working

group 02

6
C H A P T E R

Education technology

DOI: [Link]

This chapter should be cited as:

Sabatini, J., Park, J.H., Chakraborty, A., Graesser, A.C., Macintyre, T.,
Chandrasekharan, M., and Ogunniran, M.O. (2022) ‘Education technology’
in Duraiappah, A.K., van Atteveldt, N.M., Borst, G., Bugden, S., Ergas, O.,
Gilead, T., Gupta, L., Mercier J., Pugh, K., Singh, N.C. and Vickers, E.A.
(eds.) Reimagining Education: The International Science and Evidence Based
Assessment. New Delhi: UNESCO MGIEP.
T his chapter assesses how technological
innovations are emerging as one type of
solution to the global educational challenges
Coordinating Lead Authors

of the 21st Century. It surveys across a broad John sabatini

typology of technologies in the information and
Jae park
communication domain, discussing their scope
and affordances in traditional and non-traditional
learning, curriculum design and instruction.
With an overview of trends, benefits, and risks Lead Authors
posed by recent technological advances in
education, the aim of the chapter is to present
a balanced view of the education technology Anya Chakraborty

(EdTech) field, highlighting the relevant and Arthur graesser

necessary concerns within the different spheres
of EdTech. Specifically, the chapter discusses Thomas Macintyre

critical issues of the digital divide, equitable Manoj Chandrasekharan

access to EdTech, privacy and security concerns,
the role of teachers and real-world classrooms Moses Oladele Ogunniran

in an increasingly digitized education setting,

and debates concerning the ethical use of
artificial intelligence, big data analytics and
machine learning. The assessment supports an
optimistic but cautionary role for EdTech in
addressing education challenges when coupled
with continued social and cultural context-driven
research. With respect to policy, the assessment
concludes that it is worthwhile to encourage
innovations and implementations of EdTech
globally, accompanied by sensible regulatory
guidelines on data sharing, breach of privacy,
security, misuse and misrepresentation of claims
about what EdTech can and cannot do.

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6.1 Introduction
Throughout history, technology become a pervasive context across
has played an instrumental role all education settings (Spector,
in the development of humanity 2001). Education technology
– from cave paintings to the (EdTech) holds many promises
development and use of tools, for addressing longstanding
from the printing press and educational debates and technical
the telephone to the internet problems: allowing access to
connecting billions across time quality educational resources
and space. Having entered an age for individuals with specific
of profound environmental and disabilities or challenges that
social change, technology has impact their learning in traditional
Like many human school settings, to communities EdTech alone is not a panacea for
that are geographically remote, all the obstacles facing education.
endeavours, to populations in economic Like many human endeavours,
technological advances need; enhancing the role of technological advances and
teachers and other educators in solutions hold both promise
and solutions hold
supporting human learning; or and peril when applied to
both promise and bringing balance and harmony educational contexts, depending
peril when applied to to the sometimes discordant on the thoughtfulness and care
philosophies of education as brought to the application and
educational contexts. engines of economic prosperity implementation in real life.
versus education as an ecosystem For example, EdTech promises
of human flourishing. Thereby to increase the efficacy and
EdTech plays its part in promoting value of teachers, revolutionize
diversity, lifelong learning and individualized learning, reduce
equitable quality education for all administrative burden, and
individuals. improve overall retention and
learning of students with the aim
There is an inherent tension of promoting human learning and
among stakeholders of education achievement. At the same time,
that devolves into debates about it also proves often to be just the
trade-offs, constraints and opposite, disrupting traditional
limitations: to achieve gains in roles and responsibilities,
one direction requires losses in increasing administrative burden
the other. However, this need not and surveillance, and distancing
be a zero-sum game, and careful teachers from the traditional
planning and consideration can social interactions with students.
achieve a balance between the two. In this chapter, we keep these
Technology-enhanced systems can two counterfactual forces at the
be such game-changers. forefront as we review different
types of EdTech. We present
cases where EdTech is used, for
It is, however, noteworthy that, example, to achieve a balance
despite the optimism of some between human learning towards
promoters and enthusiasts,

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an end of increasing human unanticipated risks of introducing

capital versus human flourishing; EdTech in an educational context.
and assess the critical issues that
need to be considered, debated This chapter acknowledges that
and resolved by the human technologies can be tools that
actors entangled in the design, transform education, and discusses
development, diffusion and use of the adaptation, opportunities
EdTech. and challenges they pose to
educators and learners (Fishman
How do we define technology and Dede, 2016). The chapter simply
and, specifically, EdTech? Many and broadly defines EdTech
scholars have argued that rather as any technology applied in
than tools and gadgets, technology an educational context or as
is both human experience a solution to an educational
(Heidegger, 1977; Ihde, 1993; McCarthy problem. By this definition,
and Wright, 2004) and a fundamental any process or tool may become
driver that transforms societies EdTech through its purposing
and values (Ellul, 1954/1964). and use. While many of us may
Consequently, EdTech becomes automatically think of the internet
conducive to changing and and the laptop as EdTech, it is
enhancing the learner experience important to remember that a
Many scholars have while materializing human textbook is a traditional EdTech
argued that rather flourishing. However, for every designed for the purpose of
enhancement brought about teaching a topic or subject area,
than tools and by technology, there is a risk while an ancestral technology
gadgets, technology of displacement, disruption or could be rituals around the
is both human and a destruction of some kind; every fire – learning about humanity’s
magnification can be accompanied relationship with nature (Macintyre
fundamental driver by a reduction (Ihde, 1993), so et al., 2019). We describe a range
that transforms there will always be the need to of technologies that are widely
consider alternatives or monitor discussed in EdTech research,
societies and values unintended consequences in with special attention given to
experience. order to minimize anticipated and information and communication
technologies (ICTs) as instantiated infusion into products, processes
with digital tools, artifacts, and services and their consequent
networked communications impact are not noticed or debated
platforms, and cloud-based by education stakeholders until
computing and storage. Our they are already integrated
focus on digital technologies and transforming educational
is underlined by the speed and ecosystems.
volume with which they are
occupying the educational space The chapter starts with a brief
and the rapid and uncertain ways history of EdTech, followed
with which they are influencing by a typology and scoping of
human development and the technologies. We then examine
environment. However, we do EdTech in education proper,
not neglect brief reviews of less identifying emerging themes
well-publicized technologies that and issues of application, and
are emerging in research and sampling recent developments in
development (R&D) centres EdTech along with descriptions
across the world, such as various of how these technologies are
new forms of artificial intelligence being researched and applied to
(AI)-augmented learning, lest their

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... we must education. Following this review, synthesis of multidimensional

we take a critical lens to synthesize perspectives on EdTech. We also
acknowledge that some of the issues that reveal believe that the multicultural
journals and reports both the promises of and future background of the authors,
challenges for EdTech. spanning four different continents,
on EdTech stemming
contributes significantly to the
from development and A methodological note is in order development of a more holistic
research in Western at this point. In this chapter, we assessment of EdTech in the
take a multidisciplinary approach global space. That said, we must
countries exert a acknowledge that journals and
and attempt to be inclusive
strong influence on of research and contexts from reports on EdTech stemming
from development and research in
which questions around the world, bearing in
Western countries exert a strong
mind the shadow on the research
are asked and most literature known as the ‘WEIRD influence on which questions are
studied. problem’ (the dominance of asked and most studied (Arnett,
2008; Thalmayer, Toscanelli and Arnett,
samples from Western, highly
2021).
educated, industrialized, rich and
liberal democratic countries and
regions). That is, the majority of This chapter is neither a meta-
psychological and educational analysis nor an exhaustive
research in journals (Arnett, 2008) literature review but rather a
employs college-level student broad perspective on EdTech in
samples that ‘not only fail to anticipation of future application
generalize to the world at large and diffusion into education
but also are especially atypical systems. Our approach to this
and unrepresentative’ (NASEM, 2018, chapter also reflects the uneven
p. 317; see also Henrich, Heine and diffusion across the world of both
Norenzayan, 2010; Rad, Martingano EdTech itself and research about
and Ginges, 2018). The chapter it, coupled with a recognition that
contributors have collaborated there is limited generalizability
across different academic fields of research conducted in one
in the natural and social sciences setting, context, social or historical
to formulate the integration and moment and culture (NASEM, 2018).
6.2 History of EdTech
and the Delors Report
One can trace the intertwining and schooling contexts. The
of technology and literacy and earliest example of EdTech using
learning through innovations electronic and digital media/tools
in writing and mathematical was educational radio prior to the
notation systems and various First World War (Bates, 1984). Early
inventions; notable examples innovations in broad consumer
are affordable paper production, and military technologies such as
moveable type, the printing press, slide shows and retro-projectors
the slide rule, the calculator and were readily adapted for use in
the ballpoint pen. However, education in the early twentieth
the history of EdTech coincides century (Saettler, 1968; De Vaney
with modern (twentieth century and Butler, 1996). The inception of
to the present), formal training EdTech as a main instructional

