work closely but provides little
support/motivation.
• This style is geared towards low maturity followers who lack ability and
enthusiasm both.
2. Selling (Coaching):
• high-task, high relationship style
• leader attempts to sell his ideas to the group by explaining task directions in a
persuasive manner.
• used with moderate followers who have low competence but have high
motivation to do the tasks assigned.

3. Participating (Supporting):
• low-task, high-relationship style
• emphasizes shared ideas and decisions.
• Used with moderate followers who have the ability but are not motivated to
do the tasks assigned.
4. Delegating:
• low-task, low-relationship style
• the leader allows the group to take responsibility for take decisions.
• Used with high followers who have high ability and are highly motivated to do
the tasks assigned.
LEADERSHIP DIRECTION
(TASK)
SUPPORT
(RELATIONSHIP)
MATURITY LEVEL OF GROUP
MEMBERS
STYLE FROM THE FROM THE (COMPETENCE and
LEADER LEADER MOTIVATION)
Directing/Telling High Low Low
(low competence, low motivation)

Coaching/Selling High High Moderate

(low competence, high motivation)

Supporting/ Low High Moderate

(high competence, low motivation)
Participating
Delegating Low Low High
(high competence, high motivation)
 SOCIAL POWER
• Social power can be defined as the ability of a person to create
conformity even when the people being influenced may attempt to
resist those changes (Fiske, 1993; Keltner, Gruenfeld, & Anderson,
2003).
• power refers to the process of social influence itself—those who have
power are those who are most able to influence others.
 Types Of Power
Types of Power proposed by John French and Bertram Raven
in 1959:
1. Reward Power
2. Coercive Power
3. Expert Power
4. Referent Power
5. Legitimate Power
6. Informational Power
Reward Power:
• one of the most common types.
• ability to distribute positive rewards.
• The 'reward' can take many different forms like verbal praise or approval,
the awarding of status or prestige, and even direct financial payment.
• For example: teachers have reward power over students because they
can assign students high marks..
• In order for reward leadership to be effective, the leader must be as able
to offer rewards that the team members are striving to receive.
• If the leader has the ability to command the attention of group members
through the rewards they are interested in achieving, they will be likely to
work well with that leader in order to improve their chances of receiving
the rewards.
Coercive Power:
• opposite to reward power.
• ability to create negative outcomes for others.
• the leader is able to control their team members by the ability to take
things away.
• For example, by bullying, intimidating, embarassing or otherwise punishing
or firing someone based on their lack of performance on the team.
• Team members are likely to try to impress the leader and meet his
expectations in order to keep their job.
• In many cases, coercive power is only good enough to get people to do
the minimum required to avoid punishment.
• Coercive leaders are more likely to get the bare minimum from their team
who is simply hoping to stay out of trouble.
Expert Power:
• is achieved when you find yourself in a position of expertise based on your
knowledge or experience.
• For example, if you are working on a project with a group of co-workers
whom are normally your peers, but you happen to be an expert in the
specific field that you are dealing with, you may find yourself elevated to a
position of authority and power.
• this type of power is mostly informal rather than official.
• Coming into power through being an expert in your field is something that
can have long lasting benefits for your career. Because this kind of power is
more organic than others.
• it is more likely to remain long after a specific project or task is completed.
When others know that you are an expert on a given subject, that
reputation should follow you throughout your career.
Referent Power:
• People with referent power have an ability to influence others because they
can lead those others to identify with them.
• the person who provides the influence is
(a) a member of an important reference group—someone we personally
admire and attempt to emulate
(b) a charismatic, dynamic, and persuasive leader; or
(c) a person who is particularly attractive or famous
• it can be thought of as something of as 'x - factor’, because people with
referent power don't necessarily have any logical reason for having come to
power, yet they still hold sway over many people for some reason.
• produces private acceptance rather than public compliance.
Legitimate Power:
• the most recognized form of Power.
• power vested in those who are appointed or elected to positions of
authority, such as teachers, politicians, police officers, and judges, and their
power is successful because members of the group accept it as
appropriate.
• It could also be referred to a ‘Title power', because it is the power that
comes along with being appointed to a specific position or the title that the
person holds as opposed to the person themselves.
• Those with legitimate power may not only create changes in the behavior of
others but also have the power to create and change the social norms of
the group.
• This kind of power can be extremely useful while it is held, but it tends to go
away as soon as the title is taken back and given to someone else.
Informational Power:
• most transitory type.
• once you give information away, you give your power away.
• it's grounded in what you know about the content of a specific situation .
Relative Deprivation
Theory
 Relative Deprivation Theor y

 relativedeprivation theory suggests that people who feel they are being
deprived of something considered essential in their society (e.g. money,
rights, political voice, status) will organize or join social movements
dedicated to obtaining the things of which they feel deprived.
 Forexample, relative deprivation has been cited as one of the causes of
the U.S. Civil Rights Movement of the 1960s, which was rooted in black
Americans' struggle to gain social and legal equality with white Americans.
 Relative Deprivation
 The concept of ‘Relative Deprivation’ was given by Stouffer and elaborated
by Robert Merton, Runciman (1966) and Gurr (1970).
 Relative deprivation is formally defined as an actual or perceived lack of
resources required to maintain the quality of life (e.g. diet, activities, material
possessions) to which various socioeconomic groups or individuals within
those groups have grown accustomed, or are considered to be the
accepted norm within the group.
 refersto the lack of resources (e.g. money, rights, social equality) necessary
to maintain the quality of life considered typical within a given
socioeconomic group.
 isa feeling that you are generally “worse off” than the people you associate
with and compare yourself to.
 In some cases, relative deprivation has been cited as a factor driving
incidents of social disorder like rioting, looting, terrorism, and civil wars.
 In this nature, social movements and their associated disorderly acts can
often be attributed to the grievances of people who feel they are being
denied resources to which they are entitled.
 Walter Runciman listed four required conditions for defining relative
deprivation:
1. A person does not have something.
2. That person knows other people who have the thing.
3. That person wants to have the thing.
4. That person believes they have a reasonable chance of getting the thing.
Absolute and Relative Deprivation
Both are measures of poverty in a given country.
Absolute Deprivation:
• condition in which household income falls below a level needed to maintain
the basic necessities of life, such as food and shelter.
• can threaten one’s very survival

Relative Deprivation:
• level of poverty at which household income drops to a certain percentage
below the country’s median income.
• do not threaten the survival but limit one’s ability to participate fully in their
society.
Types of Relative Deprivation given by Runciman:
1. Egoistic Relative Deprivation: based on comparison of self with other
individuals in the same group.
• For example: an employee who feels he should have gotten a promotion
that went to another employee may feel egoistically relatively deprived.

