Objectives

After this course the learner’s will be able to

Define teaching methods

Identify the strengths, weaknesses and preparation criteria for different teaching
methods.

Develop the criteria to select a teaching method

Plan a lesson according to the need of different teaching methods

What is a teaching method

In my mind teaching is not merely a life work, a profession, an occupation, a

struggle, it is passion.

William Lyon

Teaching refers to activities that are designed and performed to produce change in
student behavior.

Clarke

Method is a cluster of teaching procedures utilized in classroom situations

Method is a set of techniques based on a course of a study, which uses certain

types of materials.

Method is said to be a way of teaching, especially a regular, orderly, and definite

procedure.

A system for planning, carrying out, and evaluating a series of learning

experiences.

Views
 Social service Art

Skilled occupation

Known to unknown

Easy to difficult
P
Simple to complex
R
Concrete to abstract
O
Particular to general
C
Analysis to synthesis
E
Particular to general E

Empirical to rational D

Psychological to logical

Actual to representative

Indefinite to definite
 Structure of teaching

VARIABLES FUNCTION

TEACHER DIAGNOSIS

TEACHING CONTENT & METHOD PRESCRIPTION

STUDENT EVALUATION

Learning pyramid

Average student retention rates

 L
e
ct
u
r
e
5
%
R
e
a
di
n
g
1
0
%
A
u
di
o
vi
su
al
2
0
%
D
e
m
o
ns
tr
ati
o
n
30
%
Di
sc
u
ss
io
n
5
0
%
P
ra
ct
ic
e
7
5
%
Te
ach
bac
k/
im
me
dia
te
use
of
lea
rni
ng
90
%

Source: National training laboratories, Bethel, Maine

Dale’s Cone of Learning

10% of what we
Read ( reading
Passive Learning text)
20% of what we Hear
(Listening to a lecture)

30% of what we See (looking at

pictures)

50% of what we Hear & See (watching a

movie or demonstration

70% of what we say (participating in discussions or giving a

talk)

Active learning 90% of what we Say & Do (doing a dramatic presentation such as a role play)
Principles of Teaching

Be clear about your objectives and clear them to your students

Consider the abilities of your class

Reflect on the nature of task

Consider facilities and time available

Consider the size of class

Judge your own strength and weaknesses

Choose a method that has worth for all

Don’t be slave to any one method

Use different techniques for single concept

Involve students at every step of learning

Keep motivation level of your students high

Method of teaching

Method of teaching is directly related to the presentation of the lesson. Which a

teacher should use, depends on the nature of the subject, and the tact of the teacher.

Methods of teaching

There are four methods of teaching

Telling method: Lecture method, Discussion method, Storytelling method and so

on

Doing method: Project method, Problem solving method, Textbook method and so
on.

Visual method: Demonstration method, Supervised study method and so on.

Mental method: Inductive, Deductive, Analysis, Synthesis etc.

Strategies of teaching

Strategy is the art and science of directing and controlling the movements and
activities of the army. If strategy is good, we can get victory over our enemies. In
teaching this term is meant those procedures and methods by which objectives of
teaching are realized in the class.

Definition

Stone and Morris have defined teaching strategy in the following words

Teaching strategy is a generalized plan for a lesson which includes structure,

instructional objectives ad an outline of planned tactics, necessary to implement
the strategies.

Strategies can be summarized as

Teaching is the generalized plan of the whole lesson plan

It consists of structure of teaching, objectives of teaching and techniques of

evaluation of teaching.

In strategy of teaching, realization of objectives is given more importance than

presentation of lesson.

A strategy does not follow a single track all the time, but it changes according to
the demands of the situations such as age, level, needs, interests and abilities of the
students. Thus strategy is more comprehensive than method.

It is directional in nature. It refers to goal directed activities of the teachers. Thus it

is more close to science than arts.

Tactics of teaching

It is that procedure by which new knowledge fixed in the minds of students

permanently. For this purpose, a teacher does extra activities in the class.

These activities help the teacher to take shift from one strategy to another. Thus
teaching tactics are that behavior of the teacher which he manifests in the class i.e
the developments of the teaching strategies, giving proper stimulus for timely
responses, drilling the learnt responses, increasing the responses by activities and
so on.

Teaching Method Teaching Strategy

It is limited to the presentation of When we try to achieve some objectives
subject matter by any method it becomes strategies
Methods come under strategy Strategy is actually combination of
different methods. For e.g lecture or
textbook or question answer method can
be never be used separately.
It is micro approach It is a macro approach.
Teaching as an art It considers teaching as science.
Effective presentation of subject matter Its purpose is to create conducive
learning environment.
Classical theory of human organization It is based on modern theories of
organization. (pre determined objectives
becomes strategy)
Work is important Behavior of students and teachers and
their mutual relationship is important

Types of teaching strategies

Selection of using strategies depends on the nature of organization of human

activities. Teaching strategies are divided into two

Autocratic

Democratic

Autocratic teaching strategy

Teacher centered methods

Teacher exercise full control over student, they are given least chance to act freely.

They can do what they are allowed to do

Banking concept.

Autocratic methods

Story telling method

Lecture method

Demonstration method

Tutorial method

Democratic method strategies

These strategies are child centered

Interest, capacities, attitudes, needs of learners are taken to account

It develop affective and cognitive domain

Maximum interaction between teachers and students are seeing

Both students and teachers are equally active

Purpose all round development of learners

Teachers works as helpers and guide.

Democratic methods

Discussion method

Heuristic method

Project method

Role playing

Brain storming

Micro teaching

Gaming

Field trips
Workshop

Story telling method

Tell the students real time stories, anecdotes about great men, women, rulers,
prophets, saints to develop qualities of truth, honesty, perseverance, courage, co-
operation or creativity-identification of characters, empathizes.

Suggestions

Story should be interesting

Natural sequence should be maintained

Character should be elaborated to the demanding situations

Actions story should be full of actions

Phrases and figures of speech should be used

Story should be purposeful

Advantages

Increase interests of the people

Improves vocabulary

Increase in imaginative power

Develop good qualities

Lively environment

Applications

It is used in languages and social sciences

Tutorial method

All class id divided in two different groups of common features.

The division is made on the basis of difficulty level of different subjects

Every group is handed to different teachers separately.

Here teachers find out the individual problem of students and then he individually
guides them to remove this problem.

If difficulty of whole group is similar, group teaching and group guidance can be
given.

Suggestions

Students of same capacity or same weakness should be kept in same group.

The behavior of teacher should be unbiased at the time of guidance to ensure equal
chance of progress.

It should be done by experienced and expert teachers.

Every student should be motivated to tell his problems frankly so as to get the
benefits.

Types of tutorial teachings

Supervised tutorial teaching

In this methods, the bright students discusses their problem with their teacher and
weak students are asked to do drill work after removing their difficulties.

This system is close to democratic.

Group tutorial

In this method, the teacher to remove the difficulties of average students, this is
needed when level of class room teaching is low from the point of view of the
students.

Practical tutorial

In this system, the students work with teacher in lab. Psychomotor domain is
especially developed through this approach.
Advantages

It is a type of remedial teaching

Teacher can teach in the class keeping the individual differences due to the small
size of the class.

Absence of previous knowledge can be compensated

Every student gets he chance to express his problem openly and individually.

Application

It is used in natural science and mathematics.

Socratic teaching

The oldest, and still the most powerful teaching tactic for fostering critical thinking
is Socratic teaching. In Socratic teaching we focus on giving students questions not
answers.

A Socratic Questioner should practice

Keep the discussion focused

Keep the discussion intellectually responsible

Stimulate the discussion with probing questions

Periodically summarize what has and what has not been dealt with and/ or resolved

Draw as many students as possible into the discussion

The teaching trends have changed

Times have changed since the early days of class room education in every country.
Class rooms look different-just think of the tools available to a teacher in the 19 th
century compared to today

Move from traditional to blended teaching and learning

Blended learning

Blended learning is a way of combining a variety of learning environments into

one class room- and even taking those teaching applications beyond the class
room.

Project base
learning
Peer-Peer Technologica
instruction l Integration

Blended Virtual
Teacher led
learning
Instruction Learning Platforms

Community
Essential skill
based
development
Global learning
connections
There are a variety of ways to approach blended learning, but they all share an
emphasis on allowing each student to learn in the way that suits him or her best.

Blended learning offers more choice in the best fit for your particular class.
Teachers know every class is different. Some classrooms are filled with tactile
learners, while others have a heavier representation of auditory learners.

Help students understand what good reading and good writing look like by
providing them with examples, examining work, reviewing portfolios and
discussing criteria.

Must give your students the opportunity to practice whatever you will expect
them to be able to do. It’s possible to give them practice exclusively through
homework assignments, but research demonstrates that practice with immediate
feedback is made valuable.
 Interactive Lectures
Independent Work Case Methods

Group Projects Seminars

Field Visits Group Discussion

Simulation Business Games

Role Plays

Build on your knowledge

Build on prior knowledge

Have students actively participating in the learning process

Use real world data

Give students frequent practice and timely and constructive feed back.

Teach with multiple Styles

Address multiple styles ( visual/verbal, active/reflective, global/sequential,

sensory/intuitive)
Story telling method

Lecture method

Presentation of the content by the teacher to the students usually accompanied by

some type of visual aid or handout.

Techniques of lecturing

1. Organize the class room

2. Prepare the lesson plan
3. Start the lecture with introduction of self, if not introduced earlier
4. Attendance of students
5. Introduce the topic
6. Review of the previous topic
7. Organize the content matter of the topic
8. Converse freely
9. Look in between the prepared notes but not continuously
[Link] alter the pitch and volume of voice
[Link] a routine pace depending on the receptivity of the students
[Link] eye contact, avoid looking out of windows, at walls and over
student’s heads while teaching
[Link]’t use repeated words
[Link] appropriate audio-visual aids
[Link] use of key points
[Link] the previous concept before proceeding to next topic
[Link] the lecture in time

Essentials of lecture method

 Avoid use of
Manage
annoying
lecture in time
mannerism

Essentials of
lecture
Clarify the
method Speak &
concept with
examples write legibly

Select the topic

based on need & Proper use of
interest of the body language
students

Advantages of lecture method

It is economical

Can be conducted for the large group

Stimulate students and promote critical thinking process

Meets the learning needs of students as it is based on need & interest of students
Disadvantages

If not prepared before hand, it fails to attain the objectives

Less attention is paid to problem solving, decision making and critical thinking

Makes students passive and decreases participation in teaching and learning

process

Individual students learning need is not met

Demonstration method

Demonstration is a method of teaching by exhibition and explanation combined to

illustrate a procedure or experiments.

Guidelines for good demonstration

1. It should be planned and rehearsed by the teacher before hand

2. The equipments used for demonstration should be visible to the whole class
3. Adequate lighting arrangements should be made
4. The equipments to be used should be placed in the left hand side of the table
and it should be arranged in the same order in which it is likely to be used
5. Before starting the demonstration a clear statement about the purpose of
demonstration should be made to the students
6. The teacher should make sure that the demonstration method leads to active
participation of the students in the process of teaching
7. The demonstration should be quick
8. The demonstration should be interesting
9. For active participation of students the teacher may call individual student in
turn to help/her in demonstration
[Link] teacher should write the summary of principles arrived at the end of the
demonstration on the black board. The black board can be also used for
drawing the necessary diagrams.

Common errors in demonstration

Equipment may not be ready for use

Blackboard summary may not be up to the mark

Teacher may be in a hurry to arrive at a generalization without allowing students to
arrive at a generalization from facts

Teacher may talk too much which will mask the enthusiasm of the students

Teacher may not have allowed sufficient time for recording of data

Teacher may fail to ask the right type of questions

Advantages of demonstration method

It activates several senses and helps in retention

Complex skills become more understandable as a result of the demonstration

Provides observational learning

Clarifies underlying principles

Commands interest

Correlate theory and practice

Helps teacher to evaluate the student’s response

Facilitates return demonstration

Disadvantages of demonstration method

Students have individual differences in skill acquisition abilities therefore student

who quickly masters skills may become bored while others are practicing

Mastering psychomotor skills is often stressful for students

Requires adequate faculty supervision, space, supplies, and equipment to provide

realistic practice sessions

Increased faculty workload involved in supervision of student practice times

Practice may be limited due to cost of supplies and equipments

Discussion method
Discussion is a democratic method of teaching for teaching a particular subject, or
to supplement a lecture.