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delivery modality came with the integration of previously unrelated

foundation of Open University technologies and participatory
in the United Kingdom (UK) culture (Jenkins, 2007). The very
in the early 1970s, and the use systemic structure of technology
of computers in education with has been going through a steady
programming, drill and practice stream of radical changes. Today,
became widespread (Manguel, 1996). we cannot take for granted that
The use of ‘computer technologies’ the network neutrality of the
to support learning was pioneered internet and its influence on
and reported by Atkinson and education will remain as it is now,
Shiffrin as early as 1968 (see such as the case of blockchain,
Bransford, Brown and Cocking, 2000). which will increasingly affect
The late 1980s to early 1990s financing and investing in
witnessed the popularization of education, implementing
computer-based training with instructional projects,
multimedia (e.g. CD-ROM) in certification/accreditation systems
schools and universities. Internet- and the monitoring of learning
based instruction started in the outcomes with distributed ledgers
1990s, which was followed by (Cacioli, 2020; Park, 2021b).
e-learning well into the early
2000s (Fletcher, 2009; Graesser, 2013; ICTs are one of the central
Weller, 2018). themes of the ‘Delors Report’, a
landmark report to UNESCO of
A plethora of new technologies, the International Commission
Today, we cannot take such as open-source, social media, on Education for the Twenty-first
for granted that the virtual environments and AI, Century (International Commission on
have been adopted by education, Education for the Twenty-first Century,
network neutrality of 1996). While ICTs and peripherally
and are turning education into
the internet and its places and spaces of technological related digital technologies
influence on education convergence (see WG3-ch7 for stand out, it is important to
further discussion on digital acknowledge the legacy of
will remain as it is places in education). That is, multimedia technologies that
now.. there is a tendency towards the continue to be used around the
world for education delivery. For Africa contribute to their identity
example, the infrastructure built formation while promoting
to support educational television peace and reconciliation (Bosch,
and radio programmes established 2007). In Afghanistan, UNICEF
over several decades remains is using radio to teach children
important in several societies. in violence-affected zones. In the
India’s NCERT, for instance, has United States (USA), the public
a large, channel-like structure broadcasting service (PBS) has
which still offers extensive provided children’s educational
programming today. Nepalese television programming since
radio education also has a long 1969 when it debuted Sesame
tradition (Holmes, Karmacharya Street; this has resulted in multiple
and Mayo, 1993; Pradhan, 2012). international co-productions, and
Community radio programmes PBS continues to develop televised
produced by disadvantaged and internet hybrid programmes
children in Senegal and South to support children’s learning

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While there has been (Mares and Pan, 2013; Fisch, 2014; such as books, and on new
Kearney and Levine, 2015). More media such as information
an impressive growth recently, during the COVID-19 technologies, which should
in ICTs, related pandemic, a number of be used with discernment and
governments have used television with active pupil participation’
disparities such as channels to air educational (International Commission on Education
the digital divide programmes (Alvi and Gupta, 2020; for the Twenty-first Century, 1996,
Özer, 2020; Ramabrahmam, 2020). p. 31). While there has been an
between the rich and
impressive growth in ICTs, related
the poor has resulted disparities such as the digital
Returning to the Delors Report,
in problems of access divide between the rich and the
we acknowledge three key
poor has resulted in problems of
and quality of usage facets of technology – ICTs in
access and quality of usage that
particular – reported by the
that continue to pose Commission that deserve to be
continue to pose challenges for
global education (Scheerder, van
challenges for global revisited and reassessed: (1) the
Deursen and van Dijk, 2017; Yuen et
crucible of knowledge production
education. and dissemination in science
al., 2017; Park, 2021a). The science
and technology gap between
and technology; (2) the tension
‘developed’ and ‘developing’
between technology and social
countries (International Commission
justice; and (3) the centrality and on Education for the Twenty-first
future direction for education Century, 1996, p. 34) is still being
systems and international breached today. The infrastructure
cooperation surrounding EdTech. for ICTs, especially a stable,
The Commission identified reliable internet, is not a universal,
technology as a currency and worldwide achievement, within
an instrument in the push and or across regions. Until such a
pull inherent to economies time that societies provide such
amidst fast globalization. Aiming universal access and coverage,
at international cooperation, technologies will need to be
for example, the Commission adapted to address local inequities
highlighted the importance in infrastructure and service.
of ‘the quantity and quality of
traditional teaching materials
6.3 Types and scope of
EdTech
A selective and non-exhaustive display. After its invention by
typology of technologies relevant Johnson in 1965, Samuel Hurst’s
to EdTech can be organized resistive touchscreen, developed in
around their efficacy and impact 1970, provided the foundation for
while being mindful of fast-paced the later innovation and adoption
technological innovations with of smartphones and tablet devices
their affordances, opportunities (Ion, 2013).
and risks, and often unpredictable
and transformative consequences. In EdTech, one driver of
An illustration of a transformative inventions, innovations and
innovation might be the keyboard adoptions has been the desire
for typing, which accelerated to serve those with individual
the spread and use of print differences that interfere with
literacy in comparison to participation in customary social
handwriting. Another example is or educational settings. Both
the touchscreen or finger-driven

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Through assistive perceptions of and responses to learning, represents the state of

digital device environments have the art in aspiring to technologies
technology, for been adapted and enhanced by that do not exclude based on
example, children attending to individuals with individual differences but rather
physical and mental disabilities attempt to circumvent such
with special education (Wehmeyer et al., 2012; Meyer, differences (Al-Azawei, Serenelli and
needs are able to Rose and Gordon, 2014). Through Lundqvist, 2016; Capp, 2017).
access the general assistive technology, for example,
children with special education
education curriculum. We now turn to a discussion of
needs (SEN) are able to access
ICTs, which serves as a convenient
the general education curriculum
shorthand typology in organizing
(Chambers, 2019; Vincent-Lancrin
the review that follows. We review
and van der Vlies, 2020). There
current developments in ICTs
are different kinds of assistive
in reverse order – technology,
technologies that can be adjusted
communication, information –
to inclusive classroom settings,
expanding on each category as
for example, if a child has a visual
warranted.
impairment, they can opt to use
text-to-speech functionality to
gain skills and independence 6.3 .1
(Maich and Hall, 2016). Other notable
examples of assistive technologies
for those with SEN are tactile
interfaces for the blind or visually TECHNOLOGY:
impaired, visual displays for the
deaf or hearing-impaired, and
HARDWARE/DEVICES/
alternative response modalities ROBOTS/VIRTUAL
for those with loss of or limited
mobility or movement (Hersh, WORLDS
Leporini and Buzzi, 2020). The
evolution of universal design At the outset of the computing
principles, which codify how and era, large, centrally located
when to apply EdTech to support mainframes (computation and
 data storage) were accessed via a An emerging area of EdTech
distal terminal consisting of an research concerns the impact
input (keyboard, programming of 3D printing on education
card) and output (initially a (Szulzyk-Cieplak, Duda and Sidor, 2014;
printer, later a monitor screen). Papp, Tornai and Zichar, 2016; Song,
Ironically, we have almost come 2018). Through different digital
full circle, with computing power interfaces, 3D printers facilitate
distributed across networks, expression of learners’ experience
allowing for the sharing of of a multidimensional world and
computation between a local allow them to emulate and (re)
device and distal servers. Similarly, create it. There is evidence of
storage is shifting to ‘the cloud’, 3D printers’ impact in diverse
a euphemism for external server education contexts and regions,
storage of data. This allows for a for example, as an instructional
variety of user interface devices tool for teachers (Song, 2018); for
ranging from classic (though special education (Buehler, Kane and
thinner) high-definition monitors, Hurst, 2014; Buehler et al., 2016); and
Another branch tablet-sized screens, phones, in arts-restoration education (Short,
watches, eyeglasses and virtual- 2015).
of technological reality goggles, the latter creating
innovation has a simulation of three-dimensional Another branch of technological
been directed at (3D) space for the wearer. innovation has been directed at
Research is underway using a perception and motoric functions,
perception and computer-vision-driven system with increasing advances in both
motoric functions, with that runs a 3D ‘digital twin’ of the sensitivity and precision, as well
classroom (Zhang et al., 2014). Thus, as intelligent feedback looping
increasing advances a teacher can see a whole class that mimics advanced cognition
in both sensitivity and without instrumenting any of the (Goldberg et al., 2017). At the basic
occupants to obtain it. Researchers end of this spectrum, nearly all
precision, as well as are implementing this in both digital devices now come standard
intelligent feedback controlled studies and real-world with audio-video embedded
looping that mimics classroom deployments with in their hardware. While these
promising results (Anonymous, 2018). innovations can support various
advanced cognition.

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Fingerprint individual differences that impact detectors, analyses of facial

learning (e.g. for the blind/visually expressions and biometric sensors
identification serves impaired or the deaf/hearing are used to infer our mental
both a privacy/ - impaired), they can also be and emotional states (Calvo and
used as management, surveillance D’Mello, 2010; D’Mello and Graesser,
security function for 2010), benignly for engagement
and control tools that raise issues
the individual, but of confidentiality and privacy. and motivation, but other less
also creates the risk Whether an individual is assured admirable applications are easily
of when they are being recorded imagined.
of confidentiality and is not always transparent to the
privacy invasion. user. Eye-tracking technology In addition, social robotics is
(Anonymous, 2018; Ashraf et al., 2018) an emerging field, opening up
is relatively cheap and easy to a world of human-like physical
install on a laptop computer, and emotional tutors and
giving perhaps an ominous cast companions (Breazeal, 2009; D’Mello
to the notion that eyes are the and Graesser, 2012; Breazeal et al.,
windows of the soul. For example, 2016). Biometric sensors and global
D’Mello et al. (2012) developed a positioning system locators extend
system that tracked whether the technologies not only to anywhere
learner was paying attention to the we happen to be but make
computer screen while learning inferences to our emotional states
and automatically gave feedback to as we learn and experience. These
the learner when the eyes went off- seemingly science-fiction-inspired
screen (Hutt et al., 2017). Of course, devices are currently being
even legacy broadcast technologies researched in laboratories, but
can be reversed – using cameras there is every reason to believe that
or audio-recording to monitor creative engineering applications
students, teachers and classrooms. will, in the coming decades,
Fingerprint identification serves bring consumer or open-source
both a privacy/security function programs that will accelerate wider
for the individual, but also dissemination.
creates the risk of confidentiality
and privacy invasion. Motion
 education have been trialled.
6.3 .2 Higher education institutions,
in particular, have increased
training courses for faculty in
COMMUNICATION AND the use of effective instructional
design principles for delivering
COLLABORATION content and maintaining student
engagement and self-directed
learning in computer-mediated
As we write this chapter, the world
environments (Rashid and Asghar,
continues to be in the midst of
2016).
a pandemic that has, in many
countries, resulted in the closing
of schools and a move to the Two lines of research have been
virtual, remote classroom, or a drawn upon to support the
hybrid model that combines the massive efforts of virtual and
two (virtual or distance education remote learning in the face of
and in-person, classroom learning) the pandemic. Firstly, decades of
(Cox and Laferrière, 2021). Despite research on distance education,
Despite decades of decades of distance education including massive open online
distance education models and implementation, courses (MOOCs), have led to
the reality of enforced distance insights into the affordability and
models and challenges of learning at a distance
learning has caught many
implementation, educational providers, parents (Gaševic, Dawson and Siemens, 2015;
Qayyum and Zawacki-Richter, 2018;
the reality of and communities by surprise
WG3-ch7). Secondly, research into
(Education Week, 2020). In addition,
enforced distance where technological infrastructures computer-supported collaborative
learning (CSCL) has focused on
learning has caught support it (such as in the USA
and South Korea), the presence of the quality of interactions when
many educational learners are brought together to
communication platforms such as
providers, parents Zoom has engendered creative and learn. Järvelä and Hadwin (2013)
arguably productive continuity in note that CSCL technologies,
and communities by when carefully designed using
the face of crisis. Hybrid models
surprise. of in-person and remote/virtual collaborative learning principles,