2. Fraternalistic Relative Deprivation: based on comparison of in-group

with out-group.
• For example: Massive Group Social Movements like Civil Rights Movement
Balance Theory
 Balance Theor y
 Developed by Fritz Heider (1946)
 Father of Attribution – Fritz Heider
 Explainsthe nature of interactions (balanced and imbalanced)
that we have all around us and what motivates us to change any
behavior.
 While balanced interactions are more comfortable to live with,
imbalanced interactions make our existence uncomfortable and
thus, we try to make amends so that we can come back to a
state of equilibrium.
Components of the Balance Triad:
1. P: person who is analyzing the balance as well as imbalance.
2. O: second person with whom the P shares some kind of
balance/imbalance equation.
3. X: an object, event, idea or even a third person who completes the
triad of the balance.

Between each of the components, there is a valence equation that

decides the nature of balance/imbalance that a person might
experience.
States of the Balance Triad:
• Liking: positive valence
• Disliking: negative valence
• Neutral: neither positive valence, nor negative valence

 Each of the relationship is then perceived as balanced or

imbalanced, taking the three components and three states into
consideration.
Balanced Relationship
• Is perceived if the state is positive between all the components or if
there are even numbers of negative states in the balance triad.

Imbalanced Relationship
• Is perceived when there are odd numbers of negative states present
in the triad.
• The behavior of the individual (P) will be motivated towards restoring
the balance.
Equity Theory
 Equity Theor y
 Developed by Jane Stacy Adams(1963)
 States
that individuals compare their inputs and outputs with those of
others (friends, neighbours, co-workers, present job and past job)
and then respond to eliminate any inequalities.
 Thehigher an individual's perception of equity, the more motivated
he will be.
 Outcomes are equitable only when people receive benefits that are
proportional to their inputs.
 Inputs
• the investments that an individual puts into their job/relationships
• time, effort, commitment, emotions

 Outputs
• the outcomes, are the things that an individual gets from his
jobs/relationships
• praise, love, recognition, benefits, pay, bonuses,

 Comparison Other
• a person or a standard that the individual chooses with which to
compare their input/output ratio.
Equity Equations
1. Equity:
• A person feels equitable treated when his outcome and input ratio is
equal to other person’s outcome and input ratio.
• Person’s Outcome ÷ Person’s input = Other’s outcome ÷ Other’s input
[Link] Rewarded/Under Payment/ Negative Inequity:
• A person feels under rewarded when his outcome and input ratio is
less than whom the person compares himself with.
• an employee’s perception that he or she is being paid less than is
fair, especially in comparison to coworkers.
• This can lead to dissatisfaction and tension and, in some cases, to
lowered productivity.
• Person’s outcome ÷ Person’s Input < Other’s outcome ÷ Other’s input
3. Over Rewarded/Over Payment/ Positive Inequity:
• A person feels over rewarded when his outcome and input ratio is
greater than whom the person compare himself with.
• an employee’s perception that he or she is being paid at a rate that
exceeds what is fair, especially in comparison with coworkers.
• This can lead to dissatisfaction, tension with coworkers, and efforts to
restore equity.
• Person’s Outcome ÷ Person’s Input > Other’s outcome ÷ Other’s input
When the individual/employee perceives inequity, it can
be predicted that he will make one of the following
changes:
 Change his input
 Change his output
 Try to change other’s inputs or outputs
 Change his perceptions
 Change his reference person
 Change his job/relation
 Social Exchange Theor y
 Developed by George Homans and Peter Blau in 1958. and
elaborated by Thibault and Kelley in 1959.
 Considers social interactions as an exchange process.
 people try to maximize rewards and minimize costs in relationships.
 people weigh the potential benefits and risks of social relationships.
 Whenthe risks outweigh the rewards, people will terminate or
abandon that relationship.
 Focus on the Cost-Benefit Analysis
 Rewards