General principles of discussion

1. There should be a clearly defined objective which is understood by all the

participants
2. There should be a leader to guide and co-ordinate the proceedings
3. The main points in the discussion should be recorded as it is going on the
black board or by a recorder elected by the group
4. Every person should feel free to participate
5. Timid persons should be encouraged to contribute
6. All points of view should be fairly considered
7. Discussions should keep to the point
8. The discussion should be properly closed with a report, decision,
recommendation or summing up of the matters discussed
9. The members of the group should come to the discussion with a basic
knowledge of the topic to be discussed

Forms of discussion
 Symposiu
Group
Panel
Class
Conference
discussion
discussion
m

Class discussion

Sometimes, the teacher may select the discussion method for teaching a particular
topic, with the whole class participating as one group. This can be managed quite
efficiently if the class is not too large. The teacher acting as leader will present the
topic, guide and direct the discussion, note the main points on the black board and
assist the group in summing up. This is a useful method when the students have a
prior knowledge of the subject, it can also serve as a learning experience for
students on how to conduct discussions.

Advantages of class discussion

Pool ideas and experiences from group

Effective after a presentation, film or experience that needs to be analyzed

Allows everyone to participate in an active process

Disadvantages of class discussion

Not practical with more than 20 people

Few people can dominate

Others may not participate

It is time consuming

Can get off the track

Group discussion method

Group discussion method is an effective method of teaching and is student

centered.

In group discussion a number of students interact in a face to face situation. It

provides wider interaction among the members of group.

Purposes of group discussion

To assist the students to develop belief regarding legal and controversial issues as
in discussion pros and cons of an opinion is critically analyzed by the group
members.

To clarify and share the information among the members of group

To foster and develop team and social skills under the leadership of teachers

Principles of group Discussion

Ideas and views expressed by the group members should be clear and concise

The members have to listen to each other what is discussed among them

There should not be any interruption when the member of the group is discussing
or speaking

Each member of group should accept the criticism gracefully, if by a member is

done

The group discussion should reach to a conclusion

In group discussion the relevant remarks should be made by its members during
discussion
Group discussion technique

1. Proper planning of topic with objectives and guidelines

2. Adequate preparation of the students
3. Role of each member of group, leader of group and role of teacher need to
be clarified
4. Teacher opens the discussion session with brief introduction of topic to be
discussed with objectives & guidelines
5. Students are invited to express their ideas or view points
6. During discussion teacher assumes the role of facilitator
7. One of the student among group records the proceedings
8. Teacher controls the group discussion by discouraging over talkative
students and involving the passive students in discussion
9. During discussion teacher clarifies the difficult statements
[Link] the discussion is deviated from the main track, the teacher redirect the
course of discussion
[Link] the key points of the group discussion at the end should be
done.

Merits of group discussion

Involves active participation of students

Promotes learning abilities of students

Self esteem of the students is enhanced

Helps to develop problem solving technique

Develops self confidence

Provides an opportunity for the students to express their views

Develops social skills and a feeling of team activity

Develops an ability among students to compare and contrast the knowledge on

particular topic

Demerits of group discussion method

Time consuming

Need adequate preparation

Over talkative students may overcome others and make other members passive

Not effective for a larger group i.e more than 20 members

Seminar method

Introduction

The word seminar is derived from the Latin word seminarium meaning ‘seed plot’.
The seminar method is the most modern and advanced method of teaching which is
usually used in higher education. It is an instructional technique which involves
generating a situation for a group to have a guided interaction among themselves
on a theme. It refers to a structured group discussion what usually follows a formal
lecture or lectures often in the form of an essay or a paper presentation on a theme.

Seminar method is employed to realize the higher objectives of cognitive and

affective domains. The higher learning process requires the interactive and
integrated methodologies based on the psychological principles. The seminar
method applies such technique of human interaction /intervention with the learning
and teaching experiences.

Definition

Seminar is a teaching technique for higher learning. A specific subject or topic is

delivered as an article or report in the seminar. The article and its concepts
submitted in the seminar are analyzed and discussed through group discussion to
arrive a final decision or concept.

Aims & Objectives of seminar method

The seminar method is utilized to realize the higher objectives of cognitive

and affective domains

Cognitive objectives

To develop higher cognitive abilities

To develop the ability of responding in this manner would involve higher cognitive
actions

To develop the ability of keen observation of experience, and feelings

To develop the ability to seek clarification and defend the ideas of others
effectively

Affective objectives

To develop the feeling of tolerance to the opposite ideas of others

To develop the feelings of co-operation with other colleagues and respect of the
ideas and feelings of others

To develop the emotional ability among the participants of the seminar

To acquire the good manners of putting questions and answering the questions of
others effectively

Pre-requisites (Basic principles) to be included in the seminar

This seminar method depends with the ligual, social and emotional instances and
its maturity level

The complex and undefined concept or article must be read and discussed for the
meaningful learning experiences and new concept

Group discussion is emphasized. The kernel of seminar is stressed

The value and success of the seminar depends on the path of the learner and their
learning experiences through the discussion with his experiences and concept
derived. Both the group and learner can transform their ideas and to derive a new
conclusion also be anticipated

In the lower level of learning experiences the concepts are explanatory but in this
higher level of learning esperience the theme or concept centered and need more
evidences and explanations through the discussion

The interactions in this method develop observation and questioning skills,

evaluation skills using their own learning experience
Types of seminar

Seminar

International
Mini seminar Major seminar National seminar
seminar

Mini seminar

A discussion held over the topic taught or to be taught with the students is known
as group discussion. Such group discussions held in an organized way within a
class room, it is called as mini seminar. This minis seminar gives the students
training in questioning skills, organizing the information and presentation skills of
seminar. A mini seminar is felt necessary because it gives good experience to
conduct a major seminar at institutional level.

Major seminar

The seminar conducted at an institutional or departmental level for a specific topic

or subject is known as Major seminar. Usually students and teachers are
participating in this type of seminar. This Major seminar can be organized at
department level for every month. A specific topic or subject is selected for the
theme of the seminar.

National Seminar

An association of any kind particularly with academic or professional interest of an

organization ( Government, Firm etc.) conducts the seminar at National level is
called as National seminar. The subject experts are invited to the seminar for
discussion. The secretary of the seminar prepares the schedule and functionaries
for seminar.

International seminar

Usually the seminar conducted by an international organization or agency is known

as International seminar. Theme of the seminar has wider aspects. Globalization,
renovation, Atomic energy agreements, policies implementation and modification
etc. are examples for themes of International seminars. A Nation or its body can
conduct or organize the International seminar.

Steps involved in Seminar

After the seminar (Post

seminar phase)

At the course of seminar

(Seminar phase)

Before seminar (Pre seminar

phase)

Pre seminar phase

Selection of seminar theme and its sub-themes

Venue (availability of physical facilities), Date(s) and Time (duration of each

session) are must be finalized well in advance.
The panel of specialists, subject experts, chief guests, observers for seminar must
be prepared and obtaining the concurrences from the president or Convenor of the
seminar

The permission must be requested from the persons listed in the panel and from
their head offices to utilize their services for seminar

A circular regarding the seminar and its information must be prepared without
ambiguity

The seminar circular must be circulated well in advance to the people (must have
the relevant knowledge about the theme of the seminar) who are able to participate
in the seminar

The selection of the paper presenter/speakers must be based on the article

submitted by them and their professional excellence. Such selected paper presenter
will be informed with the necessary regulations to be followed by them in the
Seminar

A compendium of selected papers must be prepared by a expert committee.

Seminar phase

Ensure the physical facilities (stage settings, seats, audio visual equipments etc)
available for the participants of seminar

Welcome the chief guests, chair persons of technical sessions, observers and
participants of seminar and encourage their active participation in the seminar

The compendium must be distributed to the participants before the beginning of

seminar

The seminar theme and its sub-theme need be explained

Guide the paper presenters for their location and time of seminar session before the
beginning of seminar

The chair person of technical session and the paper presenters and speakers must
manage the time effectively
Proper assistance must be ensure for every speaker/paper presenter to facilitate
their paper presentation by providing appropriate audio, video equipments such as
Public Address system, Over Head Projector, LCD Projector etc.

At the end of seminar session, the seminar events will be briefed by the chairman
of the seminar. This gives a clear definition to the seminar conducted and the
further steps to be done in future also.

The chairman or organizing secretary will announce the concept derived by the
seminar

Deliver of Vote of thanks to the participants, seminar committees and all the
people who engaged in the seminar activities either directly and indirectly.

Post seminar phase

Correction of the presented papers/articles from the authors (paper presenters)

must be done by themselves.

The restructuring of paper submitted is essential, because the clarifications

received during the discussion must be incorporated. A clear, definite idea or
concept of each paper will be reached through the restructuring the seminar paper.

Compilation of the restructured papers will be done by a panel of experts.

The prepared compilation must be sent to the concerned firms, institutes, Agencies,
Government departments for further follow up activities.

The compendium may be distributed on request to the people of similar interest

also (with the permission of Chair person of seminar)

Finalization of Accounts must be done. A clear budget report must be prepared and
sent to the auditing committee/officers for approval are essential.

Evaluation of seminar

The seminar can be evaluated using formal and informal evaluation methods.

The evaluation must be made to get the immediate feed back from the speaker and
participants regarding the seminar paper and other seminar details.
The objectivity of the paper presented, the view of audience also need be
evaluated.

The observation schedule, questionnaire can be used as evaluation tools for

seminar.

The information obtained through the evaluation tools must be a feed back for the
paper presenters.

The evaluation of overall seminar process can be used for the study and feasibility
of forthcoming seminars and its arrangements.

Merits of seminar method

Naturally the spontaneous learning can be achieved effectively in this method.

Seminar is usually learner centered

Information seeking and retrieval behavior is encouraged very much in this

method.

The learner himself prepares and complies his own paper for the seminar gives
readiness of mind and learning becomes structured.

Learning by doing is encouraged in this method.

The paper presenter / participant receive a reinforced learning experience from the
Group discussion.

Learning experiences is highly structured by the learner himself.

The teacher or chair person of technical session only plays the Guidance and
instructional role.

Develops cognitive, affective domains based learning.

Norms of behavior is developed and reinforced.

Develops open mindedness, suppress the subjective ideas from the learners.
The interactions and interrogations develops the spirit of information seeking
behaviors (norms of behavior)

The data processing skills, compilation skills, communication skill are easily
inculcated in this method.

Learner gets in-depth knowledge of the subject he presented.

This method built better social values and fault tolerance levels in the minds of
learner.

Limitations of Seminar method

Setting up of a seminar for every topic in the Text is not feasible.

The subject area to be taught must be relevant to the theme of the seminar.

The seminar themes must conform the learning experiences to be inculcated to the
students.

This method found fit for higher learning only.

Implementation of this method for lower classes is cumbersome.

Only matured and balanced minded teachers can make this method successful.

The teacher must be resourceful (both in academic and administrative) in nature.

Time management is some what difficult.

necessary gossips, glitches among the participants may deteriorate the scope and
objectives of seminar.

Passive observation without interaction also make seminar dull and worthless.

Symposium
Definition
Symposium is defined as a teaching technique that serves as an excellent method
for informing the audience, crystallizing their opinion and preparing them for
arriving at decision regarding a particular issue or a topic.
Symposium is a discussion method in which different view points on a single
aspect of a topic is discussed.
Symposium is a series of speeches on single aspect of a topic.

Difference between Seminar & Symposium

Seminar Symposium
Topics are related to recent trends and Topics are related to controversial issues
developments in a discipline. in a discipline.
Multiple aspects of the topic under Single aspect of the topic is discussed.
consideration is discussed.
Chairperson has to exert less control Chairperson has to exert more control.
Less time for discussion involving More time for discussion involving
participants. participants.
Comparatively less preparation from the Demand more preparation from the side
sides of participants. of participants.

Purposes

To identify and understand various aspects of a theme.

To develop the ability arrive a decision and provide judgement for a problem.

To develop values and feelings regarding a problem.

To provide understanding to the students or listeners on a theme or problem to

specifically develop certain values and feelings.

To enable the listeners from policies regarding a theme or a problem.

To investigate a problem from several points of view.

To boost student’s abilities to speak in the group.

To encourage the students to study independently.

Characteristics

Symposium provides a broad understanding of a topic or problem.

The listener is provided with an opportunity to take decisions about a problem.

It develops a feelings of cooperation and adjustment.

Symposium technique helps in achieving the objectives of synthesis and

evaluation.