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are effective in enriching learning education must take place face-

interactions and creating to-face to designing what affords
opportunities for sharing and the best opportunity and context
constructing knowledge among for student learning. Some will
group participants (Ludvigsen et no doubt wish to go back to the
al., 2010); they have also been traditional, in-person school
associated with changes in and classroom structures as the
both individual and collective sole or primary location for
collaboration outcomes (Salomon, learning. But this industrial-era
Perkins and Globerson, 1991; Sottilare model of education delivery has
et al., 2018). Not to be overlooked not been working for specific
in this regard is the voluminous subpopulations in most country
sharing of content, lessons and settings. For example, in the
activities by and for educators. USA, the disparity in reading
For example, the University performance between African-
of Colorado Boulder hosts the American children and their
PhET Interactive Simulations white peers has persisted for over
project, which according to the thirty years, despite numerous
University’s website, provides over technological enhancements in
150 free interactive mathematics schools (McFarland et al., 2019). The
and science simulations, over traditional classroom and school
2,500 lessons submitted by model was built upon assumptions
teachers, translations into 94 of societies that existed over a
languages and over 784 million century ago, and economic and
simulations delivered (PhET, 2020). technological change has shifted
Not to be overlooked those assumptions. Many social
It is difficult to draw conclusions and commercial institutions
in this regard is the have already shifted towards
from the forced, global social
voluminous sharing of experiment in remote learning, accommodating remote workers
and it is even daunting to and workplaces. The dominance
content, lessons and of a socio-economic system where
comment upon it. What we can
activities by and for hope for is a change or shift in caretakers go to a workplace
educators. mindset from believing that all is shifting, which offers the
The explosion of opportunity to reconsider whether role of knowledge conveyer or
children going to a physical school ‘sage on the stage’ towards a role
information in the is the only or best option for of fostering a more student-
digital age has learning. centred ‘guide on the side’.
Perhaps this paradigm shift is
arguably been
accompanied by
6.3 .3 attributable, at least partially, to
the sheer volume of information
an explosion in the that is currently available and
still growing exponentially. For
means for generating,
INFORMATION: THE example, while Wikipedia as
sharing and evaluating an information source enjoys
knowledge. INTERNET different rates for reliability and
credibility depending on the age
The World Wide Web was and professional profile of its
invented in 1989; the first browser users, it is increasingly respected
and version of HyperText Transfer for its very open system of editors
Protocol and the first browser and and source citations to update
version of the HyperText Markup and amend errors (Korfiatis, Poulos
and Bokos, 2006; Flanagin and Metzger,
Language occurred in 1990. By
2011; Fitterling, 2014). Its policy of
2005, there were over 1.1 million
allowing its users to create, edit,
websites, by 2013 there were over
contest and revise the content may
600 million, and by 2016 there
not be perfect, but it approaches
were over 1.7 billion.
trustworthiness reasonably and
transparently, according to a
The explosion of information in philosophy of participatory and
the digital age has arguably been peer-reviewed content.
accompanied by an explosion in
the means for generating, sharing
In our information-intensive
and evaluating knowledge. To
society, every human can be
take one critical example, for
regarded as a ‘station’ in a network
decades, education reformers
of knowledge, either decentralized
have been attempting to move
or distributed, partaking in
teachers away from the primary

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The influence of AI the collective intelligence and 2000).

capacity-building in a networked
and other advanced society (Castells, 2009; Cornu, The circumstance of the twenty-
digital technologies 2005; Siemens, 2005). Skills and first century is that multiple
strategies of search, navigation and
on EdTech requires source evaluation is a prerequisite
evaluating source relevance and to learning and understanding;
careful attention credibility are thus foregrounded information must be evaluated,
because there is in any information-processing task cross-validated and integrated,
(Rouet and Britt, 2011; Britt and Rouet,
widespread uncertainty aligned with an epistemology that
2012). In education, the ability to
gaining knowledge is a work in
about and speculation properly handle information is
progress and never universal and,
known as ‘information literacy’
on how these new and it involves the ability to:
hence, open to falsification (Popper,
2002). This modern context has
technologies will significant implications for how
influence people’s lives - determine the nature and extent we prepare students to access and
of the information needed; understand information (Bråten et
and education.
al., 2011).
- effectively and efficiently access
information that is required;
6.3 .4
- evaluate information and its
sources critically and incorporate
the information into the personal
knowledge base and value system;
BEYOND ICT
The influence of AI and other
- summarize and synthesize the advanced digital technologies on
main ideas to be extracted from EdTech requires careful attention
the information and construct because there is widespread
new concepts; uncertainty about and speculation
on how these new technologies
use information effectively to will influence people’s lives and
accomplish a specific/ethical education (Elliott, 2017; Yang, 2019;
purpose (American Library Association, Aiken and Epstein, 2000). It is beyond
the scope of this chapter to Leonardi and Vaast, 2016). At the
cover the rapid and dynamically upper bound, one can imagine
changing landscape of new digital a data repository for millions
technologies evolving in the of students and citizens, each
EdTech world, but we identify the of whom has an associated
following four loci to monitor. comprehensive learner model of
knowledge, skills, abilities and
6.3 .4 .1 achievements that have accrued
over years of a person’s life (much
like a quantified digital learning
DATA SCIENCE AT SCALE portfolio). This upper bound
is actually being achieved to
The collection of data through sell products in the commercial
EdTech is dramatically increasing world (using the data collected
in volume, breadth and depth from customers), but the world
(NAEd, 2017). Further, EdTech of education research has barriers
enhances the organization and that observe privacy, and ethical
materialization of data collection and legal constraints that prevent
(Lefever, Dal and Matthíasdóttir, 2007;
the sharing of datasets among

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research communities. However, 6.3 .4 .3

steps have been taken towards the
upper bound in education (Rus et
al., 2020). INTERACTIONS WITH THE LEARNER
IN NATURAL LANGUAGE
6.3 .4 .2
Revolutionary advances in
computational linguistics (Jurafsky
INTELLIGENT ADAPTIVE TUTORING and Martin, 2008) have made
SYSTEMS it possible to analyse natural
language and discourse in visual
Intelligent tutoring systems and spoken text in essays and
keep a detailed record of conversation and written text
students’ knowledge, skills and (Graesser and McNamara, 2012;
psychological characteristics Yan, Rupp and Foltz, 2020). There
(called a student model) and use are now intelligent tutoring
There has been an systems that enable students to
that model to generate adaptive
emphasis in recent responses to help students have turn-by-turn conversations
years on personalized learn or stay engaged (Woolf, with computers in natural
2009; Graesser, Hu and Sottilare, language that yield learning gains
learning whereby the 2018; GIFT, 2020). These systems equivalent to trained human
learner has some have shown promising learning tutors in computer-mediated
gains compared to conventional communication (VanLehn, 2011).
agency in selecting learning activities (lectures, These computer tutors do not
what to learn and the reading) presumably because perfectly comprehend student
of their interactive nature (Kulik contributions but neither do
learning environment,
and Fletcher, 2015). AI-based human tutors (Graesser, Person and
thus delivering the assessment in tutoring systems Magliano, 1995). A conversational
right learning activity can also rigorously, continuously interaction can prompt students
and stealthily evaluate student to become more active learners
to the learner at the progress/levels in learning, and by asking challenging questions,
right time (NASEM, provide timely information for providing hints and other
different stakeholders (Shute and conversational discourse moves.
2018). Kim, 2014; Luckin, 2017).
New technologies
promise to track the
knowledge, skills and
abilities of individual
students at a more
nuanced level, with
recommendations for
learning environments
that are tailored to
their needs.

6.3 .4 .4 learning continuously (Wang,

Shute and Moore, 2015), to assess
socio-emotional development
GAMES (Dishon and Kafai, 2020), to cultivate
perspective-taking (Irava et al.,
Educational games increase 2019), and to employ culturally
learning through a more sensitive-differentiated tools (Park
motivational route. Researchers and Wen, 2016; Shadiev, Sun and
have designed educational games, Huang, 2018). Meta-analysis has
digital game-based learning been conducted and shows mixed
(DGBL) in particular, to optimize success in improving learning
learning through motivation but, with further engineering and
(Tobias and Fletcher, 2011; Wouters science, the promise is undeniable
and van Ostendorp, 2017), to assess (Wouters et al., 2013; Clark, Tanner-
Smith and Killingsworth, 2014).