• things that you get out of the relationship

• For example: companionship, praise, emotional support, sex, love, care

 Costs

• things that you see as negatives

• For example: stress, arguments, compromises, time commitments

 Positive relationships: are those in which the rewards outweigh the costs
 Negative relationships: the costs are greater than the rewards.
 Notions of rewards and costs are subjective- what is considered very
costly by one person, can be seen as low cost or even a reward by
another.
 Coststend to change over time- what is considered costly at the
beginning of the relationships seems less so as relationships develop.
 Social
exchange theory suggests that we essentially take the rewards and
subtract the costs in order to determine how much a relationship is worth.
Benefits = Rewards-Costs
 Levels of Comparison
People use levels of comparison to assess how profitable their relationships
are.
 LEVEL 1: COMPARISON LEVEL:
• based on person’s idea of how much reward they deserve to receive in
relationships.
• This understanding is subjective and depends on previous relationship
experiences and cultural norms of what is appropriate to expect from
relationships;
• These norms are reinforced by books, films and TV programmes.
• Related to person’s self-esteem – a person with high self-esteem will have
higher expectations of rewards in relationships, whereas a person with low
self-esteem will have lower expectations.
• People consider relationships worth pursuing if the Comparison Level is
equal to, or better than, what they have experienced in their previous
relationships.
 LEVEL 2: COMPARISON LEVEL FOR ALTERNATIVES:
• A person’s perception of whether other potential relationships would be
more rewarding than being in their current relationship.
• People will stick to their current relationships as long as they find them more
profitable than the alternatives.
• If people consider themselves to be content and satisfied in their current
relationships, they may not even notice that there are available
alternatives.
 SUMMARY
 Relative Deprivation Theory (Stouffer, Merton, Runciman, Gurr)
• actual or perceived lack of resources required to maintain the quality of life
(e.g. diet, activities, material possessions), which are considered to be the
accepted norm within the group.
• Can lead to rioting, looting, terrorism, and civil wars
• Absolute Deprivation (income below a level needed to maintain the basic
necessities)
• Relative Deprivation (income drops to a certain percentage below the
country’s median income)
• Egoistic Relative Deprivation (comparison of self with other individuals in the
same group)
• Fraternalistic Relative Deprivation (comparison of in-group with out-group)
 SUMMARY
 Balance Theory (Fritz Heider)
• Balanced and Imbalanced Interactions
• balanced interactions are more comfortable to live with, imbalanced
interactions make our existence uncomfortable and thus, we try to make
amends so that we can come back to a state of equilibrium.
• Balance Triad: P; O; X
• States of Balance Triad: Liking, Disliking, Neutral
• Balanced Relationship: if P,O, X are positive or the number of negative states
is even.
• Imbalanced Relationship: odd number of negative states
 SUMMARY
 Equity Theory (Stacy Adams)
• Input-output Ratio comparison
• Equity
(Person’s Outcome ÷ Person’s input = Other’s outcome ÷ Other’s input)
• Negative Inequity
(Person’s outcome ÷ Person’s Input < Other’s outcome ÷ Other’s input)
• Positive Inequity
(Person’s outcome ÷ Person’s Input > Other’s outcome ÷ Other’s input
• After perceiving inequity, the person may Change his own input or output or
perceptions or reference person or relation or change other’s inputs/outputs.
 SUMMARY
 Social Exchange Theory (Homans, Blau, Thibaut, Kelley)
• Cost-Benefit Analysis
• Benefits = Rewards-Costs
• Maximizing rewards and minimizing costs in relationships
• Positive relationships: rewards > the costs
• Negative relationships: costs > rewards
• Levels of Comparison:
1. Comparison Level (person’s idea of how much reward they deserve to
receive in relationships)
2. Comparison Level for Alternatives (person’s perception of whether other
potential relationships would be more rewarding than being in their current
relationship)
Thank You
Previous Year
Questions
Q1. Cognitive structures that represent an organized collection of
knowledge about people, events and concepts are called
A) Images
B) Schemas
C) Social Influence
D) Disposition
Q1. Cognitive structures that represent an organized collection of
knowledge about people, events and concepts are called
A) Images
B) Schemas
C) Social Influence
D) Disposition
Q2. Evolutionary social psychology research seeks to investigate
A) Changes in human behavior
B) Potential role of genetic factors on social behavior
C) Inter-relationships between people of two groups of different social
environment
D) Focus on individual’s behavior
Q2. Evolutionary social psychology research seeks to investigate
A) Changes in human behavior
B) Potential role of genetic factors on social behavior
C) Inter-relationships between people of two groups of different social
environment
D) Focus on individual’s behavior
Q3. Match the column

a) Heuristics (i) judgements made on the basis of specific kind of information that
can be brought to mind.
b) Representative Heuristics (ii) tendency to use a number of value as a starting point to whom one
adopts.
c) Availability Heuristics (iii) simple rule for drawing inferences in a rapid and effortless manner.
d) Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristics (iv) judgements made on the basis of resemblance of current
stimuli to other stimuli.
Codes:
A) a(iii), b(i), c(iv), d(ii)
B) a(iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(i)
C) a(iii), b(iv) c(i), d(ii)
D) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii)
Q3. Match the column

a) Heuristics (i) judgements made on the basis of specific kind of information that
can be brought to mind.
b) Representative Heuristics (ii) tendency to use a number of value as a starting point to whom one
adopts.
c) Availability Heuristics (iii) simple rule for drawing inferences in a rapid and effortless manner.
d) Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristics (iv) judgements made on the basis of resemblance of current
stimuli to other stimuli.
Codes:
A) a(iii), b(i), c(iv), d(ii)
B) a(iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(i)
C) a(iii), b(iv) c(i), d(ii)
D) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii)
Q4. Assertion (A): People perform in accordance to the social position
they hold.
Reason (R): People select relevant information from tremendous
amount of social information.
A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C) (A) is true but (R) is false
D) (A) is false but (R) is true
Q4. Assertion (A): People perform in accordance to the social position
they hold.
Reason (R): People select relevant information from tremendous
amount of social information.
A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C) (A) is true but (R) is false
D) (A) is false but (R) is true
Q5. Match the column
a) Self schema (i) a generalized evaluation of self
b) Self esteem (ii) when a person doubt one’s abilities to perform a task
c) Self presentation (iii) organization of information about self
d) Self handicapping (iv) the way one thinks of presenting oneself before public

Codes:
A) a(iv), b(ii), c(iii), d(i)
B) a(ii), b(iii), c(i), d(iv)
C) a(iii), b(i) c(iv), d(ii)
D) a(i), b(iii), c(ii), d(iv)
Q5. Match the column
a) Self schema (i) a generalized evaluation of self
b) Self esteem (ii) when a person doubt one’s abilities to perform a task
c) Self presentation (iii) organization of information about self
d) Self handicapping (iv) the way one thinks of presenting oneself before public