It provides different views on the topic of the symposium.

Principles

The speeches may be persuasive, argumentative and informative.

Original presentation is objective and accurate.

The method always includes a summary at conclusion

Each speech proceeds without interruption.

The chairman of the symposium introduces the topic, suggests its importance and
sometimes indicates the general approaches.

All members of the symposium performing group can sit in a straight the behind
the table, or in adjoining chairs with the chairman in the middle or to one side of
the speakers.

The symposium presents two conflicting points of view, the reading arrangements
can separate the speakers on the platform to indicate differences in opinion or to
preserve peace.

Guidelines

The chairman of the symposium introduces the topic and suggests something of its
importance.

Two or more speakers talk from 10-20 min.

The speech may be persuasive, argumentative, informative or evocative. Each

speech proceeds without interruption.

The speeches are followed by questions or comments from the audience as in the
panel form.

Advantages
Symposium can be used to address a large group or class.

This method can be frequently used to present broad topics for discussion at
conventions and organization of meetings

In symposium, the principle of organization is high as the speeches are prepared

beforehand.

It gives a deeper insight into a topic.

It directs the students to continuous independent study.

This method can be used in political meetings.

Disadvantages

Symposium does not provide adequate opportunity for all the students to
participate actively. It has limited audience participation.

The speech is limited to 10-20 min.

Question & answer session is limited to 3 to 4 min.

It has possibility of overlapping of subjects.

The chairman has no control over the speakers as they have full freedom to prepare
the theme for discussion. They can present any aspect of the theme or problem.

There is a possibility of repetition of content. The different aspects of the theme are
not prepared separately. It creates difficulty of understanding for the listeners.

The different aspects of the theme are not presented simultaneously therefore the
listeners are not able to understand the theme correctly.

The listeners remain passive in the symposium because they are not given an
opportunity to seek clarification and question in between the symposium.

Panel discussion

A discussion of a subject of public interest in which few persons carry on the

conversation in front of the people/audience.
It is designed to provide an opportunity for a group to hear several people
knowledgeable about a specific issue or topic.

At the end of the conversation, people also participate.

MODERATOR
PANELIST
PANELIST
MEMBERS IN THE PANEL DISCUSSION
PANELISTST PANELIST

INSTRUCTOR

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Role of Instructor

Plays an important role in panel discussion.

Plans how, where, and when the panel discussion will be organized

Prepares the schedule for panel discussion.

Role of Moderator

Should have mastery over the theme or problem of the discussion.

Keeps the interaction on the theme and encourages interaction among members.

Summarizes and highlights the points.

Role of Panelist

There are 4-10 panelists in the discussion.

Members sit in the semi circle shape in front of the audience.

The moderator sits in the middle of the panelists.

All the panelists should have mastery over the subject matter.

Role of Audience

Audience are allowed to put questions and seek clarifications.

They can put forward their point of view and their experiences regarding the
theme.

How to conduct panel discussion

Identify the goal and purpose of your panel discussion

Establish what you want to achieve by conducting the discussion, and what
general questions will be answered. Focus on 1 or 2 main topics to direct the panel
discussion in an organized way.

Invite experts to become panelists

Choose knowledgeable, well educated experts or individuals involved in the

focus of your panel discussion. Invite local coordinators and community partners
to participate in panel discussions that involve projects within your community. A
panelist does not have to have an impressive degree or years of experience to offer
insightful discussion during the presentation.

Invite panelists at least 3 or 3 weeks prior to the discussion to allow them

time to prepare

Select and invite a moderator

Choose a moderator who does not have a conflict of interest with the subject
matter of the panel discussion.

Pick a moderator who will keep the conversation moving, adhere to and
enforce the guidelines and rules of the panel discussion, ad can act as an emcee for
the event.

Determine the rules for the panel discussion

Establish the guidelines for open discussion.

Wish the panel discussion proceed

 Open panel forums usually begin with a question and conversation ensues
between panelists based on the comments. Guidelines often include a time limit for
each discussion item.

Create time limits for limited discussion methods. Many times each panelist
will be allowed a certain amount of time to answer each question as asked by the
moderator. Discussion between panelists does not occur in this type of format.

Determine how questions from the audience will be handled. Some formats
allow questions during the panel discussion. Others provide time after the panel
discussion for audience members to ask questions of the panelists.

Distribute the rules of the panel discussion to the invited panelists.

Write questions for the panelists

Questions should be open ended and require more than “yes” or “no”
answers. Create more questions than you think you will need in case the panel
discussion proceeds more quickly than anticipated.

Arrange for the panel discussion to be recorded

Recording the discussion in a digital format will allow it to be posted to the

internet without having to adjust its format.

Present and introduce the panelists at the beginning of the panel discussion

Introduce the moderator, and he should inform the audience of the purpose
of the discussion and provide a brief summary of the discussion format and rules.
The moderator should give a short biographical introduction of the panelists before
leading into the panel discussion.

Conduct the discussion as planned

Conduct the discussion as planned, following the established rules.

The moderator should ask questions and coordinate the discussion as

planned.

Summary
 Conclude the panel discussion with a summary and closing remarks.

Courtesy

Send thank you notes to the panelists and moderator for their participation.

Discovery method

Teacher presents some examples.

Learners are invited for brainstorming.

Teachers puts more examples.

Learners are invited to compare both sets of examples.

Teacher presents some non-examples.

Learners are encouraged to draw comparison and contrast.

Learners classify the features and patterns and uncover some relationships.

Learners finally state the new concept they have discovered.

Problem solving questions are one way of testing.

Merits Demerits

Real life experience boosts motivation Method is time consuming.

among learners.

Fosters observational and analytical Requires highly skilled teacher.

skills.

It develops understanding of learning Demands intense planning.

process among the learners.

Students learn problem solving. Not-effective in big classes

Discovered concepts are easy to

remember.
Discovery method is essentially student
centered.

The scientific method

Observation: Problem identification

Developing a hypothesis

Experiment: Gathering data, Analyzing data

Forming conclusion

Merits Demerits

Makes keen observer Time and cost management

Develops higher order thinking Limitations of observation

Fosters problem solving skill Problem of hypothesis

Encourages objective thinking Problems of learners abilities

Leads to facts

Learners work in collaborative

environment

Project method

Merits Demerits

Practical work Method is time consuming.

Sense of Ownership Goals/Targets Achievement is difficult

 Creativity Difficult to assess performance in case
of group project
Involvement

Games

Good for cognitive objectives

Can be individually focused and used as assignments- cross word puzzles

Can be participative and take place during class time- physical assessment trivial
pursuit

Determination, explanation, and strict adherence to the rules of the game

Try out the game on friends before using it in class

Gather all necessary equipment ahead of class

Token prizes

Problem based learning

Problem based learning is a total approach to education that challenges students to

learn through an active engagement in real life problems.

Problem based learning is learning that results from working with problems.
Official descriptions generally describe it as “a instructional strategy in which
students confront contextualized, ill structures problems and strive to find
meaningful solutions.

Problem based learning is an instructional method that challenges students to learn

to learn working cooperatively in groups to seek solutios to real world problems.

In a problem based learning model students engage complex, challenging problems

and collaboratively work toward their resolution. PBL is about students connecting
disciplinary knowledge to real-world problems- the motivation to solve a problem
becomes the motivation to learn.
Why this approach

Recent research concluded that traditional teacher-centered learning models are

more likely to result in surface learning. Additionally, research indicates that
higher quality learning is more likely to come from a more student-centered
approach to study ( Entwistle 1998).

Based on the above statement we need to change our teaching approach

from ateacher centered model to a more student centered approach in order to
encourage our students to adopt a deep level approach to their learning, and to
encourage them to master a competence in problem solving.

Thus the solution can be Problem – based learning which place greater
emphasis on student’s self directed learning and training student’s research ability
while learning.

Role of the teacher in PBL

Preteach

Introduce the problem

Group students and provide resources

Observe and support

Follow up and assess progress

With PBL, the teacher presents a problem not lectures or assignments or

exercises. Since the students are not handed content the learning becomes active in
the sense that they discover and work with content that they determine to be
necessary to solve the problem.

Characteristics of PBL are

The key characteristics of PBL are that it involves team-work and communication
skills, a problem solving capacity, critical, analytical and creative, as well as
individual research.

Learning is driven by challenging, open ended, ill defined and ill structured
problems.
Students generally work in collaborative groups.

Teachers take on the role as facilitators of learning.

Basic steps of PBL

Students are divided into groups

Real problem is presented and discussed

Students identify what is known, what information is needed, and what strategies
or next steps to take

Individuals research different issues, gather resources.

Resources evaluated in group

Cycle repeats until students feel the problem has been framed adequately and all
issues have been addressed.

Possible actions, recommendations, solutions or hypotheses are generated

Tutor groups conduct peer/self-assessments

Advantages of PBL

Greater recall of knowledge, retention

Interdisciplinary, can require accessing and using information from a variety of

subject domains, better integration of knowledge

Development of life-long learning skills; how to research, how to communicate in

groups, how to handle problems

Increased motivation, interest in subject areas

Increased student-student interaction, and student-instructor interaction

Become more flexible in processing information and meeting obligations

Develops critical thinking, writing and communication skills

Demonstrates the power of working cooperatively practice skills that you will need
after your education

Disadvantages of PBL

Unfortunately no single education strategy is perfect for all educational situations

and PBL has several significant disadvantages

One of the disadvantages that has been reported in relation to the PBL process is
that it is a very different teaching process to the one that students have already
received and as a result it can be stressful and disorienting (Mills, 2008)

Knowledge acquired through PBL being less organized than knowledge acquired
through traditional learning

There is a difficulty of training facilitators and the scarcity of teaching faculty with
the skills of traditional teaching

Takes longer time in contrast to the other approaches.

This can be particularly problematic for time-poor faculty and teachers who
are being asked to teach and learn within an increasingly crowded curriculum.

Concept mapping

Requires active participation of learners

Students are able to access their own thinking and find new associations

Requires critical thinking

Begins with a core concept

Students are then to connect all other concepts that they know are related to the
core concept.
Teaching methods of the Prophet (PBUH)

Repetition and enforcement

Memorization

Presentation
Questions & Answers

Explanations and description

Dialogue

Discussion

Debate

Dictation

Analogy

Story telling

Action & Imitation

Demonstration

Examples

Use of intellect

Problem solving

Individualization

Preaching & reminders

Punishment

Play & leisure

Practice

Rhetorical Questions

Persuasion & discouragement

Indications & physical movement

Drawing & demonstration

Similarities and contrasts

Competition

Experimentation & Observation

Motivation

Enjoying the morally right and forbidding the morally wrong

`
 Debate

Definition

A formal method of presenting arguments in support and against a given

issue in which debaters present reasons and evidence to persuade a audience or a
group of judges.

Governed by some explicit rules

“Honest disagreement is often a good sign of progress” – Mahatma Gandhi

Perspectives on debate

A game or mental gymnastics: participants sharpen their thinking and

speaking skills, find best way to win

A lab: one team tests its arguments against the ones of another

A way of finding truth: winning arguments should be truest arguments

Terminologies

Resolution: A simple statement that is subjected to critical analysis

Affirmative team: supporting the resolution, speak first

Negative team: opposing the arguments offered by the affirmative team and
offering arguments against the resolution

Rebuttal: explaining why one team disagrees with the other team

Judge: neutral third party, decides which side is most persuasive

 Sample format for a class

Resolution

Affirmative team Negative team

1. Present arguments Listen and take notes,

Prepare rebuttal
2. Listen & take notes Present arguments
Prepare rebuttal
3. Break
4. Present rebuttal Present rebuttal

One debate structure

Speech 1: first affirmative speaker introduces the topic and states the affirmative
team’s first argument.

Speech 2: first negative speaker states their first argument.

Speech 3: second affirmative speaker states their second argument

Speech 4: second negative speaker states their second argument

Give a 5-10 minute break for each team to prepare their rebuttal speech.

Speech 5: negative team states two rebuttals for the affirmative team’s two
arguments and summarizes their own two reasons.

Speech 6: affirmative team states two rebuttals for the negative team’s two
arguments and summarizes their own two reasons.

Purposes of debate

To provide meaningful listening, speaking, writing practice.

To develop argumentation skills for persuasive speech and writing

To increase social skills and conflict resolution abilities

To enhance self-esteem and academic confidence

To lead to competitive success in the future.