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... without safeguards, Graesser, Hu and Sottilare, 2018; also

standards and
6.3 .5 critical views, e.g. Selwyn, 2019).

policies, such student The promise of such EdTech

evaluation information ENHANCEMENT is obvious, but developing
standards and safeguards is equally
could be used as OF LEARNING important at the development and
reasons to limit research level. For example, what
EX PERIENCE happens once an upper bound
students’ choices and
There has been an emphasis in of learner data are collected?
opportunities about recent years on personalized On the positive side, the data
what to learn, because learning whereby the learner can be mined for patterns that
has some agency in selecting reflect success in learning and
algorithms predict motivation. Machine learning
what to learn and the learning
their low probability of environment, thus delivering techniques, such as multilayered
the right learning activity to the neural networks in deep learning
success. (LeCun, Bengio and Hinton, 2015),
learner at the right time (NASEM,
2018). This is very different from can automatically identify the
the current, but elusive, model patterns that predict learning and
of effective intervention applied engagement gains, including an
uniformly to all students in a estimate of how well the patterns
classroom (Lortie-Forgues and Inglis, generalize from one niche of
2019). New technologies promise learning activity to others. On the
to track the knowledge, skills and negative side, without safeguards,
abilities of individual students standards and policies, such
at a more nuanced level, with student evaluation information
recommendations for learning could be used as reasons to
environments that are tailored limit students’ choices and
to their needs. This is the vision opportunities about what to learn,
of intelligent tutoring systems because algorithms predict their
and other adaptive instructional low probability of success. Further,
systems that tailor instruction to without safeguards, broaching
individual learners (Woolf, 2009; privacy and confidentiality, such
decisions could be made without complexity and promise. But how
their knowledge (e.g. Drachsler and do stakeholders make sense of
Greller, 2016). all of this when deciding what is
best for teaching and learning in
The above survey of existing educational settings? To address
and emerging EdTech reveals an this question, we take a more
accelerating R&D context that conceptual approach, examining
is overwhelming in its diversity, the literature on how people learn

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6.4 How people learn,

affordances of
EdTech, and tailoring
to individuals and
groups
Deciding how and when to use learning environments need to be
EdTech requires an understanding aligned with the goals and types
of the different types of learning of learning. For example, drill
that may occur in formal and and practice is fine for certain
informal learning environments. basic mathematical computation
In turn, EdTech-augmented operations (implicit pattern
Observational learning) in children but not for Habit formation and
building mental models of how conditioning. Conditional
learning may be a nuclear reactor works in adults learning is gradual, often
influenced by many (mental models with inferences). unconscious and self-reinforcing.
This is the nexus at which the Habits may have positive or
factors such as the
learning sciences intersect with negative dispositions and may be
individual’s perception EdTech to inform decision- deployed automatically, that is,
of themselves relative making. As we look to the with ease, fluency and relatively
future, research is revealing new little cognitive effort, when
to those modelling the affordances of EdTech and how environment conditions cue their
behaviour, be they it can be aligned not only to the use.
content being learned but also to
teachers, caretakers, individual differences in learners
authority figures or or to groups learning together. Observational learning.
Imitation, interpretation,
peers. modelling and inference may all
6.4 .1 be called upon when learning
by observation. Observational
learning may be influenced
HOW PEOPLE LEARN by many factors such as the
individual’s perception of
themselves relative to those
The second edition of How people modelling the behaviour, be they
learn (NASEM, 2018) identifies types teachers, caretakers, authority
of learning, noting that multiple figures or peers.
types of learning are integrated
or orchestrated in acquiring new
knowledge, skills or strategies, Implicit pattern learning.
and are influenced by the learner’s Sometimes called ‘statistical
context, culture and individual learning’, this involves the learning
characteristics. The types of of regular patterns in a particular
learning identified include: environment without actively
intending to do so. This kind of
learning is akin to observational

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How to optimize learning but is characterized by external sources or generated by

the unconscious recognition elaborating on what one already
learning of any of regularities or patterns in knows.
specific skill or topic an otherwise irregular context,
without conscious attention and
is a central question Learning by making inferences.
reflection being directed to the
explored in the regularity or pattern by direct Inference-making captures a wide
instruction. range of cognitive operations
learning sciences, and including, but not limited to,
almost always involves reasoning, analysis, synthesis,
Perceptual and motor learning. abduction, evaluation, elaboration,
a mixture of types of
Learning through perception model-making and creativity. It
learning to achieve or sensory experiences can be enables generalization and transfer
complex goals or characterized as perceptual or of learning to new contexts and
motor learning. Complex physical situations.
expertise in a domain. skills such as learning to play
a musical instrument, sport or How to optimize learning of
manipulating a game console any specific skill or topic is a
are examples where percepts and central question explored in the
actions are developed to work learning sciences, and almost
in coordinated ways with high always involves a mixture of types
levels of sensitivity and specificity of learning to achieve complex
required to attain expertise. goals or expertise in a domain.
For example, when learning
Learning of facts. Facts or a complex array of facts, the
information can be learned in learning sciences point to spaced
a single trial or over repeated practice over massed practice and
exposure, incidentally or memorization. Learning to play a
intentionally (studying, musical instrument, on the other
memorization). One might hand, favours an environment
distinguish facts (which have with more perceptual and motor
a positive truth value) from learning practice. Duly selected
data. Facts can be learned from EdTech can facilitate different
 types of learning by intensifying if it is a source of distraction –
exposure to sensory stimuli, splitting attention or depleting
experience and iterations. working memory resources on
content not relevant to learning
objectives. An extreme case of
An optimal learning context this is ‘smartphone dependence’,
occurs when existing knowledge a habitual state of distraction
is able to be compared, contrasted whenever one’s smartphone is
or applied to novel situations, present (Ward et al., 2017). Thus,
that is, the cognitive process of from the perspectives of pedagogy
drawing upon existing knowledge and instructional design – EdTech
in the ‘long-term store’ (Atkinson inclusive – planning the dynamics
and Shriffin, 1968). Evidence among different levels of cognitive
from research on cognitive processing is paramount.
load indicates that due to the
ephemeral nature and limited
capacity of the ‘short-term
6.4 .2
store’ or ‘working memory’,
its overloading with multiple
sources, all at once, of visual,
auditive and textual information AFFORDANCES OF
Thus, from the can lead to a state of divided
attention and lack of effective
EDTECH
perspectives of learning (Sweller, 1994; Sweller,
Ayres and Kalyuga, 2011; Kalyuga, In any topic or domain,
pedagogy and knowledge, skills, strategies and
2015). Cognitive capacity can
instructional design therefore be undercut by cognitive disposition (KSSD) need to be
overload caused when sensible learned, and each is likely to
– EdTech inclusive – require one or more types of
instructional design does not
planning the dynamics take human-processing capacity learning activity. Curriculum,
among different levels limitations into consideration. instructional designers and
For example, the mere presence of teachers have expertise in
of cognitive processing a smartphone (not in use) could understanding, developing and
is paramount. diminish cognitive performance delivering instruction to help

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learners build KSSD. EdTech is Nonlinear access: the technology

one of the tools in a toolkit of allows the learner to select or
instructional design. Towards this receive learning activities in an
end, we can analyze technologies order that deviates from a set
from the perspective of their order.
affordances. The second edition
of How people learn (NASEM, Linked representations:
2018, pp. 165–66) identifies some the technology provides
of the affordances of learning quick connections between
technologies to help guide this representations for a topic that
alignment between KSSD and emphasizes different conceptual
EdTech. viewpoints, media and pedagogical
strategies.
Interactivity: the technology
systematically responds to the Open-ended learner input:
actions of the learner. the technology allows learners
to express themselves through
Adaptivity: the technology natural language, drawing pictures
presents information that is and other forms of open-ended
contingent on the behaviour, communication.
knowledge or characteristics of the
learner. Communication with other
people: the learner communicates
mediated by technology with one
Feedback: the technology gives or more people or agents.
the learner information about the
quality of their performance and
how it could improve. The combinations of learning that
need to complement a particular
curriculum or instructional
- Choice: the technology gives standard require the joint
learners options on what to learn responsibility of learning scientists,
and how to regulate their own curriculum and instructional
learning.
 designers, and teachers. Almost TIM (technology integration
every complex skill (reading, matrix), an EdTech model which
mathematics, writing) will require is the result of intersecting five
a combination of different types levels of technology integration
of learning at different stages of (entry, adoption, adaptation,
skill acquisition. Understanding infusion and transformation) with
the stage in which the target is five types of learning environment
learning facts, or forming habits (active, collaborative, constructive,
and disposition, or implicitly authentic and goal-directed);
learning the different patterns, will
help decision-makers to choose RAT (replacement, amplification,
appropriate EdTech solutions to transformation), which is a
aid in that learning. theoretical construct on the effect
of technology on pedagogy; and
There exist a score of frameworks
or theoretical models to support PICRAT, a passive, interactive
technology integration into or creative relationship between
The combinations of teaching, notably: student and technology which
encompasses the RAT construct
learning that need (FCIT, 2005; Mishra, Koehler and
TPACK, that is, technological,
to complement a pedagogical and content Zhao, 2007; Hamilton, Rosenberg and
knowledge on different Akcaoglu, 2016; Harmes, Welsh and
particular curriculum Winkelman, 2016; Kimmons, Graham and
dimensions and types of
or instructional knowledge mediated by West, 2020).

standard require the technology;

joint responsibility of
SAMR (substitution,
learning scientists, augmentation, modification and
curriculum and redefinition), which is a four-
level, taxonomy-based technology
instructional designers, integration in primary and
and teachers. secondary education;

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In order to adjust common instructional design – for