Codes:
A) a(iv), b(ii), c(iii), d(i)
B) a(ii), b(iii), c(i), d(iv)
C) a(iii), b(i) c(iv), d(ii)
D) a(i), b(iii), c(ii), d(iv)
Q6. Which of the following are the sources of error in social cognition?
i. Counterfactual thinking
ii. Thought suppression
iii. Magical thinking
iv. Judging by resemblance
Code:
A) i and ii
B) i, ii and iii
C) i, iii and iv
D) iii and iv
Q6. Which of the following are the sources of error in social cognition?
i. Counterfactual thinking
ii. Thought suppression
iii. Magical thinking
iv. Judging by resemblance
Code:
A) i and ii
B) i, ii and iii
C) i, iii and iv
D) iii and iv
Q7. Many psychologists played pivotal role in the emergence of the
field of social psychology. Arrange them in correct chronological
sequence.
A) F. Allport; William McDougall; Kurt Lewin; Muzafer Sherif
B) Kurt Lewin; William McDougall; Muzafer Sherif; [Link]
C) William McDougall; F. Allport; Kurt Lewin; Muzafer Sherif
D) F. Allport; William McDougall; Muzafer Sherif; Kurt Lewin
Q7. Many psychologists played pivotal role in the emergence of the
field of social psychology. Arrange them in correct chronological
sequence.
A) F. Allport; William McDougall; Kurt Lewin; Muzafer Sherif
B) Kurt Lewin; William McDougall; Muzafer Sherif; [Link]
C) William McDougall; F. Allport; Kurt Lewin; Muzafer Sherif
D) F. Allport; William McDougall; Muzafer Sherif; Kurt Lewin
Q8. According to _____ theory, thoughts and feelings change because
people are motivated to justify emotions that would otherwise seem
hypothetical. This theory was proposed by ______.
A) Dissonance; Festinger
B) Cognitive Dissonance; Festinger
C) Cognitive Dissonance; Baron
D) Normative social influence; Baron
Q8. According to _____ theory, thoughts and feelings change because
people are motivated to justify emotions that would otherwise seem
hypothetical. This theory was proposed by ______.
A) Dissonance; Festinger
B) Cognitive Dissonance; Festinger
C) Cognitive Dissonance; Baron
D) Normative social influence; Baron
Q9. Having seen or heard a stimulus once may facilitate our ability to
recognize it on a later occasion, even if we are not aware that this is
happening. This phenomenon is referred to as
A) Primacy effect
B) Recency effect
C) Practice effect
D) Priming effect
Q9. Having seen or heard a stimulus once may facilitate our ability to
recognize it on a later occasion, even if we are not aware that this is
happening. This phenomenon is referred to as
A) Primacy effect
B) Recency effect
C) Practice effect
D) Priming effect
Q10. Assertion (A): Advertising and media campaigns are based
frequently on the availability heuristic.
Reason (R): Consumers recall instances of being satisfied and expect
this outcome to recur.
A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C) (A) is true but (R) is false
D) (A) is false but (R) is true
Q10. Assertion (A): Advertising and media campaigns are based
frequently on the availability heuristic.
Reason (R): Consumers recall instances of being satisfied and expect
this outcome to recur.
A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C) (A) is true but (R) is false
D) (A) is false but (R) is true
Q11. Match the column
a) Ash (i) Obedience
b) Sherif (ii) Conformity
c) Milgram (iii) Cognitive Dissonance
d) Festinger (iv) Norm Formation
Codes:
A) a(ii), b(iv), c(i), d(iii)
B) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
C) a(i), b(ii) c(iii), d(iv)
D) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii)
Q11. Match the column
a) Ash (i) Obedience
b) Sherif (ii) Conformity
c) Milgram (iii) Cognitive Dissonance
d) Festinger (iv) Norm Formation
Codes:
A) a(ii), b(iv), c(i), d(iii)
B) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
C) a(i), b(ii) c(iii), d(iv)
D) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii)
Q12. Shyam does not like to be in family gatherings but his mother has
asked him to attend it. He decides to tell a lie that he has examination
on that day, however, he finds it very distasteful. Shyam is experiencing
_______
A) Double avoidance conflict
B) Double approach conflict
C) Approach-avoidance conflict
D) Double approach-double avoidance conflict
Q12. Shyam does not like to be in family gatherings but his mother has
asked him to attend it. He decides to tell a lie that he has examination
on that day, however, he finds it very distasteful. Shyam is experiencing
_______
A) Double avoidance conflict
B) Double approach conflict
C) Approach-avoidance conflict
D) Double approach-double avoidance conflict
Q13. Today, social psychology studies
i. Social cognition
ii. Ethnic diversity
iii. Multiculturalism

Code:
A) i and ii
B) i and iii
C) ii and iii
D) i, ii and iii
Q13. Today, social psychology studies
i. Social cognition
ii. Ethnic diversity
iii. Multiculturalism

Code:
A) i and ii
B) i and iii
C) ii and iii
D) i, ii and iii
Q14. Which are the two basic features of schema?
i. Influencing memory
ii. Promoting forgetting
iii. Resisting change
iv. Promoting change

Code:
A) i and ii
B) i and iii
C) i and iv
D) ii and iii
Q14. Which are the two basic features of schema?
i. Influencing memory
ii. Promoting forgetting
iii. Resisting change
iv. Promoting change

Code:
A) i and ii
B) i and iii
C) i and iv
D) ii and iii
Q15. Match the column
a) Instincts (i) expectations of desired outcome
b) Needs (ii) push us to action
c) Drives (iii) are innate
d) Incentives (iv) create tension
Codes:
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)
B) a(iii), b(ii), c(iv), d(i)
C) a(iii), b(iv) c(ii), d(i)
D) a(ii), b(iii), c(i), d(iv)
Q15. Match the column
a) Instincts (i) expectations of desired outcome
b) Needs (ii) push us to action
c) Drives (iii) are innate
d) Incentives (iv) create tension
Codes:
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)
B) a(iii), b(ii), c(iv), d(i)
C) a(iii), b(iv) c(ii), d(i)
D) a(ii), b(iii), c(i), d(iv)
Q16. Match the column