Skills are needed for the successful Debate

Public speaking

Critical thinking

Note taking

Organizing

Researching

Writing

Listening

Team work and people skills

Debate syllabus

Identify goals, length of the course

Determine needed skills

Compile input materials

Select resolutions, suggested ideas for both sides

Brainstorm classroom activities

Design test and assessment criteria

Giving support for the argument

Support consists of evidence. There’re four kinds of evidence

Examples

Common sense

Expert opinions
Statistics

Rebuttal/Refutation

Repeat the argument

Refute explain what is wrong with other team’s argument

Replace the argument with your argument

Critical thinking

Process of asking, answering questions and trying to understand how and why the
conclusion…

In debate: plan what to say, anticipate other team’s response, think of an argument
to counter other team’s arguments.

Skills to become a better critical thinker

Compare view points of other people to your owns

Find ways to ask questions that apply to many perspectives

Understand why some statements are correct, others are not

Understand how problem solving works

Establish criteria for making judgments

Present arguments in a constructive way

Microteaching

Definition

Microteaching is a scaled down teaching encounter in class size and class time –
Allen DW.

Microteaching is defined as system of controlled practice that makes it possible to

concentrate on specified teaching behavior and to practice teaching under
controlled conditions – Allen DW and Eve.
Meaning of microteaching

Microteaching is a training procedure aiming at simplifying the complexities of the

regular teaching process.

In microteaching procedure, the teacher is engaged in a scaled down teaching

situation, in terms of class size, length of class time and in teaching tasks. These
tasks encompass: practicing and mastering of a specific teaching skill such as
lecturing, questioning or leading discussion, mastering of specific teaching
strategies, flexibility, instructional decision-making, alternative uses of specific
curricula, instructional materials and classroom management.

The short lesson is recorded on an audio or video-taped recorder and the student
teacher gets to hear or see self immediately after the lesson. The pupils attending
the class are given with questionnaire for evaluating on specific aspects. Student
teacher’s own analysis of lesson based on the authentic feedback from tape
together with pupil’s reaction, supervisor’s analysis and suggestions assists student
teacher in restructuring the lesson, which he/ she then immediately re teaches to a
new group of pupils. Further assessments by the learners and supervisor lead to
further improvements when he/she teaches again, either immediately or several
days later.
 2. Teach
3.
1 .Plan Feedback

6. Re- 4. Re-
feedback plan
5. Re-
teach
Components of microteaching

According to JC Clift, microteaching procedure has 3 phases

1. Knowledge acquisition phase

2. Skill acquisition phase
3. Transfer phase

Knowledge acquisition phase: the student teacher attempts to acquire knowledge

about skill, its rationale, and its role in class room and its component behaviors in
this phase. Also student teacher observes demonstration lesson – mode of
presentation of the skill and obtain theoretical and practical knowledge of the skill.

Skill acquisition phase: in this phase, student-teacher prepares a micro lesson and
practices skill and executes micro teaching cycle. There are two components in this
phase: feedback and microteaching setting which includes size of the class room,
duration of micro lesson, supervisor, and types of students.

Transfer phase: in this phase, student-teacher integrates different skills. It occurs in

real setting that is the class room and integrates all skills.
Steps in microteaching

1. Preparation: each student teacher prepares the teaching. Student teacher

gives a brief statement of objectives after introducing self. He /she has to
select particular element of the lesson or of teaching style. He/she has to
prepare himself for pace, clarity of explanations, use of media, voice & body
language, level of group interaction.
2. Presentation & observation: Student teacher presented teaching segment, and
allowed to use media. Assessment form is there on the basis of which he is
observed and feedback given. Each person is videotaped. Although the
lesson is short, objective & procedure should be clear to have discussion.
3. Videotape viewing: The presenter watches the tape and decides whether or
not objectives were accomplished. He/she makes a list of strengths &
suggestions for personal improvement.
4. Discussion & analysis: the supervisory team discusses and analyses the
presentation. The discussion is focused on the recurrent behaviors of the
presenter in the act of teaching. The patterns which need to alter or those
which need to be emphasized are discussed to improve the teacher’s
presentation. Objectives of the lesson plan are examined to determine
 whether they are met or not. Suggestions for improvement & alternative
methods for presenting the lesson are formulated.
5. Giving & receiving feedback: the presenter is asked to present a self
feedback of hi/her min lesson. During giving & receiving feedback, positive
reinforcement & constructive criticism is given. The presenter is encouraged
to interact freely with the team so that comments are clarified to his or her
satisfaction. Feedback should be honest, direct, constructive focusing on the
ways the presenter can improve & containing personal observations
whenever feedback is given it should
Be specific rather than general
Be descriptive and specific
Choose the things on which the presenter can concentrate
Avoid conclusions about feelings
Begin & end with the strengths of the presentation.
A presenter receiving the feedback should
Listen quietly and ask only for clarification of other’s experiences
Be open what you are hearing
Take notes of comment
Judge the feedback
 Use of videotape New innovation in
makes observation the field of teacher
very objective education

An analytical Training technique

approach in rather than the
training teaching technique

Features and
Permits high characteristics of
degree of control microteaching
Group size is 5-10
in practicing a
particular skill

Provides
opportunity to Duration is 5 to 10
select one skill and min
practice it
Highly
Provides adequate
individuaized
feedback
training technique
 Helps student
teacher to attain
teaching skills Since
microteaching
focuses on a
particular skill at
Effective method
a time, student
of teaching
teacher can attain
Merits of proficiency in
microteaching teaching skills iin
a phased manner

Provision of
immediate
Focuses on feedback makes
student teacher microteaching
more interesting
and reliable
Demerits of Microteaching

Microteaching is time consuming, especially in the case of

an ill prepared student teacher

Because of modelling there is a risk of simply imitating a

teaching skill by the student teacher, so that hampering
the creativity of the student teacher

Even though microteaching can be successfully employed

in classroom teaching situations, more research is needed
to ascertai its usefulness in other teaching situations

Project method

Project is “whole hearted, purposeful activity proceeding in a social

environment” - Kilpatrick

An educational method where students working individually or in small

groups analyze and develop “real life” problem or tackle a present day theme
within preset time limit, working independently and with the division of tasks
clearly defined.

Types of project

Producer type
Project calling for production of some physical materials. E.g making a model of
isolation unit in the hospital

Consumer type

Project in which pupils are getting the experience and are enjoying engaged in
consumer type.

Problem type

Project in which solution to a problem is to be found out

Drill type

An activity once performed is repeated to acquire greater skill

e.g learning a vocabulary

Criteria for selecting project

 Selected topic should have educational value

 Should not take over time
 Should be challenging in nature
 Should consider and availability of materials
 The whole course should not be planned using this method
 The project should be selected according to the students interest

Steps in project method

Purposing

The project should be based on the purpose of learning. The purpose of the project
should be clear.

Planning

Once the purpose of the project is clear, start planning the project in terms of
money, material, manpower and time.

Execution

The project planned, should be started to prepare so that students can learn &
acquire knowledge

Judging

It is the best way to know about the project whether it has met the criteria for
which purpose it was prepared or not. By this further improvements if required can
be made in the project.

Reporting

Report of the results to be written

 Helps the
Stimulates &
students to think
arouses interest
logically &
among students
scientifically

Merits of project
method Provides creative
Develops team
& Constructive
spirit
thinking

Learners acquire
Learners develop
the ability of tact,
thier skill in
diplomacy and
decision making
leadership
 Over development
Time consuming Cost may be high individualism or poor co-
operation

Computer based learning

“Change will not come if we wait for some other person or some time. We are
the ones we’ve been waiting for. We are the change that we seek”

- Barak Obama

“To improve is to change; to be perfect is to change often”

 E-learning is an inclusive term that describes educational technology that

supports learning and technology.
 Create a blended learning environment where the students utilizing different
classroom aids or laptops, in which traditional classroom time is reduced but
not eliminated, and is replaced with some online learning.
 The “E” should be interpreted to mean “exciting, energetic, enthusiastic,
emotional, extended, excellent, and educational” in addition electronic.

Where can CBL be used

 Literacy
Health Math
Art Science
Physical Social
Education Studies
Music
10 reasons why we need technology in the class room

1. Help to prepare students for future careers

2. Reach diversity in learning styles
3. Allows for interaction/collaboration with their classmates
4. Helps to prepare for real world environment (must learn to be tech-savvy)
5. Helps students to stay engaged
6. Excited about technology therefore more apt to learn
7. Access to most current information quicker and easier than before
8. Traditional passive learning mold is broken. Teacher becomes the
encourager, adviser and coach.
9. Students are more responsible (ownership of their learning)
[Link] to digital textbooks that are updated, vivid, creative, and cheaper
than old heavy books.

Simulation
An instructional simulation, also called an educational simulation, is a simulation
of some type of reality but which also includes instructional elements that help a
learner explore, navigate or obtain more information about that system or
environment that cannot generally be acquired from mere experimentation.

Instructional simulations are typically goal oriented and focus learners on specific
facts, concepts, or applications of the system or environment.

Types

Physical models usually referred to as the Human Patient Simulator, of which

several prototype exist for different purposes.

Virtual reality training simulators based on computers – i.e LapVR Surgical

Simulator, and Suture Tutor.

A hybrid model of the first two kinds combines a realistic 3D computerized

representation of an organ system for example with the ability to interface with it
through haptic devices.

Clinical teaching methods

Introduction

The clinical teaching methods is a type of group conference in which a patient or

patients are observed and studied, discussed, demonstrated and directed towards
the improvement and further improvement of nursing care.

Clinical teaching may be given by any faculty member that is clinical instructor or
tutor or ward staff and will concentrate on a particular patient’s needs as a person
and how the doctor’s treatment orders can be met by the right understanding and
nursing care.

Definition

The ideal way to teach clinical nursing is center the teaching around specific
patients.

Purposes

To provide individualized care in a systematic, holistic approach.

To develop high technical competent skills

To practice various procedures

To collect and analyze the data

To conduct research

To maintain high standard of nursing practice

To become independent enough to practice nursing

To develop cognitive, conative, affective andpsychomotor skills.

The students will develop the techniques e.g observation.

To meet the needs of a client

To improve the standards of nursing practice

To develop various methods in delivering care

To identify the problems of clients

To learn various diagnostic procedures

To learn various skill in giving health education techniques to the client and
significant others.

To help in integration of theoretical knowledge into practice

To develop communication skills and maintain interpersonal relationship

To maintain inter-institutional relationship

To develop proficiency and efficiency in carrying out various nursing procedures

To learn managerial skills

To become professionally active member

To encounter reality in the practice of nursing, synthesis learning, practice

activities described in the course objectives.

Methods of clinical teaching

1. Client and family centered approach

2. Conference
Staff conference
Group conference
Nursing care conference
Individual conference
Team conference
3. Bedside clinic
4. Nursing rounds
5. Assignments
6. Field visit
7. Process recording
8. Ward teaching
9. Ward class
[Link] clinics
[Link] method
[Link] storming method
[Link] discussion
[Link] method
[Link] method
[Link] talks

I. Client and family centered approach

Individualized care will be provided in holistic manner. Here not only
the client will be assisted for therapeutic measures, the family members also
will be involved in education about illness and health concept, signs and
symptoms, treatment, prevention of the problem, thereby the client and
whole family will be aware and involved in meeting the clients need. It is
nothing but bringing awareness and to reach the goal. i.e health for all.
II. Conference
A. Group conference
A conference is the act of consulting together of two or more
individuals in an formal meeting for the purpose of giving or exchanging
ideas. It involves a two way flow of conversation.

Purposes
To set objectives and criteria for nursing care
To plan methods for improving care
To solve problems which interfere with good nursing care
To evaluate results of report
B. Staff conference
These type of conferences will be held in teaching institutions e.g
faculty meeting in hospitals.
E.g
Nursing superintendent will conduct conference to all nurses.
The leader of the conference opens it by briefly stating purpose even
though the staff should already know the problem subjects to be discussed.
 She starts the discussion by asking a careful thought out question or
prelude to the conference or making a statement designed to bring out needs
suggestions or problems of various staff members.
The leader should accept each person’s suggestions as worthy of
consideration make a note it on a blackboard or small pad.
Each member should encourage to express their thoughts. The leader
then summarizes the suggestions. A group discussion usually in order. The
leader ends the conference by stating the next steps and delegating any
responsibility that might be entitled.
C. Nursing care conference
It is a method of teaching which provides an opportunity for an
informal discussion of a problem and free exchange of knowledge and
experience about the common interest and it consists of a group discussion
using problem solving techniques or nursing process.
A nursing care conference is designed around a consultation visit of a
clinical nurse specialists. But more frequently they are designed for the staff
of a specific nursing unit and are planned around some aspect of nursing
care or focus on a scientific nursing problem presented by a patient in that
unit.
A nursing care conference is a course of action discussion, the focus is
on assessing the nursing problem arriving a possible solutions, helping staff
to examine a patient’s problem from his point of view. It can provide a good
learning experience for all the staff who share a common nursing problem in
providing care to a specific patient.