EdTech to diverse
6.4 .3 curriculum and pedagogy – that
accommodates students with
types and areas of different support needs (Wehmeyer
support need such as EQUITABLE ACCESS TO et al., 2012).

for intellectual and/or DIFFERENT LEARNERS EdTech has led the way in
physical disabilities, it providing opportunities for
is important to abide The United Nations (UN) differently abled students to
Sustainable Development Goal 4 learn (Fichten et al., 2009). It has
by the principles of (SDG 4) aims to ‘ensure inclusive been used to support individuals
universal design ... and equitable quality education with special needs to concentrate
and promote lifelong learning on tasks; it has also been
opportunities for all’ (UN, 2015, p. used to provide opportunities
14). It presents ‘a new vision’ for for these individuals to try
education that is ‘comprehensive, simulations, basic drill or practice,
holistic, ambitious, aspirational communication or explanatory
and universal, and inspired activities, and increase higher-
by a vision of education that order thinking skills (Edwards,
transforms the lives of individuals, Blackhurst and Koorland, 1995; Yeni and
communities and societies, leaving Gecu-Parmaksiz, 2016).
no one behind’ (Knox, Wang and
Gallagher, 2019, pp. 2–3). Here, we Arkorful and Aibadoo (2015)
focus on inclusive education for discuss the advantages of
persons with disabilities and some e-learning, including flexibility,
of the assistive technologies that improved access, the ability
work to achieve this. In order to to overcome systemic barriers,
adjust EdTech to diverse types and personalization. They also
and areas of support need such discuss e-learning’s disadvantages,
as for intellectual and/or physical such as the lack of direct
disabilities, it is important social interaction, inefficient
to abide by the principles of explanations compared to
universal design, that is, a traditional methods, and the
AI in educational requirement of strong self-control (feedback, emotion, assessment,
and discipline on the part of the etc.) are used in training of AI-
development (AIED) student (Bandalaria, 2018). enabled EdTech to develop a user-
provides robust tools oriented approach for creating
for the development EdTech also comes with several adaptive learning environments
strengths that can aid pedagogical (Mohammed and Watson, 2019).
of personalized
practices in the education of
learning for the differently abled individuals. As previously noted (see section
atypical dimensions of For example, AI in educational 6.1), an issue in the AI field
development (AIED) provides is how the cultural and social
inclusive education ... robust tools for the development biases in the data collected
of personalized learning for the and used to train AI-enabled
atypical dimensions of inclusive machine learning systems make
education including students the system inherently biased
with social anxiety, autism towards inequalities already
spectrum disorder (ASD) and existing in societies from where
specific learning difficulties the data are derived. AIED is
such as dyslexia and dyscalculia heavily influenced by WEIRD
(Vincent-Lancrin and van der Vlies, samples, with 82 to 95 per cent
2020). Additionally, emerging of all research coming from
development in robotics has high-income countries, showing
allowed the design of AI social clear global imbalance in datasets
robots to provide valuable tools used in models and systems
for social and emotional learning (Mohammed and Watson, 2019). The
in the atypical student population ultimate success of AIED will be
(Vincent-Lancrin and van der Vlies, achieved through an integration of
2020). Data collected from facial multiple, plural world views and
recognition (emotion, eye- contextualized datasets used to
tracking) and speech recognition train the AI.

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6.5 Critical issues

In the following section, we different points of view on the
spotlight current and future interplay of history, culture and
priority issues for research, policy technology, as a reminder that
and practice in the social and human agents need to play the
cultural context of EdTech’s lead role in the drama of how
application in educational systems. EdTech will unfold in the years to
We introduce each issue with a come.
literary allusion or a historical
figure to draw attention to
... the existence of broader range of EdTech we have
a digital divide in
6.5 .1 been discussing in this chapter.
In education, the digital divide is
education based on currently discussed at three levels:
societal advantage/ MAHATMA GANDHI AND (1) access/infrastructure; (2) skills/
uses; and (3) mastery/outcome
disadvantage presents CONFRONTING THE (e.g. Yuen and Park, 2012; Yuen et al.,
an educational moral DIGITAL DIVIDE 2016a, 2016b, 2017; Park, 2021a).

imperative to address
While an individual or group may
the problem of access Mahatma Gandhi forewarned us
choose to opt out of some or all
of a world sustainably divided into
as a right, not a of our technology-driven cultures,
those in necessity and those in
governments should not be able
privilege. abundance, adding a note of hope
to deny access or infrastructure
and admonishment: ‘The world
to some groups as policy. This
has enough for everyone’s need,
speaks concretely to the digital
but not enough for everyone’s
divide in education, because
greed’. While we have posited
access/infrastructure is unevenly
that EdTech is not a panacea for
distributed, along the lines of the
all the ills of education, it has the
persistent inequities we face within
potential to be the great equalizer,
and across societies and countries.
moving the world towards
‘enough’ for everyone’s educational
needs. But for this promise to even That is, the existence of a digital
have a chance, we must address divide in education based on
the issue of the digital divide. societal advantage/disadvantage
presents an educational moral
imperative to address the problem
Scheerder, van Deursen and van
of access as a right, not a privilege
Dijk (2017, p. 1608) define the
(Park, 2021a). One cannot promise
digital divide ‘as inequalities in
‘separate, but equal’ opportunity
access to and use of ICTs, mostly
when the advantaged have
the Internet’. We expand on this
access to all that technology
definition to broadly include the
promises, and are pitted against

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The lack of the disadvantaged (defined accessed technological tools to

differently in each society) who continue their studies during the
technological only have ‘basic’ education and pandemic (Le Nestour et al., 2020).
infrastructure in resources, given that the students A technology infrastructure is
must compete economically and therefore a necessary, though
the form of stable
flourish independently in a tech- not sufficient, condition to take
electricity, internet rich, adult society. This is a version advantage of EdTech innovations
connectivity and of institutional discrimination. An as they emerge. That is, it affords
individual may reject technology, opportunity, but does not
bandwidth, and but the ‘state’ should provide guarantee its integration (Fishman
software and hardware equitable opportunities to use it. and Dede, 2016).

results in a widening
The lack of technological The good news, to which we have
of the inequality gap infrastructure in the form alluded, is that EdTech can be
in education across of stable electricity, internet an equalizer in the distribution
connectivity and bandwidth, and of educational resources.
nations.
software and hardware results Paraphrasing an old proverb:
in a widening of the inequality give a child a traditional book
gap in education across nations and they can read one author
(Aduwa-Ogiegbaen and Iyamu, 2005; for about a week. Give a child
UNESCO, 2015; Eze, Chinedu-Eze and an ebook and they will have a
Bello, 2018). This is also the case library of authors to read for a
locally, with reports demonstrating lifetime. That is, the question
the EdTech constraints in low- of priorities within education
and middle -income countries leans heavily towards investing
(LMICs), where most EdTech in infrastructure over traditional
infrastructure is concentrated print materials. Economically
in urban centres (Delponte et al., and environmentally, digital is
2015). Surveys have found that cheaper and cleaner than paper-
only a minority of children have based materials to distribute and
access to ‘learning continuity’ update. With respect to cost and
in LMICs in Africa; in Senegal, diversity of delivery, EdTech is
less than 11 per cent of children more portable, reaches remote
 areas and can be used to reduce EdTech access to its citizens,
the constraints of geography. By thus providing opportunities
accessing remote areas, it can help for marginalized populations to
expand perspectives. The rationale partake in the digital revolution.
is that an enhanced infrastructure
affords greater access to better The guiding principle of
education for all. However, for eliminating the digital divide,
many, EdTech solutions, such as however, is only the starting
ebooks, are still neither affordable, point for a series of challenging
nor feasible. Even if they were, questions. Yes, there is a need for
what would happen when the governments to invest in EdTech
ebook malfunctions – where infrastructure and to build robust
is the technical support? What and efficient technology-driven
if there is not ready electricity policies (Kamperman Sanders et al.,
for charging devices? What 2018; Tauson and Stannard, 2018). But
happens when system upgrades how is this accomplished?
render earlier hardware obsolete?
Investments need to be designed
With respect to for sustainability and not for For example, there are opportunity
cost considerations for countries
cost and diversity simple short-term gratification and
impressions. to invest in expensive EdTech
of delivery, EdTech infrastructure. With some LMICs
is more portable, short of basic education, health
Economically, several studies care, electricity and clean water,
reaches remote areas corroborate the ‘leapfrog’ the question is not only whether
effect of EdTech on national
and can be used to growth and development, when
scarce financial resources should
be allocated to EdTech setup,
reduce the constraints adequately planned and financed but also whether the returns are
(e.g. Sepehrdoust, 2018; Adeleye and
of geography. By sufficient to justify the investment.
Eboagu, 2019). In sum, the ethical
On one hand, there are reports
accessing remote argument may align with the
that ICTs/EdTech infrastructure
areas, it can help economic – although EdTech
does not always contribute to
investment is expensive, the state
expand perspectives. human capital formation, for
has a moral duty to ensure equal
example, in some African contexts