a) Mental models (i) the impact of past experience on present problem solving
through better alternative.
b) Heuristics (ii) knowledge structures that guide our interactions with objects
and events around us.
c) Availability Heuristics (iii) Mental rules of thumb that permit us to make decisions
and judgements in a rapid manner.
d) Mental Set (iv) a cognitive rule of thumb in which the probability of various events
is judged on the basis of how quickly they come to mind.
Codes:
A) a(ii), b(iii), c(i), d(iv)
B) a(iii), b(iv), c(i), d(ii)
C) a(i), b(ii) c(iii), d(iv)
D) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
Q16. Match the column

a) Mental models (i) the impact of past experience on present problem solving
through better alternative.
b) Heuristics (ii) knowledge structures that guide our interactions with objects
and events around us.
c) Availability Heuristics (iii) Mental rules of thumb that permit us to make decisions
and judgements in a rapid manner.
d) Mental Set (iv) a cognitive rule of thumb in which the probability of various events
is judged on the basis of how quickly they come to mind.
Codes:
A) a(ii), b(iii), c(i), d(iv)
B) a(iii), b(iv), c(i), d(ii)
C) a(i), b(ii) c(iii), d(iv)
D) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
Q17. Assertion (A): In some cases, people attempt to reach the goal
slowly and hesitantly.
Reason (R): In approach-avoidance conflict, a single goal has positive
valence as well as negative valence.
A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C) (A) is true but (R) is false
D) (A) is false but (R) is true
Q17. Assertion (A): In some cases, people attempt to reach the goal
slowly and hesitantly.
Reason (R): In approach-avoidance conflict, a single goal has positive
valence as well as negative valence.
A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C) (A) is true but (R) is false
D) (A) is false but (R) is true
Q18. Besides Psychology which behavioral science contributed in the
development of social psychology?
i. Sociology
ii. Anthropology
iii. Political Science
iv. Social Work

Code:
A) i and ii only
B) I, ii and iii only
C) Ii, iii and iv only
D) i, ii and iii only
Q18. Besides Psychology which behavioral science contributed in the
development of social psychology?
i. Sociology
ii. Anthropology
iii. Political Science
iv. Social Work

Code:
A) i and ii only
B) I, ii and iii only
C) Ii, iii and iv only
D) i, ii and iii only
Q19. abstract, idealized representation that captures an average or
typical member of a category of things is referred to as:
A) Exemplar
B) Prototype
C) Concept
D) Schemas
Q19. abstract, idealized representation that captures an average or
typical member of a category of things is referred to as:
A) Exemplar
B) Prototype
C) Concept
D) Schemas
Q20. Match the column

a) Planning fallacy (i) tendency to adhere to bad decisions even if the losses
increase.
b) Confirmation Bias (ii) tendency to evaluate events by thinking about alternatives to
them
c) Counterfactual thinking (iii) tendency to underestimate the resources needed to achieve
a goal
d) Escalation of commitment (iv) tendency to pay attention primarily to information that
confirms existing views
Codes:
A) a(iv), b(ii), c(i), d(iii)
B) a(iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(i)
C) a(i), b(iii) c(iv), d(ii)
D) a(ii), b(i), c(iii), d(iv)
Q20. Match the column

a) Planning fallacy (i) tendency to adhere to bad decisions even if the losses
increase.
b) Confirmation Bias (ii) tendency to evaluate events by thinking about alternatives to
them
c) Counterfactual thinking (iii) tendency to underestimate the resources needed to achieve
a goal
d) Escalation of commitment (iv) tendency to pay attention primarily to information that
confirms existing views
Codes:
A) a(iv), b(ii), c(i), d(iii)
B) a(iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(i)
C) a(i), b(iii) c(iv), d(ii)
D) a(ii), b(i), c(iii), d(iv)
Q21. Match the column
a) Ebbinghaus (i) some tasks to complete
b) Bartlett (ii) short stories use
c) Murray (iii) use of meaningful words
d) Lewin (iv) use of nonsense syllables

Codes:
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)
B) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
C) a(iii), b(iv) c(i), d(ii)
D) a(iv), b(iii), c(ii), d(i)
Q21. Match the column
a) Ebbinghaus (i) some tasks to complete
b) Bartlett (ii) short stories use
c) Murray (iii) use of meaningful words
d) Lewin (iv) use of nonsense syllables