Purposes
To portray the nursing problems typically associated with a particular
disease with such factors as social, age, or ethical background and to picture
the related nursing care with a specific individual.
To learn ways to help clients identify their needs and solve their own
problems.
To suggest approaches to the patient and planning ways to help himself.
Planning and preparation
1. The organizers should prepare well in advance regarding particular
conference.
 2. Before presenting the student will have collected all data regarding the
patient. She will have worked with that patient and collected information
about signs and symptoms since how long the patient is sick. What are
the laboratory findings? What about his family backgrounds, socio
economic conditions etc.
3. The conference should be planned in relation to the objective of the
conference and it should be spontaneous in nature.
4. The student should be given ample opportunity to work in the ward for
quite a good amount of time before she is assigned to present in the
conference.

Technique

1. The nursing care conference is need as a consultation tool which help in

problem solving.
2. The teacher must be flexible and she will help the students during
discussion.
3. The conference should involve all the students in discussion. The teacher
involves all the students by putting questions giving guidance and re-
channeling if necessary.
4. Teacher has to draw out the potentials of the students to the maximum in
discussion. She will provide ample time for the student to think.

Phases

The nursing care conference is used as a consultation tool to help in problem

solving. It has got 3 phases.

1. Opening phase
2. Working phase
3. Closing phase

Opening phase

It can be defined as the first two minutes of the conference. Task here is to
make a commitment to work on a problem relating to a particular patient. What
happens during these few minutes often sets the tone for the entire session.
Working phase

The task of the working phase is to arrive at a consensus on problem

identification and solution. Once the patient is selected we have found that a great
deal of time during this phase is spent in delineating the problem clearly. In some
conferences there is a difference of opinion among nurses often the data are
inconsistent or incomplete. It is helpful the group focus their discussion by asking
direct questions, rephrasing what the group has said and summarizing.
Conferencing time can be used to identify just what information is needed. The
problems are identified and the group can often reach its own solution.

Offering concrete solutions to problem behavior allows the staff to feel they are
getting something from the group and the consultant who offers alternatives and
support to a frustrated staff establishes credibility and does them a great service
and she should be careful to ask the groups opinion on the validity of her
suggestions. The nurses can validate their anxiety by expressing their feelings.

4. Closing phase
Once the group has worked through problem solving and has decided
on solutions, the next phase is closure. The task here is to delegate
responsibility to one or more of the staff to act on the problems.

Advantages

1. It helps the students to collect the information in creative way i.e the student
will be able to validate the data pertaining to the situation and
appropriateness.
2. It provides real practical learning environment to the students.
3. It fortifies the thinking of students, thereby the creativity and judgement
capacity will be increased.
4. It provides free opportunity to think.
5. Each member will be actively participating in the conference.

Disadvantages

1. It will be of little use if the students do not accustom to such situation.

2. There are chances of using these conference hours for class room teaching.
 D. Individual conference
It sometimes described as a “conversation with a purpose”, or more simply,
as an interview. The teacher may introduce the student to new fields of
knowledge, impact information to her regarding this field and strive to motivate
her in the acquisition.
Purposes
1. To guide in teaching
2. To acquire more knowledge
3. To discover the interests, needs and the problems of the individual student.
4. To help the student to help himself/herself

Techniques

1. Teacher should establish good rapport with the students

2. Allow him to talk freely
3. Teacher should not show any prejudice, emotional reactions or bias

Principles of individual conference

1. Establishment of a definite purpose and specific issues to be covered

2. Knowledge of the student
3. Provide privacy
4. Establish good rapport
5. Provide sufficient time
6. Good listening
7. Positive effect
8. Recording of data

Practical uses

1. Diagnostic and remedial teaching in individual conference

2. Supplemental teaching
3. Discipline
4. Clinical teaching
a. The nursing care study
b. Diagnostic and remedial purposes
 c. The nursing care plan
d. Preparation and orientation to new clinical areas
e. Evaluation

Use of individual conference in nursing courses

1. It can be used to clarify clause material

2. It helps in supplement instructions
3. It can also help to explain answers to questions of individuals
4. It can be used as a means of assisting the individual who is having
difficulties in keeping up with the classroom situation.

E. Nursing team conference

Nursing team conference as a teaching tool offers valuable opportunities for

learning. The ability to observe, report and analyze significant findings is put to its
greatest test as students are confronted with this daily responsibility.

Concomitant values gained by this type of experience are related to the ability
to share knowledge of patient’s needs and to work co-operatively with other
members of the nursing team and total health team. Such experiences inevitably
lead to the improved performance of nursing care activities in the clinical nursing
setting.

Meaning of team nursing

Tea nursing as stated by Dorothy Finkbiner “ the assignment method should

be used which will make possible the best nursing care to the staff members,
giving them interest and challenge and that will keep the unit functioning smoothly
and effectively.

Meaning of conference

A conference is the act of consulting together, the conference is the

nucleolus of the in-service nursing program me.

Advantages of the nursing team conference

 It is used to plan for the daily continuity of nursing care that best meets the
patient’s need.

As a teaching tool, nursing team conference, offers valuable opportunities for

learning

It gives an ability to observe, report and analyze significant findings input to its
greatest test as students are confronted with their daily responsibility.

Objectives of the nursing team conference

 To identify the patient problems

 To recognize ability and limitation of various team members
 To communicate the ideas, information on related nursing care
 To utilize scientific information to influence the cause of nursing care
 To make generalization from specific information that is factual.
 To report, interpret, channelize and carryout hospital or health care
problems.
 To teach what is required to fulfill their roles
 To plan nursing care cooperatively with other team members
 To bring maximum creative potential of the team.

Bedside Clinic

“A bedside clinic is a process in which a clinical teacher and a group of learners

sees a patient, elicits or verifies physical signs, discusses provisional diagnosis,
diagnostic or therapeutic options in the clinical setting”.- Gaberson

Purposes

 To portray nursing problem and to provide acomplete picture of the related

nursing care by associating with a specific individual.
 To improve the quality of nursing care
 To improve the student’s ability to solve nursing problems by detailed study
and analysis of nursing situation.
  Help the students to sharpen their observation skill in a systematic and
organized manner.
 To realize the need for understanding every patient as an individual and
appreciate their problems and outlook.
 Provides a learning experience for nursing students to collect information
about the patient.
 To plan and execute nursing care plan according to the needs and problems
of the patient.

Steps involved in conducting the bedside clinic

Planning

Determine the clinic to whom it is to be conducted, place, date and time of clinic to
be held and on what topic the students have to come prepared.

Select a patient for whom students have given the care.

Secure the patient’s consent as his co-operation is essential during the clinic.

Conducting bedside clinic

After planning the next step is conducting actual clinic.

The clinic should be conducted in the ward or in a class room, which is adjacent to
the ward. If such conveniences are not there, the clinic should be held apart from
other patients providing him sufficient privacy in a corner of the ward.

Bedside clinic is conducted in following 3 phases

Phases

1. Introduction phase
2. The discussion phase
3. Evaluation phase

Introduction phase

A prior permission is sought from the patient and the relatives for conducting
bedside clinic.
The information thus collected are kept confidential.

The instructor gives a brief account regarding the name of a patient, venue and
other details so as to help the students to study the case sheet in advance before
discussion takes place.

Discussion phase

The discussion is initiated by the instructor or the student who is responsible for
the patient care.

No criticism is made over the patient’s condition such as to humiliate him.

The patient may contribute to the discussion group if he chooses depending on his
condition.

The students are allowed to interact with the patient for further clarifications.

The discussion phase may take about 30-40 minutes of time.

Evaluation phase

Once the interaction is over, the patient is set free.

Further the students discuss on doubts and can clarify.

The bedside clinic ends with a summary, recapitulation of important aspects and
feedback from the students.

Advantages

Bedside clinic allows the students to prepare extensively in advance to participate

effectively in patient care.

It helps the students to develop autonomy.

It allows students to ably review and investigate the quality of clinical practice.

Bedside clinic allows the students to develop and maintain professional

competence.
It promotes a better understanding among the students in terms of health, illness
and health care system.

Bedside clinic promotes clinical competencies like reasoning, psychomotor and

communication skills among students.

It develops the ability of the students to evaluate critically and improve own
performance.

Disadvantages

Bedside clinics may be an encumbrance to the patients

Narrows limits of utilization.

Bedside clinic is an expensive procedure.

It may disturb the privacy of the patient.

Results in poor standardization.

Nursing Round

Introduction

There are several methods that can be used effectively in clinical teaching. Nursing
rounds are conducted by the head nurse or nurse teacher with the members of her
staff or students for a clear understanding of the disease and the effect of nursing
care for each patient.

It is an excursion into patient’s area involving the students learning experiences.

Nursing rounds revealed that students responded to this method of teaching with
enthusiasm. Their interest in learning increased and they showed ability to share
ideas and knowledge with others for the benefit of patients.

Definition

A nursing round is one which presents an overview of certain aspects of the

nursing or medical care of all patients on the ward or of selected patients”-
Gaberson
Types of nursing rounds

1. Information giving rounds

It is used to acquaint the staff with all patients on the ward or division
2. Instructional rounds
Here the nurse is expected to read the charts and come to rounds with basic
information
3. Problem solving rounds
This is to help the nursing staff learn to conduct initial interviews make
assessment of patient’s needs and identify nursing care problems.

Purposes

To acquaint nurses with all patients on the more purposeful care may be achieved
for each patient.

To help nurses to get acquainted with new patients

To carry out demonstration of therapeutic procedures on/ for the patients

To illustrate skillful nursing care

To learn about disease, pattern of care and treatment

To demonstrate the effect of drugs used in the treatment

Steps involved in rounds
The entire clinical group of students are assembled at the bedside of a pre selected
patient who has agreed to participate and who has been briefed before hand as to
his role in the learning experience.

The instructor of the student who is caring for the patient briefs the nursing care

The staff nurses of the ward are also allowed to contribute certain genuine points
regarding patient care.
Background information of the patient can be provided away from the bedside.

The main focus is made on nursing care and only important aspects of the care are
discussed.

At the end the instructor concludes the discussion by giving her opinion, guidance
and relevant instructions.

The patient is finally briefed up on the conclusions reached following discussion.

The staff nurse on duty records all the instructions and suggestions given by the
instructor and a register ( providing the information) is maintained in the ward.

Advantages

It ensures high degree of autonomy among students

The presence of the patients as a means to illustrate assessment parameters or

intervention techniques.

Nursing rounds provides input and feedback from the perspective of patient care
and therefore gives an opportunity to clarify issues related to patient care.

It facilitates a detailed discussion on the nursing care of a single patient.

Nursing rounds helps the students to develop psychomotor skills and incucate
proper attitude among the nurses.

Interaction with senior members promote team spirit and professionalism among
students.

Nursing rounds motivate students to develop an ability to discriminate or classify

the patients into high risk, risk and no risk categories depending on the severity of
illness.

Helps students to learn in depth regarding a case management.

Disadvantages

The patient may overhear the discussion and he may not like the thought that he is
being talked about.
Other patients in the same ward may over hear the discussion which the patient
may not like

Insufficient information may lead to inappropriate result

There may be distractions in the ward and there could be problems for the nurses to
stand in the ward.

It cannot be organized for large group and hence teaching cannot be done for more
number of nurses.

If the nurses are familiar with all the patient’s the discussion may be held in the
conference room.

Nursing assignment

Assignment in the clinical field is the nursing education cum service.

Definition

It is the past of learning experience where the students are assigned with
patients or other activities concerning to patients in clinical laboratory.

Objectives

1. To provide the patient with the best possible nursing care

2. To plan assignments which are interesting to nurses and stimulating to their
professional growth.
3. To provide a well rounded educational experience for student nurses
4. Achieving good ward management

Methods of assignment

1. The patient method

2. The functional method
3. The team method

Patient method

In this method of assignment a nurse is expected to give complete nursing

care to one or more patients including general nursing measures, treatment,
medications, taking temperature, pulse, respiration, serving nourishments and
giving health instructions. If she goes on “off duty” her group of patients in taken
over by another nurse for the period of her absence in order that the patient may
still receive individualized care.