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To provide some (Ngwenyama et al., 2006; Ejemeyovwi, means of addressing the digital
Osabuohien and Osabohien, 2018). On divide, it is difficult to imagine a
nuance to the the other hand, there is sizable future where technology does not
arguments above, evidence that social media and big figure prominently in a country or
data analytics are strongly linked region and therefore, a time when
we view the multiple to public education, for example, EdTech is not a necessary element
results not as pointing in health care (Kamel Boulos and of a quality education system.
Wheeler, 2007; Moorhead et al., 2013; Consequently, bridging the digital
to inconsistencies, but Murdoch and Detsky, 2013; Raghupathi divide is imperative.
rather to the and Raghupathi, 2014).
underlying difficulty of 6.5 .2
To provide some nuance to the
measuring the impact
arguments above, we view the
of ICTs. multiple results not as pointing to
inconsistencies, but rather to the ZHUANG TZU ON THE
underlying difficulty of measuring
the impact of ICTs. It has been VIRTUAL AND THE REAL
argued that the effectiveness of
EdTech on development might be A special affordance of technology
based on specific parameters that has been to bridge the gap
account for categorization (e.g. between the real (in-person) and
country, economic capabilities). the virtual or remote, blurring the
For instance, Sepehrdoust (2018) boundaries between objectivity
suggests the real impact of and subjectivity, calling to mind
technology can be determined this quote: ‘Once upon a time, I,
by comparing countries with Chuang Tzu, dreamt that I was
comparable socio-economic a butterfly, flitting around and
indicators on a specified time enjoying myself. I had no idea I
lag. Differences across countries was Chuang Tzu. Then suddenly
would provide a vivid and accurate I woke up and was Chuang Tzu
diagnosis of the impact of EdTech again. But I could not tell, had I
and thus inform government been Chuang Tzu dreaming I was
policies. While we may debate the a butterfly or a butterfly dreaming
 I was now Chuang Tzu’ (Zhuangzi Marathe, 2020; Scroll Staff, 2020;
and Palmer, 2006). TeamCareers360, 2020). As discussed
in the previous section, the
COVID-19 pandemic has shone a
The COVID-19 pandemic has
glaring light on the digital divide
transformed the world at times
that exists between and within
into a dire and surreal place.
countries. Additionally, there is
Traditional classroom learning has
accelerated commercialization of
been forced to move to the virtual,
new EdTech platforms alongside
facilitated by ICTs. Countries have
a lack of pedagogical/curricular
adapted to the crisis and strive
rigour and continuity and a
to provide learning continuity to
lack of ethnic and culture-based
millions of students. In Nepal,
adjustments coupled with the
for example, online learning
rapid switch to virtual learning
platforms have allowed students
(Zhang, Ordóñez de Pablos and X u, 2014;
and teachers to remain connected
Williamson and Hogan, 2020).
with opportunities for teachers
to provide moral and emotional
support to students (Surkhali and Yet opportunities lie in every crisis.
Garbuja, 2020). Distance learning is characterized
by an information delivery
mechanism whereby the educator
...there is accelerated Despite the necessity of online
and learner are separated in both
learning platforms, there has been
commercialization of a backlash from diverse groups
time and space (Billings, 2007).
Virtual learning thus has proven
new EdTech platforms of teachers, students and parents
to be the only readily available
alongside a lack of to virtual learning. For example,
avenue during the crisis through
the massive open book online
pedagogical/curricular which to connect people and ideas
examinations administered by
across time and space, bridging
rigour and continuity Delhi University in India resulted
local/community learning and
in failure due to the existing
and a lack of ethnic digital divide, lack of textbooks
engagement. These virtual learning
models could even be adapted to
and culture-based for all students, and no prior
place-based learning contexts, in
teaching or training on the new
adjustments. format (Iftikhar, 2020; Pande and
which teachers and students learn

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and connect in situ to surrounding However, we should not ignore

communities (Sobel, 2004). critiques of these changes and the
possibility that the current forms
It should not have required a of online learning will exacerbate
crisis to recognize the need to the negative facets of social
address the above challenges distancing, not just physically,
through creative and sustainable but emotionally. In medical
technology-guided policy education, for example, the task
decisions, which take into of identifying different types of
account the social and cultural cognitive overload (see subsection
contexts of learning. There is 6.4.1) among learners, namely,
an opportunity to promote the reduced performance, non-
best of both worlds – blended verbal cues, verbal utterances and
learning which combines interpersonal interactions (e.g. lack
traditional classroom learning of responsiveness) are far more
methods with online learning challenging during the pandemic
(Rajput, 2020; Sewell, Santhosh and
modalities (Green and Whitburn,
O’Sullivan, 2020). Our modern
2016) allowing knowledge from
and emerging technologies are
all over the world to be accessed
requiring that we ask ourselves
by place-based, real people in
deep questions about what it is
experiential ways. Evidence from
we value in our human learning
meta-analysis shows a larger
experiences and environment, for
There is an opportunity effect size of learning when ‘a
example, the link between EdTech
blended rather than a purely
to promote the best of online condition was compared
and cultural values (Yuen et al., 2017;
Irava et al., 2019), versus what might
both worlds – blended with face-to-face instruction;
be learned or experienced via
when the online pedagogy was
learning which the remote, virtual or simulated
expository or collaborative rather
combines traditional worlds we may inhabit in between.
than independent in nature; and
classroom learning when the curricular materials and
instruction varied between the
methods with online online and face-to-face conditions’
learning modalities. (Means et al., 2013, pp. 35–36).
Disruption of the Henry folktale, battling EdTech
definition and role of
6.5 .3 at what it does best is not a
winning strategy. Disruption of
teachers, while playing the definition and role of teachers,
while playing out differently across
out differently across JOHN HENRY AND THE the world, has been underway
the world, has been ROLE OF THE TEACHER for years. The quality of the
underway for years. learning that children experience
IN THE TWENTY-FIRST will be highly dependent on how
teachers approach their role,
CENTURY and increasingly how they see
that role vis à vis EdTech. Given
The American folktale of John that technology integration is
Henry tells of a powerful not prioritized in most teacher
nineteenth-century railroad preparation programmes,
worker whose livelihood is increasing pre-service teachers’
challenged by the invention of levels of readiness to the use of
a riveting machine. John Henry EdTech is necessary (Cuhadar, 2018).
challenges the machine to a head-
to-head contest and wins, but the
Most individuals consider the
strain results in his immediate
increasing role of EdTech in
death from a burst heart (see also
the teaching-learning process
Fishman and Dede, 2016 for another
as a significant upgrade to the
application of this tale).
existing traditional face-to-face
standard (Mikre, 2011). Although
The teacher figure is archetypal teaching and learning have
in human history, although the traditionally been considered
definition and characteristics activities that predominantly
of a teacher vary across cultures occur within the four walls of
and countries. There is no reason a classroom, a significant shift
to doubt the continued role in digital technology seems to
of teachers in education, but, have broken this confinement
heeding the warning of the John and transformed teaching into a

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ubiquitous exercise. Nevertheless, indicate an effect size in learning

evidence from large-scale, meta- that is about twice as large for
analytical comparisons between teachers’ quality interventions
technology-mediated instruction (Hattie, 2009). The effect size of
and teachers’ pedagogical fully online learning is similar to
interventions (e.g. providing that of face-to-face learning, while
feedback, teacher–student blended instructions have a greater
relationships, metacognitive effect size than a solely face-to-face
strategies and direct instruction) mode (Means et al., 2013).
EdTech’s role need not This is not to deny the ubiquity challenging tasks) (Bransford,
and importance of EdTech but to Brown and Cocking, 2000, p. 207;
be to replace teachers underscore that EdTech has the Hattie, 2009, p. 221; Means et al.,
but to inform their highest effect on actual learning 2013). EdTech’s role need not be
when: to replace teachers but to inform
professional judgement their professional judgement
and enhance their - there is a diversity of teaching
and enhance their pedagogical
interventions: ‘Technology
pedagogical strategies bringing exciting
can extend the reach of great
interventions. curricula based on real-world
teaching, recognising that value
problems into the classroom;
is less and less created vertically,
through command and control,
- there is pre-training in the use but increasingly horizontally, by
of computers as a teaching and whom we connect and work with’
learning tool (teacher learning (Schleicher, 2018, p. 263). This is why
inclusive); in the fast-changing environment
of EdTech, teachers’ (re)training is
- there are multiple opportunities paramount.
for learning (e.g. deliberative
practice, increasing time on task) According to Bashir et al.
in addition to scaffolds and tools (2018), there is a need to create a
to enhance learning; platform for school teachers to be
intensively trained in technologies
- the student, not the teacher, is to sustain effective use of EdTech
in ‘control’ of learning through in teaching. Turning teachers
feedback, reflection and revision; into ‘technology integrationists’
requires meeting standards that
increase the inculcation of such
- peer learning is optimized (e.g. processes into actual teaching
grouping, cooperative learning and learning. As part of the
structure); and lessons drawn from their study
on developing countries (Nigeria
- feedback is optimized (upon and Senegal), McAleavy et al.

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(2018) emphasize that the use of for the participants to be the