Codes:
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv)
B) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
C) a(iii), b(iv) c(i), d(ii)
D) a(iv), b(iii), c(ii), d(i)
Q22. Organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often
automatically, is termed as
A) Priming
B) Chunking
C) Shaping
D) Encoding
Q22. Organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often
automatically, is termed as
A) Priming
B) Chunking
C) Shaping
D) Encoding
Thank You
Previous Year Questions
Q1. Which of the following is excluded from Berkowitz’s
frustration-aggression hypothesis?
A) Frustration always leads to aggression
B) Social rules may inhibit aggression
C) Frustration may result in other behavior than aggression
D) Cognitive factors can overside aggression
Q1. Which of the following is excluded from Berkowitz’s
frustration-aggression hypothesis?
A) Frustration always leads to aggression
B) Social rules may inhibit aggression
C) Frustration may result in other behavior than aggression
D) Cognitive factors can overside aggression
Revised Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis:
 Revised by Leonard Berkowitz,1969
 States that frustration doesn’t always lead to aggression.
 Aggression would only occur in the presence of certain cues or
triggers (such as a casual joke, gesture or mild criticism) which
would normally be overlooked, but to the frustrated individual may
be enough to provoke an aggressive response.
 frustration,
caused by 'interference in goal-directed activity', does
not automatically result in aggression but produces a 'readiness' for
aggression which if 'triggered' can result in aggressive responses.
Q2. A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout
a species and is unlearned is called
A) Imprinting
B) Instinct
C) Emotion
D) Feeling
Q2. A complex behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout
a species and is unlearned is called
A) Imprinting
B) Instinct
C) Emotion
D) Feeling
Q3. A person who tries to increase compliance by including
an individual to agree first to small request is using the
technique known as
A) Foot-in-the-door
B) Door-in-the-face
C) Elaboration
D) Lowball Technique
Q3. A person who tries to increase compliance by including
an individual to agree first to small request is using the
technique known as
A) Foot-in-the-door
B) Door-in-the-face
C) Elaboration
D) Lowball Technique
Q4. Who gave the statement that the nature and frequency
of human aggressive behavior varies tremendously across
human societies and likely to occur in some than others.
A) Borowitz
B) Freud
C) Dollard and Miller
D) Lorenz
Q4. Who gave the statement that the nature and frequency
of human aggressive behavior varies tremendously across
human societies and likely to occur in some than others.
A) Borowitz
B) Freud
C) Dollard and Miller
D) Lorenz
Q5. Match the column
a) Hostile Aggression (i) instinctual drive involving aggressive
action towards death
b) Emotional Aggression (ii) injury in which the goal is to obtain
something of value
c) Instrumental Aggression (iii) act stemming from feelings of anger
and aimed at inflicting pain
d) Thanatos (iv) injury or harm that is earned out for the
explicit goal of hurting someone.
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv) B) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
C) a(iii), b(iv) c(i), d(ii) D) a(iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(i)
Q5. Match the column
a) Hostile Aggression (i) instinctual drive involving aggressive
action towards death
b) Emotional Aggression (ii) injury in which the goal is to obtain
something of value
c) Instrumental Aggression (iii) act stemming from feelings of anger
and aimed at inflicting pain
d) Thanatos (iv) injury or harm that is earned out for the
explicit goal of hurting someone.
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv) B) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
C) a(iii), b(iv) c(i), d(ii) D) a(iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(i)
Emotional Aggression:
Emotional or Impulsive aggression refers to aggression that
occurs with only a small amount of forethought or intent.
Q6. Assertion (A): Ingratiation is a technique for gaining compliance from
other person in which requester first introduces himself/herself to the target
person as an authority and then asks to comply his order.
Reason (R): ingratiation induces liking in target person for requester and
attempts to change target person’s behavior in one’s favor.
A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C) (A) is true but (R) is false
D) (A) is false but (R) is true
Q6. Assertion (A): Ingratiation is a technique for gaining compliance from
other person in which requester first introduces himself/herself to the target
person as an authority and then asks to comply his order.
Reason (R): ingratiation induces liking in target person for requester and
attempts to change target person’s behavior in one’s favour.
A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C) (A) is true but (R) is false
D) (A) is false but (R) is true
Q7. Assertion (A): Minor frustrations will add upto produce considerable
frustration but not to aggression.
Reason (R): Disruption of goal-directed behavior usually leads to frustration.
A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C) (A) is true but (R) is false
D) (A) is false but (R) is true
Q7. Assertion (A): Minor frustrations will add upto produce considerable
frustration but not to aggression.
Reason (R): Disruption of goal-directed behavior usually leads to frustration.
A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C) (A) is true but (R) is false
D) (A) is false but (R) is true
Q8. The underlying motivation for acts of aggression is
_______
A) Intent to harm
B) Anger
C) Retaliation
D) Need to exert control
Q8. The underlying motivation for acts of aggression is
_______
A) Intent to harm
B) Anger
C) Retaliation
D) Need to exert control
Q9. Cultures of honor are characterized by strong norms
indicating that aggression is:
A) An inappropriate response to insults to one’s honor
B) An appropriate response to regards to one’s honor
C) An appropriate response to insults to one’s honor
D) An inappropriate response to regards to one’s honor
Q9. Cultures of honor are characterized by strong norms
indicating that aggression is:
A) An inappropriate response to insults to one’s honor
B) An appropriate response to regards to one’s honor
C) An appropriate response to insults to one’s honor
D) An inappropriate response to regards to one’s honor
Q10. The well known study on obedience to authority was done
by
A) Stanley Milgram
B) Solomon Asch
C) Latane and Darley
D) Zimbardo
Q10. The well known study on obedience to authority was done
by
A) Stanley Milgram
B) Solomon Asch
C) Latane and Darley
D) Zimbardo
Q11. Assertion (A): Low levels of serotonin release are associated with
aggression and other forms of antisocial behavior.
Reason (R): Serotonergic neurons play an inhibitory role in human
aggression.
A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C) (A) is true but (R) is false
D) (A) is false but (R) is true
Q11. Assertion (A): Low levels of serotonin release are associated with
aggression and other forms of antisocial behavior.
Reason (R): Serotonergic neurons play an inhibitory role in human
aggression.
A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C) (A) is true but (R) is false
D) (A) is false but (R) is true
Q12. Match the column
a) Anger (i) Physical or verbal behavior intended to
hurt someone.
b) Displacement (ii) the blocking of goal directed behavior
c) Aggression (iii) redirecting reaction to a target other than
source of frustration
d) Frustration (iv) an emotional readiness to aggress

A) a(iv), b(i), c(iii), d(ii) B) a(ii), b(iii), c(i), d(iv)

C) a(ii), b(iv) c(i), d(iii) D) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii)
Q12. Match the column
a) Anger (i) Physical or verbal behavior intended to
hurt someone.
b) Displacement (ii) the blocking of goal directed behavior
c) Aggression (iii) redirecting reaction to a target other than
source of frustration
d) Frustration (iv) an emotional readiness to aggress

A) a(iv), b(i), c(iii), d(ii) B) a(ii), b(iii), c(i), d(iv)