The functional method

In this method the nurses are assigned to specific functions in the ward such
as giving medications or treatment to all patients, taking the temperature of all or
giving general nursing care to a group of individuals. Most hospitals which use the
patient method and modify it to some period of the duty such as evening and nights
when a few nurses are on duty.

Team method of assignment

Nursing care is given to the patients with team conference by all the
members of the team. Nursing leader supervises and guides the team in giving
quality nursing care. The principles relative to making assignments within the team
will include

1. Planning the patient are a well qualified team members are involved in
which amount and type of responsibility, a student can assume depends upon
a stage of her education.
2. All the physical needs and treatment are given by the same nurse but the
specific treatment is given by professional nurse.
3. When two persons are needed to give a patient certain care it is often well
for the team leader to be one of the two. When assisting a team member, the
leader has an opportunity to observe the condition of the patient, work of
student and relationship with the patient and at the same time he can teach
them.

Criteria for effective assignment

Students are to be informed of the objectives of their assignment to a particular

ward/unit of the area/hospital for clinical experience

Students are to be oriented to new clinical area

 Students are to be given the learning experiences which are outlined in the
objectives for particular clinical experiences

Students are to be given facilities to practice nursing according to principles

taught.

Only recognized wards of the hospital or community are to be selected for

students to achieve required learning experience.

Assignments have to be assigned according to the consistent level of learning

that students have reached for attained.

Proper guidance and supervisor has to be provided to the student during their
clinical experience

Sufficient time to be provided to carryout the assignment allotted to the students

Student’s performance should be evaluated and discussed with the students for
this improvement, correction etc.

Students should be given opportunities for working in a team.

Students are to be encouraged to develop a pride in the nursing profession

Students are to be watched, that high standard of patient care are being
practiced by all concerned.

Teacher’s responsibilities to assist students in their assignment

There are 2 responsibilities in assisting and helping students in planning and

organizing daily assignments are as follows

1. Establishing a pattern of sequence for accomplishing assigned tasks in-terms

of immediately of patient needs discriminating between essential and non
essential in establishing task priorities and preserving economical use of
time, energy and equipment.
2. Adjusting plans to meet existing and an anticipated conditions in the clinical
setting and merging patient needs, revising in effective plans or pursuing
additional experiences to meet the learning needs best.

Factors to be considered while planning assignments

 1. The previous clinical experience of the students should be considered
2. Students must be given sufficient time to study the patient’s record
3. Proximity of patients should be considered
4. Assignment should be varied frequently enough to maintain the interest of
students
5. Sociological and psychological aspects of the patient should be considered

Advantages

Patient method

a) Patient have security and belongingness

b) The nurse gets job satisfaction
c) Interpersonal relationship is good
d) The maximum learning takes place

Functional method

a) It is having efficiency in the work, hence the term efficiency method can be
used.
b) Most work is turned out in less given period of time
c) There is less confusion
d) The maximum learning takes place
e) Skill is developed when the work is done repeatedly

Team method of assignment

It is one of the best methods of teaching by which students get more learning
experiences and patient gets good care and good ward management.

Process recording

Definition

A verbatim between nurse and the patient – Walker

An exact written report of conversation between the nurse and the patient during
the time they were together. – Hudson
A teaching – learning tool – Conen

Uses of the process recording

There are mainly 3 uses

1. As a teaching-learning tool
2. As an evaluation tool
3. An a therapeutic tool

Different phases in process recording

1. Preparing the student for process recording

2. Recording nurse-patient interaction
3. Evaluating the interactions by nurse teacher and the student

Guidelines to student

1. The goals for working with assigned patients should be written down before
starting the process recording
2. Note important factors in patient’s personality development
3. Mention about the therapies which patient is getting both past and present
4. Date of process recording should be mentioned
5. Amount of time you spent with patient should be recorded
6. A brief description should be written about the setting and situation before
your conversation
7. Identify the patients needs
8. Identify mental mechanisms that you think the patient is using and give
examples
9. After completion of process record, give your comment on how well you
were able to meet the goals which you set before starting your work
[Link] the process record as a learning experience for you at the end of the
assignment.

Field trips

Field trips can be a great contribution of learning by doing. It should be planned

ahead and also involve the students in planning and doing.
 1. Develop a plan for learning from the field trips
2. Identify a variety of potential field trips
3. Contact with the administrative authority to take permission
4. Arrange transportation
5. Take the essentials which are required for field trip

Ward teaching program

Purposes

To supplement, to integrate and to utilize classroom instruction

To aid the student to make correct applications of scientific principles basic to a

particular nursing activity

To enable the student to gain a real understanding of individual differences and

substitute variations of case and circumstances to tact fully respond and adjust to
them by adopting nursing procedure and treatment without violating basic
principles.

Ward class

A class will be conducted based upon current clinical experience of the

student for whom the class is planned.

Small group should be planned that is, all the students at one level of
experience, who are having similar experience in particular department.

Ward clinic

In this type, a client is presented to the group, who illustrates all signs and
symptoms and require all nursing case procedures

Permission should be taken from the physician

Instructor should explain before hand, to the client about the purpose of the clinic

The students will be able to practice procedure in real situation

Suitable place should be selected

Student should understand the purpose on improving the standards of nursing care
and their contributions should be directed towards at its end.

Case method
The case method combines two elements: the case itself and the discussion of that case. A
teaching case is a rich narrative in which individuals or groups must make a decision or solve a problem.
A teaching case is not a "case study" of the type used in academic research. Teaching cases provide
information, but neither analysis nor conclusions. The analytical work of explaining the relationships
among events in the case, identifying options, evaluating choices and predicting the effects of actions is
the work done by students during the classroom discussion

Chris Christensen described case method teaching as "the art of managing uncertainty"—a
process in which the instructor serves as "planner, host, moderator, devil's advocate, fellow-
student, and judge," all in search of solutions to real-world problems and challenges.

Unlike lectures, case method classes unfold without a detailed script. Successful instructors
simultaneously manage content and process, and they must prepare rigorously for both. Case
method teachers learn to balance planning and spontaneity. In practice, they pursue opportunities
and "teachable moments" that emerge throughout the discussion, and deftly guide students
toward discovery and learning on multiple levels. The principles and techniques are developed,
Christensen says, "through collaboration and cooperation with friends and colleagues, and
through self-observation and reflection."

All professional schools face the same difficult challenge: how to prepare students for the world
of practice. Time in the classroom must somehow translate directly into real-world activity: how
to diagnose, decide, and act. ” — David Garvin, "Making the Case"

The case method is a form of instructor-guided, discussion-based learning. It introduces complex

and often ambiguous real-world scenarios into the classroom, typically through a case study with
a protagonist facing an important decision. The case method represents a shift from the
traditional, instructor-centered model of education to a participant-centered one in which
students play a lead role in their own and each other's learning. Case method instructors use
questions, dialogue, debate, and the application of analytical tools and frameworks to engage
students in a challenging, interactive learning environment. Not only does this approach raise the
likelihood of greater retention—it also allows for learning that goes beyond the transfer of
knowledge to include the development of analytical, decision-making, and communication skills,
and the cultivation of self-awareness, judgment, and the capacity to lead. At its best, the case
method enables students to develop what Harvard Business School Professor Tom Piper calls
"the courage to act under uncertainty."

The role of the case method instructor is captured by the Latin verb "educare"-to lead out. A
good discussion leader does not seek to cover material in the classroom, but instead to guide
students toward the discovery of critical insights and uncovering of broader lessons through
thoughtful questioning, listening, and responding. The case method instructor must be well-
prepared for both the content associated with each class session and the process for guiding the
participant-centered learning experience.

Students act as co-creators of the learning process in the case method. They are responsible for
preparing the case in advance, first individually, and then often in small study groups. During the
class session, students are expected to participate as contributors and as listeners to help advance
their own learning and that of their classmates. Ideally, learning should continue after class as
students reflect on the discussion and apply insights and lessons in the broader context of their
academic, professional, and personal lives.

Preparing to Teach

Preparation for case method teaching takes place on multiple levels. First-time case instructors
typically devote time to learning about the core principles of participant-centered learning. They
also reflect on the ways in which their academic and professional background, prior teaching
experience, values, and personal style inform the opportunities and challenges they are likely to
encounter as case teachers. Ideally, case instructors prepare to shape the learning environment
and become familiar with their students even before the first day of class. Prior to each class
session, preparation involves careful planning of both content and process.

This section features advice in the following areas:

Getting Started

Is case method teaching an art or a craft? Although some instructors seem to be "born" case
teachers, for most it is learned over time through careful study and practice. A critical first step
for new case teachers is attitudinal: a willingness to become learners themselves. Instructors
making the transition to case method teaching discover that knowing their disciplines is still a
necessary-but no longer sufficient-condition for success. Their core role is no longer telling
students what they need to know, but facilitating student learning in a discussion-based
environment.

As with most new skills, proficiency in participant-centered learning and case method teaching
requires instructors to devote considerable time to developing their capabilities. It involves a
willingness to take risks and learn from the occasional setbacks and mistakes. Through an
incremental process of preparation, practice, self-reflection, and peer and student feedback,
instructors find that the case method allows their knowledge of, and passion for, their field of
expertise to inspire and transform their students and themselves. Regardless of where instructors
start on their journey, they can learn to master the art and craft of case method teaching.

Developing Instructor Style

When picturing a successful case method instructor, the image that often comes to mind is that of
a charismatic individual, who makes it all seem effortless. But the fact that the instructor is
center stage does not imply a need for showmanship. In the case classroom, effective teaching
comes in a wide variety of styles. A quiet, thoughtful, soft-spoken introvert can engage and
challenge students as effectively as a dramatic, high energy extrovert. What matters most is the
trust, passion and commitment to learning that the instructor brings to the class discussion, and
the authenticity of whatever style is employed.

Many styles are consistent with creating a learning environment that is simultaneously
challenging and supportive. Mutual respect is essential along the way: striving for high standards
in the case discussion should not mean demoralizing weaker contributors, and humor should not
be used at a student's expense. Instructors can draw on verbal and non-verbal signals, such as
facial expression, gesture, posture, and movement, in order to convey two basic messages to
students: "You are in good hands" and "Now, it's up to you."

Instructors new to case teaching often take time to develop a style that allows them to project
both confidence and humility. First-time case teachers should be wary of responding defensively
to challenges in the classroom and generally should avoid using an apologetic tone or self-
deprecating humor. Fortunately, case method students tend to be quite supportive of new
instructors who they perceive to be well prepared and passionately committed to their learning,
despite a lack of case teaching experience.

Shaping the Learning Environment

The ideal case method learning environment requires a climate that is supportive, challenging
and conducive to risk-taking. In such an environment, every comment can provide an
opportunity for individual and collective learning, and each student feels that he or she has a fair
chance to contribute to the discussion. Creating and sustaining this kind of learning environment
involves two essential elements: clarity of expectations, as represented in the explicit learning
contract, and consistency in the instructor's corresponding behavior, which informs the implicit
learning contract.

The instructor can present a set of rules, norms, and guidelines at the beginning of a case method
course to define and shape student expectations regarding preparation, participation, the
discussion process, attendance and other aspects of the learning process. Elements of this explicit
contract may be included in the course syllabus, presented in class, and/or discussed in office
hours. Clarity regarding expectations can be especially important when students are relatively
unfamiliar with discussion-based learning. Even for students experienced in the case method, the
instructor may find it useful to clarify or modify expectations to fit unique aspects of a course or
to reflect changes in course content or objectives over time across the term.

The instructor's actual conduct inside and outside the classroom can serve to reinforce or
contradict expectations set through more explicit means. For example, if the instructor
encourages students to take risks in the class discussion, but is dismissive of comments that
deviate from standard analysis, students will adjust their expectations, and the learning
environment and student behavior are likely to change accordingly.
Knowing your Students

Case method teaching is ultimately about teaching the students, as opposed to teaching the case.
Instructors who know their students well are better able to create a learning experience that is
genuinely participant-centered. A familiarity with student's backgrounds especially those who
have expertise or experience relevant to a particular class session can lead to richer discussions
with a higher degree of personal relevance. Knowing which students lack extensive background
in the subject can be equally important, as comprehension checks with these participants can
help the instructor more effectively pace the discussion flow. C. Roland Christensen once noted
that the art of case method teaching is the ability to ask the right question of the right student at
the right time in the right way—a virtually impossible aspiration without deep knowledge of
one's students.