technology for teacher training protagonists of the discussion,
needs to be considered for effective talking and sharing with people
professional development. ethnically, culturally, ontologically
and geographically distant from
Another important aspect of the one another was a strength of the
relationship between teachers course, as shared in later focus
and EdTech is power dynamics. groups (Macintyre et al., 2020).
Barak (2006) argues that EdTech
has the potential to transform the It is known that online
traditional role of the instructor communication may reduce the
because, with proper EdTech transactional distance between
applications, instead of being student and instructor (Attardi,
the main source of information Barbeau and Rogers, 2018; Stone and
and power, the teacher becomes Barry, 2019), hence, it should bridge
a facilitator in the learning such a gap in order to achieve the
EdTech has the process. With greater access instructional goal. A strong offline
to information and media of teacher–student relationship might
potential to transform also result in students feeling more
exchange across geographic space,
the traditional role of there are possibilities for the comfortable while engaging with
the instructor because, democratization of knowledge. online communication platforms
An illustration of this is a case (Griffiths and Graham, 2009; Rose,
with proper EdTech study in Colombia in the form of 2009).
applications, instead a community-based course called
Koru involving three grassroots There are many conservative
of being the main initiatives. Through the video forces and social mores that might
source of information conferencing platform Zoom, seek to preserve the classic role
a virtual space was established
and power, the teacher of teachers, and therefore not
whereby participants from adapt learning environments to be
becomes a facilitator Indigenous, Afro and Campesino inclusive of EdTech innovations.
in the learning communities carried out a virtual For example, the traditional
discussion around Colombian teaching method – where teachers
process. ecotourism. The possibility teach and students listen – is
...there is an strongly rooted in African teaching A threat could also emerge from
and learning practice (Akano, Ugwu inbuilt cultural norms in which
opportunity for EdTech and Ikuanusi, 2016). Many African traditional teacher–student
to act as a bridge teachers are ‘digital immigrants’ hierarchical relationships are
and they wish to maintain the difficult to change.
between students
status quo in regard to EdTech
and teachers, whereby due to their fear of unwarranted 6.5 .4
teachers facilitate the conditions that changing teaching
methods might bring (Ghavifekr and
exchange of Rosdy, 2015). Teacher training can
information and help them to overcome such fears
and transform their practice. This
FRANKENSTEIN
experience between is again not an argument against AND THE ETHICS OF
participants who use the value of teachers, but rather a
call to consider the consequences EDTECH
the knowledge as it
of different approaches to address
suits their context the problem of technologies’ Mary Shelley’s (1823) novel
and needs. disruption in existing economic Frankenstein or the modern
and social systems. Prometheus is a time-honoured
narrative about individuals
In summary, there is an innovating oblivious of the
opportunity for EdTech to act negative consequences in the
as a bridge between students realm of morality. The ‘modern
and teachers, whereby teachers Prometheus’ in the full title refers
facilitate the exchange of to the Greek myth of Prometheus
information and experience who steals fire, a divine property
between participants who use the and prerogative, to give to
knowledge as it suits their context humanity, only to be endlessly
and needs. A challenge to this punished for transgressing the
changing role of the teacher is boundaries between gods and
the necessity (and the consequent humans. Most cultures have
challenges) to train teaching variations on this theme, for
professionals in new technologies. example, in Slavic mythology

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The ability to identify there is Kryshen (god-giver of fire) of student learning behaviour
and in the Chinese tradition, we and interactions. In education,
patterns in student find Shennong, the Divine Peasant these analytics can result in a
learning through (the origin of agriculture and reduction in administrative work
medicine). through collection, analysis and
analysis of ‘learning
interpretation of data. The ability
process data’ promises There are currently multiple to identify patterns in student
adaptive learning entities amidst the swirl of learning through analysis of
technological development, ‘learning process data’ promises
environments tailored adaptive learning environments
reflecting upon and attempting
to individuals. to come to terms with ethical tailored to individuals. Big
considerations to unbridled data can thus lead to enhanced
progress (Aiken and Epstein, 2000; pedagogical practices through
Smith, 2018; Selwyn, 2019). Beyond learning analytics – gauging
individual scholars and writers, students’ engagement in learning –
there are organized groups and in crafting future educational
developing standards for privacy, policies (Picciano, 2012; Ellis, 2013;
Regan and Jesse, 2019; Kuromiya,
security and confidentiality.
Majumdar and Ogata, 2020).
Often policy, industry, citizens
and academics comprise these
groups. Whether and how other Selwyn (2019), however, discusses
public policies, governments, or a range of ethical issues that
businesses heed or comply with challenge these potential positive
recommendations or standards is a outcomes of learning analytics
separate issue. including: reduced understanding
of ‘education’ to those data
points we can collect; ignoring
The dual-edged sword of
the broader social contexts of
unbridled technological progress
education, such as nuances
is exemplified by the emergence
of contextual interaction and
of big data analytics, where
language; reducing teacher and
the systematic analysis of large
student capacity for decision-
datasets helps extract patterns,
making, by making decisions
information and trends in a range
 for them; using the data as a careers and potentially can be
means of surveillance to monitor misused to replicate existing
and control teacher and student social discrimination or create
behaviour; increasing the ‘high new discriminatory variables,
stakes’ evaluation of performance; for example, profiling and
and the risk of continuing discrimination based on race
to reproduce inequalities in approximation and accentuation
disadvantaged groups, thus of social stratification (Regan and
primarily serving the needs of Jesse, 2019).
the institution over those of the
individual. Ethical issues of EdTech are
likely to continue surfacing in
These issues raised with respect to the future as we conduct research
data analytics are common across on potential risks resulting
multiple types of EdTech, for from people being exposed
example, privacy risks for children to technology from birth to
including issues of choice, consent death (Radich, 2013). This brings
and transparency (Davenport and with it a multitude of concerns
Bean, 2018); denying choice to about the well-being of young
Ethical issues of users to remain anonymous or children, including addiction,
EdTech are likely to obscure in the face of increased online risk-taking behaviour,
surveillance and tracking; and cyberbullying, health concerns,
continue surfacing in increasing the opportunity to including a greater risk of obesity,
the future as we employ discriminatory practices sleep disorders, bad posture,
of datafication on marginalized plagiarism and mental health
conduct research populations (Macgilchrist, 2018). problems (O’Keeffe and Clarke-
on potential risks There is a perpetual risk stemming Pearson, 2011; Lau, Yuen and Park,
from the tracking and collection 2013; Richards, Caldwell and Go, 2015;
resulting from people Woods and Scott, 2016). There are
of student data required and
being exposed to used in data modelling and guidelines for the proper use of
developing machine learning technology for young children,
technology from birth though they rest on uncertain
algorithms. These records are a
to death. part of the entirety of students’ empirical foundations. More

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... educational research is necessary to understand issue of the aims of education

and communicate risk factors, across the world. The UNESCO
courses (similar to balanced against the promise (2015) Rethinking Education
mandatory courses of the ethical use of EdTech to report, for example, emphasizes
support learning. With such ‘acknowledging the diversity of
on sex education
evidence, educational courses worldviews in a plural world’ (p.
and the health risks (similar to mandatory courses on 29), noting the concept of sumak
of drinking) could sex education and the health risks kawsay (buen vivir in Spanish;
of drinking) could be created to good living in English), which is
be created to teach teach appropriate use of EdTech rooted in the worldview of the
appropriate use of that protects children against Quechua peoples of the Andes in
abuse and minimizes risk. Ecuador. In educational terms,
EdTech that protects focusing on the human–nature
children against abuse Cultural and group differences also interconnectedness of buen
and minimizes risk. need to be considered in ethical vivir allows us to question and
inquiry (Lau, Yuen and Park, 2013; critique excesses in specific aims
Yuen et al., 2016b). For example, of education systems, for example,
critics of EdTech have pointed out aims solely or predominantly
that the increasingly personalized directed towards providing the
and often individualistic forms skills and dispositions necessary
of learning that the digital to get a job, increase salaries
revolution promotes is contrary and/or enhance status based on
to the philosophy of education a human capital approach to
derived from the collectivist development (Brown and McCowan,
nature of cultural identity 2018). With humanity teetering
(Gibbons, 1973; Smeyers and Depaepe, on the edge of irreversible climate
2007). Alternative development change, the question of our time
paradigms have been developed is how we can lean towards a
as a response to what could be more sustainable future (Wals,
called a digitalized, mechanistic 2007). Although education plays
worldview of EdTech. a central role in this question, as
demonstrated by its inclusion in
SDG 4, exactly what education
This raises the even broader
 is needed is by no means clear to wisdom, but also perhaps to the
or agreed upon. The current simpler notion that we often learn
dominant trend, brought about our lessons only after we have
by the digital revolution, is to allowed preventable mistakes to
assume that enhanced digital skills occur. The future of EdTech and
are needed to participate fully how it will impact our educational
in society. Perhaps the question systems is not yet known, and yet
needs to be reversed: what kinds it sometimes seems as if it has its
of societies are sustainable and own invisible momentum, out
valued, and how can EdTech be of the control or regulation of
entrained to help develop the collective human action, much
knowledge, skills and dispositions less human wisdom. The scale of
in our children so that they may its impact on student experience
make sound choices in actualizing and life is an open-ended question
these kinds of societies? that will depend, on the one
hand, on the rate of both societal
6.5 .5 and EdTech development and,
on the other hand, how and to
what ends that technology is
... the increasingly applied. Will it foster effective and

personalized and GABRIEL GARCÍA lasting knowledge in students,

and support teachers’ mastery
often individualistic MÁ RQUEZ AND WHO in helping students build that
knowledge and the wisdom to use
forms of learning that OWNS THE FUTURE OF it productively for personal and
the digital revolution EDTECH societal aims (see subsection 6.5.3)
(Fishman and Dede, 2016)? Or will it
promotes is contrary
only benefit specific stakeholders,
to the philosophy of Gabriel García Márquez (2003), in leaving others frustrated, or simply
Love in the time of cholera, says
education derived from ‘Wisdom comes to us when it
left out? Therefore, one critical
question is: who is in control?
the collectivist nature can no longer do any good’. This
of cultural identity sentiment points to the elusiveness
of authentic knowledge that leads For example, education systems

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PURCHASERS/ SUPPLIERS/
INTERMEDIARIES
CONSUMERS PROVIDERS

Purchase or participate in Provide EdTech products, Pooling or bearing risks in

EdTech activities through services/expertise or the field; aims to influence
implementations resources to the field governance structures

- Schools: government or - Investors: for-profit - State or local

private (e.g. venture capitalists) governments
or not for-profit (eg.
- Parents or students foundations/trusts) - Multilateral organizations
such as UNICEF, the World
- Educational expertise: Bank, etc.
online content, virtual
tutors, software - Select non-profits and
assessments - business or foundations
NGOs

- Tech support: computer

hardware, CCTV,
biometric devices etc. -
primarily tech businesses

GOVERNANCE STRUCTURES
Eg. Digital India, Make In India, NCF, New Education Policy etc.