C) a(ii), b(iv) c(i), d(iii) D) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii)
Q13. Which of the following is correct explanation of outgroup
homogeneity effect?
A) Members of in-group assume that other in-group members show
their attitudes and values
B) Perception that members of outgroup are more similar to each
other than members of in-group are to each other
C) The tendency to give more favorable evaluation and greater
rewards to members of outgroup
D) People are arbitrarily classified into group than allowed to allocate
reward to each other
Q13. Which of the following is correct explanation of outgroup
homogeneity effect?
A) Members of in-group assume that other in-group members show
their attitudes and values
B) Perception that members of outgroup are more similar to each
other than members of in-group are to each other
C) The tendency to give more favorable evaluation and greater
rewards to members of outgroup
D) People are arbitrarily classified into group than allowed to allocate
reward to each other
Q14. In group counseling, there is a typical order of various stages.
i. Norming
ii. Performing
iii. Forming
iv. Storming
Code:
A) iii, iv, i, ii
B) iii, ii, i, iv
C) iii, i, iv, ii
D) iii, i, ii, iv
Q14. In group counseling, there is a typical order of various stages.
i. Norming
ii. Performing
iii. Forming
iv. Storming
Code:
A) iii, iv, i, ii
B) iii, ii, i, iv
C) iii, i, iv, ii
D) iii, i, ii, iv
Q15. In graphical representations showing stress levels on X axis and
performance on Y axis, best performance can be expected at
A) Lower end of X axis
B) Middle portion of X axis
C) Higher end of X axis
D) None of the above
Q15. In graphical representations showing stress levels on X axis and
performance on Y axis, best performance can be expected at
A) Lower end of X axis
B) Middle portion of X axis
C) Higher end of X axis
D) None of the above
Q16. Out of the following statement find out the one which is wrong
according to social psychological research.
A) Situational forces have tremendous power to shape human
behavior rather than personality or character.
B) Both humans and animals respond more quickly when in the
presence of other members of their species.
C) A bystander in an emergency situation is likely to intervene or help
in a group than if alone.
D) The uninhibited aggressive behavior sometimes shown in mobs and
crowds may be the result of deindividuation.
Q16. Out of the following statement find out the one which is wrong
according to social psychological research.
A) Situational forces have tremendous power to shape human
behavior rather than personality or character.
B) Both humans and animals respond more quickly when in the
presence of other members of their species.
C) A bystander in an emergency situation is likely to intervene or help
in a group than if alone.
D) The uninhibited aggressive behavior sometimes shown in mobs and
crowds may be the result of deindividuation.
Q17. Assertion (A): Analyses of disastrous foreign policy decision lead
to a problem that cohesive group of decision makes can fall into the
trap of ‘group think.’
Reason (R): Members of the group suppress their own dissenting
opinions in the interest of group consensus.
A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C) (A) is true but (R) is false
D) (A) is false but (R) is true
Q17. Assertion (A): Analyses of disastrous foreign policy decision lead
to a problem that cohesive group of decision makes can fall into the
trap of ‘group think.’
Reason (R): Members of the group suppress their own dissenting
opinions in the interest of group consensus.
A) Both (A) and (R) are true and (R) is the correct explanation of (A)
B) Both (A) and (R) are true but (R) is not the correct explanation of (A)
C) (A) is true but (R) is false
D) (A) is false but (R) is true
Q18. Helpers respond to the need of a victim because they
want to accomplish something rewarding; this may be
referred as:
A) Negative state relief model
B) Empathic-joy hypothesis
C) Empathy-altruism hypothesis
D) Pluralistic empathy
Q18. Helpers respond to the need of a victim because they
want to accomplish something rewarding; this may be
referred as:
A) Negative state relief model
B) Empathic-joy hypothesis
C) Empathy-altruism hypothesis
D) Pluralistic empathy
Q19. First make a small request, when the person complies,
make another large request. This concept is based on which
compliance technique?
A) Foot-in-the-door
B) Door-in-the-face
C) Lowball
D) That’s not all
Q19. First make a small request, when the person complies,
make another large request. This concept is based on which
compliance technique?
A) Foot-in-the-door
B) Door-in-the-face
C) Lowball
D) That’s not all
Q20. Which of the following are the motivators for helping others?
i. Attitude
ii. Empathy
iii. Personal distress
iv. Norms and values
Code:
A) i, ii and iii
B) i, ii and iv
C) i, iii and iv
D) ii, iii and iv
Q20. Which of the following are the motivators for helping others?
i. Attitude
ii. Empathy
iii. Personal distress
iv. Norms and values
Code:
A) i, ii and iii
B) i, ii and iv
C) i, iii and iv
D) ii, iii and iv
Q21. The phenomenon where bystander assume that nothing
is wrong in an emergency as no one looks concerned is
called?
A) Diffusion of responsibility
B) Pluralistic ignorance
C) Prosocial behavior
D) Bystander effect
Q21. The phenomenon where bystander assume that nothing
is wrong in an emergency as no one looks concerned is
called?
A) Diffusion of responsibility
B) Pluralistic ignorance
C) Prosocial behavior
D) Bystander effect
Q22. Match the column
a) Cohesiveness & conformity (i) social influence based on individual’s
desire to be liked by others
b) Norms & social influence (ii) social influence based on the desire
to be correct-to possess the accurate
perceptions of the social world
c) Individuation (iii) the need to be distinguishable from
others in some respect
d) Information & social influence (iv) accepting influence of those we like

A) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii) B) a(iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(i)

C) a(ii), b(iii) c(i), d(iv) D) a(iv), b(i), c(iii), d(ii)
Q22. Match the column
a) Cohesiveness & conformity (i) social influence based on individual’s
desire to be liked by others
b) Norms & social influence (ii) social influence based on the desire
to be correct-to possess the accurate
perceptions of the social world
c) Individuation (iii) the need to be distinguishable from
others in some respect
d) Information & social influence (iv) accepting influence of those we like

A) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii) B) a(iii), b(iv), c(ii), d(i)