At Harvard Business School instructors have access to online class cards that provide a detailed
profile of each student, including a photo, name pronunciation, educational background, work
experience, demographic data, and extracurricular interests. Instructors study these profiles
before the start of the term to develop a strong familiarity with their students and to consider the
perspectives and expectations specific individuals are likely to bring to the course. Prior to each
class session, instructors review student profiles to identify individuals whose background may
be especially relevant for the day's learning objectives. This assessment, combined with a review
of participation records, helps inform the preparation of a priority "call list" of students the
instructor would particularly like to involve in that day's discussion.

Planning a Class Session

"Luck is what happens when preparation meets opportunity." — Seneca, 1st century AD

The spontaneous and "in-the-moment" dynamics of successful case discussions mask the
considerable planning that instructors carry out prior to each class session. Paradoxically, it is the
very thoroughness of the preparation of class content and process that enables greater flexibility
in the discussion. Preparation should begin with the identification of a small number of core
learning objectives for the session, which frame the development of a teaching plan. "Elements
of Effective Class Preparation" presents a systematic approach for planning the process side of
the class discussion. This includes planning for the structure, sequencing, and timing of
discussion segments ("pastures"), as well as the types of questions, organization of boards,
transitions, and other discussion leadership elements that help the instructor guide students
toward discovery and learning. Planning also entails knowing your audience and anticipating
their needs, interests, and ability to contribute. Reviewing student backgrounds in relation to the
specific class session is an important, and sometimes overlooked, component of preparation.
(See Knowing Your Students.)

In planning for a specific case session, instructors may be able to draw on published teaching
notes and on teaching plans previously developed by others or themselves. They may also enjoy
the support of teaching groups and individual colleagues. These resources can help instructors
identify teaching opportunities, such as points of tension or "fighting issues" that can be
leveraged to generate engagement, debate, and deeper learning. They also can highlight teaching
challenges, including aspects of the case content, conceptual material, or analytics that students
may find particularly complex or confusing.

Experienced instructors take care to ensure that detailed planning does not lead to a class session
that becomes bogged down in minutiae at the expense of core learning objectives. During the
planning process it is useful for instructors to keep in mind questions such as: Why should
students care about this case and this class session? Is this case representative of a more general
phenomenon—is it an archetype? What is the underlying "theory of the case"? How does the
case relate to other cases in the course module and other real world examples? By answering
these questions, the instructor will be better positioned to design and execute a plan that allows
the "forest" to emerge from the "trees" of the class discussion.

What are Cases?

Cases are narratives that contain information and invite analysis. Participants are put in the
position of making decisions or evaluations based on the information available. Cases can be
acquired from the formal, purpose written material available from such sources as the Harvard
Business School and the Kennedy School or constructed by faculty members from newspaper
articles, cartoons, radio stories and even grocery store coupons and fliers. (See the examples
collection.)

Cases can involve situations in which decisions must be made or problems solved, or they can
involve evaluation or reconsideration of existing policies, practices or proposals. Effective cases
are usually based on real events, but can be drawn from both the present and the past, even the
distant past. Cases require students to make choices about what theory or concepts to apply in
conducting the analysis, which is distinct from the one to one correspondence between theory
and application that they see in their textbooks or hear in lectures.

How do Cases differ from other kinds of examples?

Unlike examples from textbooks or those we insert in lectures, cases include information but
provide no analysis. Cases present students with complex, unstructured problems that may
include extraneous or irrelevant information and often don't include every piece of information
an analyst would like to have. Unlike problem sets, they do not break the problem down into
clear steps, and frequently have no single "right" answer. Cases provide a rich contextual way to
introduce new material and create opportunities for students to apply the material they have just
learned. The same overarching case can even can be used several times in the same course, as
students return to the story of the case with new analytical techniques and tools. Cases require
students to make choices about what theory or concepts to apply in conducting the analysis,
which is distinct from the one to one correspondence between theory and application that they
see in their textbooks or hear in lectures.

What happens in a Case Method classroom?

In classroom discussion, students analyze the information in the case and use it to solve the
problem set up by the case. The discussion can take many forms, including closely directed
questioning by faculty to help students draw out the information from the case and identify the
central decisions or evaluations that need to be made, more open-ended questions and
discussions as students evaluate options and weigh the evidence, and small group work by
students focused on specific analytical tasks. Many faculty members use role-play as a technique
to put students completely in the case environment. Ideally, case method discussions involve
mostly conversation between and among students, rather than discussion centered on direct
participation by the faculty member. Many case method teachers describe their role as conductor,
facilitator, or guide, drawing attention to their role in setting up discussion in which students are
the primary participants.

In what contexts are cases used?

Faculty members use cases in any environment in which they can effectively manage discussion.
There are faculty members using it successfully in very large courses (Steve Lamy at USC
teaches cases to as many as 300 introductory IR students) and others who use it in very small
graduate classes, though very large classes and very small classes can pose particular challenges
in generating sufficient participation, focusing attention, or producing the diverse viewpoints that
make discussion rich. Cases are used effectively to teach critical thinking and quantitative
reasoning, and have been successfully applied in a wide range of disciplines including political
science, economics, law, business, chemistry, history, and linguistics, and in both undergraduate
and graduate classrooms.

Why Teach with the Case Method?

In a case discussion, students "do" the work of the discipline, rather than watch or read about
how it is done by others. By engaging in the case, students apply the concepts, techniques and
methods of the discipline and improve their ability to apply them. Case discussions bring energy
and excitement to the classroom, providing students with an opportunity to work with a range of
evidence, and improving their ability to apply the vocabulary, theory and methods they have
learned in the course. Introducing the case method, like any change in pedagogical practice,
represents an investment of faculty time and energy. Is the investment worth it? I think so, but it
is worth thinking about the case method relative to some alternatives, and considering the
benefits and costs of introducing it.

Case Method vs Lectures – The Case for Active Learning

The advantages of incorporating the case method in a fully lecture-based course are best
understood as part of the bigger case for active learning techniques in general. A detailed
discussion of the benefits of active learning approaches can be found on the active learning site,
but it is useful to highlight some main components of the argument:

 Active learning methods appeal to students in the affective domain, motivating them to engage
with the material even when it is quite challenging
  Students learn the material more deeply, and work with it at a higher level, when they are active
generators rather than passive recipients of knowledge
 Students retain more of the material they do than material they simply read, hear or see

The Special Features of the Case Method

 Cases are real

Cases compel students to work on real world problems that are complicated and messy.
Those complications force students to hone their skills in finding and using evidence,
choosing which concepts, theories and methods are relevant, and ignoring extraneous and
irrelevant material, no matter how interesting it may seem.

 Cases are big

Written cases are longer than most other kinds of active learning exercises and take more
time for students to prepare and for classes to discuss. Cases often have many parts and
reflect many points of view, require analyses that involve several steps and involve a
variety of kinds of intellectual tasks. The decisions to be made in case analysis push
students closer to the top of Bloom's pyramid (Acrobat (PDF) 18kB Apr6 09), since they
involve synthetic and evaluative activities.

 Case discussion is public

Case discussions, in the whole class or in small groups, help students learn effective
listening and response skills, push them to present clear and reasoned arguments and
enhance public speaking skills. They provide an opportunity for students to learn from
each other, which gives them the opportunity to take ownership of their learning. From
the faculty perspective, case discussion provides a great opportunity for on-the-spot
assessment of student learning, since the discussion reveals information about individual
student's mastery as well as a sense of the gaps in the whole group's learning.

Costs of Introducing the Case Method

Time Costs

 Time spent teaching cases is time not spent lecturing on other material – significant
incorporation of case teaching means some topics go untaught
 Preparing to teach a case is as time consuming as preparing a lecture, if not more so

Other Costs and Risks

  Students may need time to master the method, so early attempts can feel unsuccessful
 Faculty may need time to master the method, so early attempts can feel unsuccessful
 Case Method teaching makes students more responsible for their own learning, but also reduces
faculty control

How to Teach with the Case Method

The basic requirements for a successful case teaching experience are:

 an appropriate case
 students who are prepared to engage with the material in a discussion
 an instructor who knows the case, has a plan for the discussion, and is ready to deal with
the unexpected

To be most effective, use of the case method should be embedded in the course syllabus, so that
learning to learn in this way is one of the objectives of the course, and students have ample
opportunity to practice their skills as case discussants. Going through the following steps, in
order, will help you achieve that goal.

You may, however, want to try the method in a less committed way, perhaps because you have
already found a case or because you think you can only fit one into your curriculum. This page
can help you too – just go directly to the page on preparing your students. I can't emphasize this
enough – the method can only be effective if the students are well-prepared not only for the
material in the case, but for the type of discussion case teaching involves.

 Where to get Good Cases

 How to Integrate Cases in the Syllabus
 How to Prepare Students to Learn with Cases (Start here if you already have a Case in hand)
 How to Teach a Case
 Special Methods for Large Classes
 What if things go Wrong?

Where to get Good Cases

How Cases are used

Cases can be a great way to motivate students to learn new material by helping students
appreciate the need for the theoretical framework or empirical tools you plan for them to learn.
These cases give students motivation by asking them to develop good answers to the questions
posed by the case. Cases that are designed to teach theory, probably the most challenging
application of the case method, should be focused on solving a well-defined problem, and
provide enough theory to give students the chance to arrive at a solution if they apply the new
theory during the classroom discussion. Cases used as applications work best when they require
students to choose which theoretical concepts or empirical tools are most appropriate, and create
a framework in which students cannot solve the problem unless they think deeply about the
analytical tools they have learned and the types of questions they can address.

Characteristics of good Cases

Good teaching cases:

 Are as short as possible. Although many long cases are available, shorter cases enable students
to work closely with the material and master the facts of the case. Cases longer than 15 pages of
text are often more than undergraduate students can handle.
 Encourage students to work with evidence. The ideal case allows students to hone their ability
to use evidence by including both quantitative and qualitative data of varying degrees of
relevance (including potentially irrelevant data) presented in a range of forms (narrative, quotes,
tables, charts, graphs).
 Ask students to make a decision or evaluation. Decision-forcing cases, in which the student takes
the point of view of an actor who must make a choice, tend to engage students most easily, but
equally effective cases can be constructed around evaluations of existing policies whose
outcomes are known.
 Are vital and contain realistic detail, and are set in rich political and social contexts.

Creating your own Cases

The examples page contains a number of cases developed by instructors. The advantages of
creating your own case are that you can customize it to the level of your students (many
published cases are intended for graduate students), you can update the information to keep it
current, you can tailor it to a particular pedagogical purpose and you get to control the length and
complexity of the text. The inspiration for a case can come from a variety of sources (one of the
examples is based on a coupon the instructor received while on a Maine vacation), though they
often begin with stories from the news. It is not necessary to write the whole narrative – it can be
quite effective to bring together published news stories (including audio and video material
students can access on line) with some background material or some framing narrative
constructed by the author.

The important thing to keep in mind is that the materials you use to make a case should contain
the background and information students need, but not contain analysis. This may mean
removing some analytical material from the published sources, or adding some factual or
definitional information to the published story. The questions you add to guide student
preparation will help focus their attention on the parts of the story you wish to highlight.

How to Prepare Students to Learn with Cases

Student participation is central to the case method, and the effectiveness of the method is tied
directly to the proficiency with which students participate in case discussion. Part of the learning
process in the course is tied to developing students' skills in doing the kind of analysis and
discussion that the method entails, which means getting clear guidance about how to prepare
from you. Student preparation has two components: preparing the material and learning how to
discuss.

Mastering the material in the case

Effective discussion requires that students be extremely familiar with the content of the case.
This familiarity is best achieved by multiple readings of the case during which they take notes
and organize those notes around questions and themes. Their reading can be guided by some
preparation questions from you.

Show more on preparation questions

This kind of reading is new to students, and many instructors have developed handouts giving
students guidelines on how to read and prepare a case. Two examples of such handouts are
attached:

Velenchik Case Preparation Guidelines for Students (Acrobat (PDF) 66kB Mar4 09)

Schodt Learning with Cases (Microsoft Word 30kB May29 09)

Participating Effectively in Case Discussion

Even the most verbally sophisticated student will need training in how to be an effective case
method participant. Most students have experience with answering and asking questions from the
instructor, but little experience in classroom discussions with other students. Good case
discussion requires students to be engaged in a conversation with their classmates and to be
ready to respond to each other's interventions, to use evidence from the case to support their
claims, to role play and to work in small groups and to take a stand and defend it. This is a big
task for students, and helping them learn to do it can be seen as having three parts.