Organizations may play multiple roles, such as investor and intermediary or investor and
expertise provider

Figure 1. Typology of stakeholders in EdTech. Source: Miglani and Burch (2019, p. 38).

may be the recipients of EdTech and application of EdTech in

solutions, but it is not always education. Who are the relevant
clear who is in control of the stakeholders and how are EdTech-
process and whose interests are related decisions made? Figure 1
being served. There are multiple provides a simple, three-cluster
stakeholders who influence and typology of stakeholders in
impact the access, diffusion EdTech, while the text underneath
 illustrate the complexity of human in reasoning and forming sensible
networks that interact, coordinate standards and policies, not only
and hopefully harmonize their via scholarly publications, but also
activities in support of learning. by providing more transparency
The road to wisdom may run to the public in accessing the
along the bidirectional arrow technologies, program codes and
at the bottom of the figure, the the data sources that drive them.
governance structures that shape, One interesting development in
regulate and sometimes control the EdTech world is the interplay
the unbridled development and of proprietary versus open source
dissemination of EdTech. These codes and content in the EdTech
structures are not always or universe. While some of the
only the work of governments, largest players may keep some
but also form within technical intellectual properties proprietary,
communities themselves much of the code is adapted or
in and outside the EdTech reproduced in variations in open
world. Technical or interested source repositories, with industry
communities may be composed and public entrepreneurs sharing
of researchers, developers, policy- bits and bytes significantly. Large
Open-source hubs makers or citizens in academia, tech enterprises maintain their
government, education, industry, market position by combining
(e.g. GitHub), publicly parents, students or advocate speed in bringing innovations to
funded research and groups (e.g. Bakul, 2016). In a the market (products or services)
sense, everyone has a stake in in-house, as well as fostering
capitalized businesses these issues, and rationale input and buying up innovation from
are engaged in a into decisions about EdTech without.
tantalizing dance of might sensibly take into account
the varied perspectives of these Open-source hubs (e.g. GitHub),
intellectual property, stakeholders. publicly funded research and
human capital capitalized businesses are
and code/tech tool We would expect that research is engaged in a tantalizing dance
a reliable source of information to of intellectual property, human
production. inform human decision-makers capital and code/tech tool

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The LearnSphere production. While it is often data infrastructure and

unclear whether the capabilities develop the capacity for course
project also serves and solutions being generated developers, instructors and
as a hub to link align with the actual problems learning engineers to make use of
of education, the potential of (LearnSphere, 2020).
communities
applying these innovations in
of educational education is beyond doubt. The LearnSphere project
researchers; it provides Further, that these capabilities also serves as a hub to link
could be directed towards profit, communities of educational
a repository social control or maintaining the researchers; it provides a repository
for researchers to store status quo of extant institutions for researchers to store their
and power structures is equally
their data and offers beyond doubt.
data and offers an open analytic
method library and workflow-
an open analytic authoring environment for
method library and For example, LearnSphere is researchers to build models and
a multi-university initiative run them across datasets.
workflow authoring
sponsored by the US
environment for National Science Foundation A kind of EdTech ‘arms race’
researchers to build to create a community is being waged between public
software infrastructure that and proprietary forces. But
models and supports sharing, analysis unlike medicine where expensive
run them across and collaboration across a developmental, specialized
wide variety of educational
datasets. data, in an effort to support
technical processes, and means
of production and distribution
researchers as they improve make it prohibitive to think of
their understanding of human locally grown or craft competitors,
learning. It also helps course education is a relatively cheap and
developers and instructors easy service industry for creative
improve teaching and learning dabblers, at least with respect
through data-driven course to software development and
redesign. The goal is to transform distribution. A prime example of
learning science and engineering the reality of strange public/private
through a large, distributed bedfellows is the Generalized
 Intelligent Framework for Sharing technological innovations
Tutoring (GIFT, 2020). As described is as much the rule as the
on its website: exception around the world.
The criticism that access to
‘GIFT is an empirically-based, EdTech is being restricted
service-oriented framework of by the commercial sector or
tools, methods and standards government needs to account for
to make it easier to author this unprecedented movement to
computer-based tutoring systems public sharing and transparency.
(CBTS), manage instruction Also, criticism about whether the
and assess the effect of CBTS, technologies themselves are too
components and methodologies. narrowly defined and focused
GIFT is being developed under can be challenged in the face of
the Adaptive Tutoring Research the reach of R&D into every
Science & Technology project crevice of learning science and
at the Learning in Intelligent human capital development.
Tutoring Environments (LITE) Much more relevant may be
Laboratory, part of the U.S. concerns regarding who has
Army Research Laboratory the skills to engineer and apply
The criticism that – Human Research and the technologies; towards what
Engineering Directorate (ARL- ends; and in service of whom
access to EdTech (i.e. clientele/stakeholders).
HRED) …’
is being restricted The answers to these questions
require the wisdom mentioned
by the commercial While GIFT is being developed in the quote above, but as
sector or government to facilitate the use of CBTS by García Márquez warns us, such
the US Army, the intent is to wisdom is elusive, suggesting that
needs to account for collaboratively develop GIFT and posing the right questions can
this unprecedented have it function as a ‘nexus’ for be as informative as the answers
CBTS research being conducted
movement to within government, industry and
themselves, and the quest to find
such answers even more so.
public sharing and academia.
transparency.

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GROUP 02

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CHAPTER

6.6 Closing thoughts:

harambee – the spirit
of pulling together
Technology continues to be a Swahili) among all stakeholders
driving force that transforms our of education and EdTech. If there
society and human interactions is an aspect of the methodology
with the world. Multiple new of this chapter we would like
technological advances are on to underscore, it could well be
the brink of maturity – machine summarized as harambee.
learning, large data analytics,
virtual reality, natural language Assessment of the present and
and speech technologies, and near future in EdTech ultimately
social robotics to name just a few rests on the question of the
– and their transformative impact nature and aims of education,
on education is nearly upon us. yet we also see that education
Such a positive transformation, as human capital, and as an
however, cannot be reified without instrument for emancipation and
a spirit of collaboration and a human flourishing, is inextricably
‘pulling together’ (harambee in mediated by technology.
 Economic prosperity and gainful some other technology-infused
occupation are ends sought solutions. On the whole,
by governments, commercial EdTech is designed, developed
enterprises and individuals alike, and implemented by diverse,
and education policies working imaginative, educated, well-
towards this end continue. But to intentioned humans who wish
the extent that this is deemed a to foster human development
central aim is an entirely different and address related problems
issue; we might question whether and needs. Successes, failures
it remains fair and just to continue and unintended consequences
to educate our children solely in arise, and these are all part of the
preparation for a future workplace, human-learning process. Certainly,
only to ask them to compete for we have met many technologists
jobs with the very machines that who seem to find it easier to
taught them. In this light, the teach machines how to learn than
concept of flourishing and well- humans, but that has not led them
being as allied aims seems more or any of us to give up trying to
promising, lest our children grow lead our children down a path
only to end up with their hearts towards imagining and creating a
burst like John Henry. world that is better than the one
we have bestowed upon them.
We conclude on an optimistic Through thoughtful and humane
policies and rigorous science –
Through thoughtful versus a cautionary note. Clearly,
and harambee – we can hope
the lens one views EdTech
and humane policies through is the filter through which that technology will continue to
and rigorous science results are to be interpreted. Most contribute to human flourishing.
research on EdTech is conducted
– and harambee –
by researchers who accept the This chapter examines the topic
we can hope that premise that technological of EdTech, broadly defined
technology will solutions are appropriate for as any technology applied in
a given context and problem, an educational context or as
continue to contribute and therefore they evaluate its a solution to an educational
to human flourishing. effectiveness in comparison to problem. While there is a strong

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focus on ICTs and software by AI, machine learning and

learning programs, there are also natural language processing
discussions of multiple traditional (which enables speech perception
and emerging technologies that and production), but language
are likely to have a significant diversity remains a future issue for
impact on education. We discuss worldwide use.
both the promise and risks
associated with the introduction - Robotics and biometric
of new technologies into existing sensors are being developed as
educational ecosystems an extension of the human body,
learners’ affective experience and
6.6 .1 intersubjective social relations.

- The digital divide continues to

affect education systems across
KEY MESSAGES AND countries and social strata and
FINDINGS clusters within countries.

- Human information - There is a mixture of private/

production and dissemination commercial suppliers and public
over the internet continues investments in R&D, as well as
unabated, though evaluating public sharing of innovations,
credibility (misinformation) has especially with respect to
emerged as a new challenge. programming and coding.

- Diversity and complexity of the - Much of the development

technologies that can be applied of emerging EdTech is being
to educational problems continue produced in WEIRD higher
to grow. education institutions and
commercial centres, and
- Traditional learning software consequently there is a constant
is now more tailored and need for research and teacher
personalized and powered
training in how to adapt and align technology that places children,
to specific educational contexts learners and caretakers at risk, are
across nations, regions and major issues facing educational
cultures. policy-makers and administrators
(see WG2-ch8).
- EdTech R&D solutions may
be especially well suited for The low to moderate effect size
achieving inclusive education for in learning through EdTech-
differently abled populations, mediated interventions calls
though the risk of over-promising for continuous assessment and
the effectiveness of these monitoring.
technologies to consumers, when
unregulated, remains a threat. The role of the teacher as the
delivery system of knowledge faces
significant challenges in the face of
- Video-conference platforms are
technological alternatives, and new
now mainstream technologies
roles for teachers must be defined,
for larger and larger segments
with appropriate professional
of society and can be considered
development, to avoid significant
an alternative or supplementary
disruption in the profession.
mode of educational delivery to
in-person classrooms.
As EdTech products and solutions
6.6 .2 are typically designed for use by a
specific population, in one cultural
context, research in understanding
how those technologies are
IMPLICATIONS effectively deployed, adapted,
aligned or redesigned when
introduced into other cultures
Ethical and policy issues and contexts is a critical, ongoing
of privacy, confidentiality research need.
and ownership of personal
information, and misuse of

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