C) a(ii), b(iii) c(i), d(iv) D) a(iv), b(i), c(iii), d(ii)
Q23. Which of the following sequences of decision making perspectives of
prosocial behavior is correct?
A) Perceived need-taking personal responsibility-weighing the cost and
benefits-deciding how to help-help is given
B) Taking personal responsibility-deciding how to help-help is given-weighing
the cost and benefits-perceived need
C) Weighing the cost and benefits-perceived need-deciding how to help-help
is given-taking personal responsibility
D) Perceived need-weighing the cost and benefits-deciding how to help-taking
personal responsibility-help is given
Q23. Which of the following sequences of decision making perspectives of
prosocial behavior is correct?
A) Perceived need-taking personal responsibility-weighing the cost and
benefits-deciding how to help-help is given
B) Taking personal responsibility-deciding how to help-help is given-weighing
the cost and benefits-perceived need
C) Weighing the cost and benefits-perceived need-deciding how to help-help
is given-taking personal responsibility
D) Perceived need-weighing the cost and benefits-deciding how to help-taking
personal responsibility-help is given
Q24. Subjects in Milgram’s experiment who gave large
shocks rationalized that they were not personally responsible
for their actions. This raised questions about one’s willingness
to commit inhuman acts. It was a result of
A) Coercive power
B) Expert power
C) Obedience to legitimate authority
D) Conformity to group pressure
Q24. Subjects in Milgram’s experiment who gave large
shocks rationalized that they were not personally responsible
for their actions. This raised questions about one’s willingness
to commit inhuman acts. It was a result of
A) Coercive power
B) Expert power
C) Obedience to legitimate authority
D) Conformity to group pressure
Q25. In Solomon Asch’s study on conformity, subjects
conformed to the group approximately what percent of
time?
A) 25%
B) 35%
C) 45%
D) Over 50%
Q25. In Solomon Asch’s study on conformity, subjects
conformed to the group approximately what percent of
time?
A) 25%
B) 35%
C) 45%
D) Over 50%
Q26. According to negative state relief model, people provide
help to others because
i. To regulate their own moods
ii. Helping is a means to momentarily boost emotion
iii. Of the fear of the consequences of help
iv. It bolsters their spirit over long periods
Code:
A) i, ii and iii
B) ii, iii and iv
C) i, ii and iv
D) i, iii and iv
Q26. According to negative state relief model, people provide
help to others because
i. To regulate their own moods
ii. Helping is a means to momentarily boost emotion
iii. Of the fear of the consequences of help
iv. It bolsters their spirit over long periods
Code:
A) i, ii and iii
B) ii, iii and iv
C) i, ii and iv
D) i, iii and iv
Q27. One reason that people comply with social pressure is to gain
approval or avoid rejection. This is called ______ and so
understanding rules for accepted and expected behavior are
called ______.
A) Social control; norm
B) Social influence; rule
C) Normative social influence; norm
D) Social facilitation; norm
Q27. One reason that people comply with social pressure is to gain
approval or avoid rejection. This is called ______ and so
understanding rules for accepted and expected behavior are
called ______.
A) Social control; norm
B) Social influence; rule
C) Normative social influence; norm
D) Social facilitation; norm
Q28. The act in which people help others without any personal
interest, motive, reason is called
A) Altruism
B) Nurturance social
C) Prosocial behavior
D) obligation
Q28. The act in which people help others without any personal
interest, motive, reason is called
A) Altruism
B) Nurturance social
C) Prosocial behavior
D) obligation
Q29. On a psychological currency that permits deviation from the
group is called
A) Conformity
B) Obedience
C) Idiosyncrasy credit
D) Compliance
Q29. On a psychological currency that permits deviation from the
group is called
A) Conformity
B) Obedience
C) Idiosyncrasy credit
D) Compliance
Idiosyncrasy credit: describes an individual's capacity to acceptably
deviate from group expectations.
Idiosyncrasy-credit Model:
 developed by Edwin P. Hollander,1958
 an explanation of the leniency that groups sometimes display when high-
status members violate group norms.
 assumesthat such individuals, by contributing to the group in significant
ways and expressing loyalty to it, build up idiosyncrasy credits, which they
“spend” whenever they make errors or deviate from the group’s norms.
 Soas long as their actions do not completely deplete their supply of
credits, their infractions will not undermine their status in the group.
Q30. Kinship selection theory suggests that we help others who
are related to us because this increases the likelihood that our
______ shall be _____ to future _____.
A) Character, transferred, population
B) Genes, transmitted, population
C) Genes, transmitted, generation
D) Genes, transferred, population
Q30. Kinship selection theory suggests that we help others who
are related to us because this increases the likelihood that our
______ shall be _____ to future _____.
A) Character, transferred, population
B) Genes, transmitted, population
C) Genes, transmitted, generation
D) Genes, transferred, population
Q31. Match the column
a) Symbolic social influence (i) social influence in which one person
orders to perform some action
b) Normative social influence (ii) social influence based on the desire
to be correct
c) Informational social influence (iii) social influence based on the desire
to be liked
d) Obedience (iv) social influence resulting from the
mental representation of others or
our relationship
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv) B) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
C) a(iii), b(iv) c(ii), d(ii) D) a(iv), b(iii), c(ii), d(i)
Q31. Match the column
a) Symbolic social influence (i) social influence in which one person
orders to perform some action
b) Normative social influence (ii) social influence based on the desire
to be correct
c) Informational social influence (iii) social influence based on the desire
to be liked
d) Obedience (iv) social influence resulting from the
mental representation of others or
our relationship
A) a(i), b(ii), c(iii), d(iv) B) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
C) a(iii), b(iv) c(ii), d(ii) D) a(iv), b(iii), c(ii), d(i)
Q32. Match the column
a) Asch (i) Obedience
b) Sherif (ii) Conformity
c) Milgram (iii) Cognitive Dissonance
d) Festinger (iv) Norm Formation
Codes:
A) a(ii), b(iv), c(i), d(iii)
B) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
C) a(i), b(ii) c(iii), d(iv)
D) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii)
Q32. Match the column
a) Asch (i) Obedience
b) Sherif (ii) Conformity
c) Milgram (iii) Cognitive Dissonance
d) Festinger (iv) Norm Formation
Codes:
A) a(ii), b(iv), c(i), d(iii)
B) a(ii), b(iii), c(iv), d(i)
C) a(i), b(ii) c(iii), d(iv)
D) a(iv), b(iii), c(i), d(ii)
Thank You