Explain

Provide your students with a clear explanation of your pedagogical goals, your reasons for
choosing the case method, and your expectations for their performance. Establish some ground
rules. Will you, for example, only call on volunteers, or will you be "cold calling?" Do you have
expectations for how frequently any individual student will be allowed to speak? How will you
handle follow up questions or debates? How will you use the blackboard or other means of
tracking the discussion. The more they know about the procedures and your expectations, the
more effectively they can participate.

Model

By listening carefully, asking questions that open the discussion rather than leading it down a
narrow prescribed path, and avoiding the professorial urge to respond to every student statement
yourself, you can show students what you expect from them.
Reflect

Take time after each case to talk with students about the discussion, reflecting not only on the
substantive outcome but on the process. How did the conversation unfold? What kinds of
interventions moved the discussion forward? Where were their bottlenecks? How did you
perform as guide? What did they learn that they might bring to the next discussion?

Learning to be a good case student happens in the doing, so more practice will produce better
discussions and more satisfied students, but you can get that process underway by setting clear
expectations, being careful in your own guidance of the discussion, and asking students to help
you think about how to make the next discussion even better.

How to Teach a Case

You can't wing this. The secret to successful teaching is instructor preparation, which is why
introducing the method can be so time-consuming. Here are some guidelines about what to do
before, during, and after leading your students in discussion.

Before

Master the case

The best case discussions happen when the instructor is extremely familiar with the information
in the case. An effective case instructor will have spent considerable time learning the case,
which also explains why so many of us hate to stop using cases that have worked effectively for
us. Read the case several times, following the instructions you gave students. Take notes and
mark important places in the text for easy reference. Do all of the analytical steps you would ask
your students to do.

Plan your approach

Leading a case discussion consists of two primary activities: questioning and listening. Although
every discussion is different, it is important to have an overarching plan. Start with your
pedagogical goal, and be sure that your goal drives what you do in the classroom. Working
backward from that goal, think about the problem solving steps you would have your students go
through, divide them into chunks and then think about the order those chunks need to go in.
Design questions to get them through those steps. A standard set of steps might follow the
following arc:

1. Describe the situation

2. Define possible actions
3. Identify the consequences of each action choice
4. Select the "best" action
5. Summarize and generalize the case.
The "big" questions in the discussion should move the students through this arc, but you should
also prepare a series of questions designed to do smaller tasks, including:

 Getting information from the case into the discussion

 Drawing student attention to important information they have missed
 Inducing students to respond to one another
 Fostering debate
 Clarifying previous questions and student comments
 Pushing students to support their claims and defend their points of view.

The examples in this module include teaching notes with suggested questions.

Finally, be prepared for the unexpected. Your students may veer down a different path. How will
you handle it?

Think about your classroom. Can you rearrange seating to maximize students' ability to see and
hear one another? Where will you be standing? Will you use a blackboard to keep track of the
discussion? Are you technologically prepared? Is the technology ready to go?

During

Be a facilitator

During the discussion, the instructor acts as a guide or conductor, steering student participation
to meet pedagogical goals and keeping the discussion moving. It is the instructor's job to make
sure that the important ideas in the case get aired, that the discussion does not get bogged down
in irrelevancies and that a range of ideas are expressed. Most important, the instructor needs to
make sure that the discussion of the case meets his pedagogical goals. This is a process of
questioning, listening, and questioning again. Note that the instructor role shifts dramatically,
and perhaps uncomfortably, from content provider to process facilitator. There will be a certain
frustration level in your students as they analyze the case. You will need to jump in and give
more guidance when this frustration gets too high, but rapidly telling students the answer is not
appropriate either.

Show Some Tips

Incorporate other techniques

It's often a good idea to incorporate other active learning techniques. Divide students into small
groups either as they prepare for the case or during discussion. Use role play to get students to
put themselves in the shoes of actors in the case. These roles can be assigned in advance (a good
tactic to use with reluctant speakers) or taken up on the fly. Small groups are especially well
suited to role playing. It can be very formal (see the Wesselman Woods public hearing example
by Eric Ribbens), in which a large number of students are assigned specific roles, or it can be a
part of the jigsaw technique, in which students are assigned roles, each role discusses their
strategy, and then are redivided into groups of different roles to solve the problem.
After: Wrapping up the Case

At the end of a case discussion it is useful to take a few moments to summarize the discussion,
highlighting the key analytical and conceptual points. Most students don't take notes during the
case discussion (although some may write down what gets put up on the board) and some final
summarizing remarks from the instructor can give them some record of the discussion to use for
future reference.

The end of the discussion is also a good time for the instructor to get a sense of what students are
taking away from the discussion. Students can be asked to do a form of one minute paper in
which they are asked to write down their answers to a few questions, including "What was the
main point of the case? What did you learn from the discussion? How well do you think you
performed? What did you like or dislike about the discussion?"

Special Concerns for Large Classes

Case Method teaching can be used effectively in large classes, but requires some modifications.

 First, break the case and the class into parts. If the students meet in smaller groups with TA's,
use those as your smaller groups.
 Assign one section of the case to each group, and address questions about the case to that
group
 Keep the rest of the class interested by asking them to provide comments in response to the
"main" group's remarks
 Discuss the case during more than one class period to give more students time to participate
 If you have TA's meeting with students, have some preliminary discussion take place there
 Use one-minute papers and other written responses to get all of the students tied into the
discussion

A case is a story or narrative of a real life situation that sets up a problem or

unresolved tension for the students to analyze and resolve.

A case method is a useful strategy for helping the students learn how to
analyze a case, identify problems and solutions, compare alternate decisions, and
arrive at conclusions about different aspects of patient care - Gaberson
 Patient

Student

Teacher

Purposes

Illustration of concepts,

Tools & Techniques

Skill Development

Hypothesis

Generation & Concept

Building Awareness Building

Case study provides an opportunity to the students to learn nursing skills using the
problem solving approach.

The students learn to identify and define patient’s problems.

Case study trains students to locate, gather and process the information required to
solve the patient’s health problems.

It develops a sense of accomplishment for providing individualized comprehensive

care.

Case method helps the student to solve the patient’s problems by critical and
reflective thinking.

It emphasizes the patient’s individual personality with unique problems.

Case method accentuates the health and social aspects of nursing.

It points out the relationship and cooperation of the various agencies interested in
the patient’s problems and welfare such as social service and public health nursing.

The selection of client can be done by coordinating with the clinical instructor and
the nursing students.

Process in Case Method

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Principles

A Case study should help a student to study the patient’s state of health and self
help abilities, his cultural background, economic levels of activities.

Case method should focus on information and facts about patient, his disease
condition and his social and personal history & the application of this knowledge
in rendering nursing care.

The case method should train a nurse to take responsibility in giving a complete
and comprehensive care to the clients.

A case method should serve as a excellent tool to demonstrate nursing skills,

scientific knowledge and sociological or psychological insight into the problems of
a patient.

A case method should aim at encouraging evaluation of solutions presented by

other team members.

Case Method Vs Experimental Method

Method
 Experimental

Clinical
Approach

Hypothesis
Formulation

Information
Experiments

Verification

Hypothesis
Re-check & Re-verifcation

Contrast

Veerification

Types

1. Case study
2. Case analysis
3. Case Incident Technique

Case study

“Case studies are analyses of persons, events, decisions, periods, projects,

policies, institutions or other systems that are studied holistically by one or more
methods. The case that is the subject of the inquiry will be an instance of a class of
phenomena that provides an analytical frame- an object – within which the study is
conducted and which the case illuminates and explicates.”

[Link] 2011

“The case study is a research approach, situated between concrete data

taking techniques and methodological paradigms”
 Concrete Experience

Active Reflective

Experimentation Observation

Abstract Conceptualization

Learning &Feedback
 Informatio
n Feedback

Real
Decisions
World
Single Loop learning

Real World

Decisions Information Feedback

Mental Models of the

Real world

Strategy, Structure,

Decision Rules

Double loop learning

 Real World

Decisions Information Feedback

Mental Models of

the Real World

Strategy, Structure,

Decision Rules
Forms & presentation of Case study
 1. Written case study
2. Verbal/Oral Case Study

The student will be given the opportunity to provide nursing care for specific
client.

After 4 or 5 days of careful study, the student nurse prepares the case study by
comparing with the text.

The student presents the case before the batch of co learners and general discussion
follows regarding further management of the patient.

Case analysis

An analysis of a case or a condition is done by a group of nursing students under

the leadership of the instructor.

A comprehensive information is presented to the students so as to aid them make

judgments of problem or situation in case.

No background information is gven to them regarding details of the incident at the

time, it is presented.

The instructor will have facts about case; can be given as requested by the students.

Case incident technique

This technique requires immediate decision and action from a case and presented
to the students for their analysis and decision.

Advantages

Provides for individual differences of the student

Provides opportunity for self expression.

Provides experience in organizing and writing a paper in a scientific manner.

It provides a source of material for future reference.

Provides opportunity for the instructor to direct student thinking into new channels
and to correct errors of information.

Case method serves as a basis for better personal understanding and relationship
between the instructor and the student.

Case method is time saving.

It offers an opportunity for a public speaking experience.

Case method helps the learners to be motivated and persistent, independent, self
disciplined, self confident and goal oriented.

Discussion following presentation provides for the other learners to benefit fro
other student’s care plan.

This serves as a source of motivation to the other students as the other students
benefit from her student.

The student feels the thrill of achievement in presenting her study to others.

Disadvantages

Written case study provides no opportunity to branch out and incorporate new
ideas once the study is completed.

Written case method requires a great deal of time to rewrite to an acceptable form.

Oral case study does not offer a opportunity for writing and other creative
expressions, since only notes are used for the presentation.

Oral case study leaves no record that may be kept for future reference as it is used
generally.

How to create cases

1, Select the theme you want to teach

2. Ask yourself if there is a current story on this topic

3. Collect

o Newspaper articles
o Storybooks from the library
o Internet blogs
o Online journal entries
o Photos
o Anything to make the story more real
4. Create your story

High interest narratives

Student
centered

Case
learning
Problem based Interdisciplinary
approach
issues require
complex situations
sustained ( information, conflict,
examination values)
Brain storming method

Here the intellectual capacities of trainees will be utilized in solving or

suggesting solutions to problems and make the group to become active and answer
the problems among them only. The instructor will acts as a referee and give
answers for the unsolved problems.

For example cancelling of AIDS- in this topic the expert in the field will make
certain opinion regarding AIDS and make the group into 2 or more sections,
according to the number of trainees will be given one paper to write opinions and
will be given 3 min time to write whether it falls into high, low, or do not know
and she has to give explanation.

Then the referee will ask other group, are they satisfied with that particular
explanation, if no trainee is answering correctly for any problems, then the trainees
will be expert would clarify it. Here the brain of the trainees will be sharpened and
the entire class will participate in discussion, group will become active and
enthusiastic.

Laboratory method

Planned learning activity dealing with original or raw data in the solution of
the problems. Laboratory method is a procedure involving first hand experience
with primary source materials through which the student can acquire psychomotor
as well as mental skills.

Values

For student

To use the problem solving approach to the solution of real problems.

To translate theory into practice

To develop, to test and to apply principles

To learn methods of procedures

Initiates group works

For teacher

Provides the teacher an opportunity

To observe the student in action

To assess her work

To correct her mistakes

Phases

Introductory phase

It involves establishment of objectives and a plan of work.

Teacher discusses objectives or plan of work with the students by means of class
discussion

Students achieve orientation and motivation through proper instruction and

guidance

The working phase

Supervised study activity, in which the student is involved in a first hand

experience designed to achieve particular objectives by solving the problems.

Culminating phase

After the lab work, the class should meet together for discussion of common
problems, for the organization of findings, for the presentation of the results of
individual or group problem solving activities.

Health talks

This method will be used when teaching for clients and their relation or a
mass. It can be used in hospital and in community. For example, educating the
mass about health and its aspect. Health talks can be conducted incidentally and in
a planned manner.
Conclusion

Clinical area really pose a great challenge to nursing teachers. Professional

competency of a nurse is recognized mainly by the demonstration of clinical skills.
So the above said clinical teaching methods will be helpful for the student to
develop appreciable level of skills.

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