Topic 2 Chapter 3

Unit 6: Africa’s Climate Regions

Q1: What is a climate region?
A climate region is an area with a specific type of climate, based on average temperature and rainfall.

Q2: What two main factors determine the climate type of a region?
Temperature and rainfall.

Q3: Does Africa have only one type of climate?

No, Africa has a wide variety of different climate types.

Main climate regions of Africa

Climate Region Temperature Rainfall Additional Notes
Equatorial Hot all year (25°C– More than 500 Very humid; no clear
27°C); very small mm/year; mainly summer or winter
annual range (<3°C) afternoon convection
storms
Tropical Hot summers (32°C), Heavy summer rain Clear seasonal
cool winters (21°C); from convection changes
annual range ±11°C storms
Humid Subtropical Summers ±26°C, About 1 000 Found in eastern
winters ±13°C; mm/year; mostly in parts like South
annual range ±13°C summer Africa's Highveld
Highveld Winter ±10°C, 400–790 mm/year; Moderate climate
summer ±19°C summer rainfall, dry with seasonal rainfall
winters
Semiarid & Desert Day: 30–35°C or Desert: <250 Very high
more; Night: can mm/year; Semiarid: evaporation; extreme
drop to 5°C 250–500 mm/year daily temperature
Mediterranean Hot, dry summers 500–700 mm/year in Rainfall mainly in
(25°C); cool, wet winter winter
winters (12°C)

Orographic rain
 Rain that happens when air cools as it rises up a mountain

Cyclonic rain
 Frontal rain

Factors Affecting Temperature in Africa

What factors affect temperature in Africa
Latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, ocean currents

Q: How does latitude affect temperature?

Places closer to the equator are hotter. Temperature decreases as you move away from the equator.

Q: How does altitude affect temperature?

Higher areas, like parts of East Africa, are cooler because temperature decreases with height above sea level.

Q: What is the effect of distance from the sea?

Places closer to the sea have more moderate (less extreme) temperatures.

Q: How do ocean currents affect temperature?

Warm currents raise temperatures, while cold currents lower them along coastal areas.
Factors Affecting Rainfall in Africa
What factors affect rainfall in Africa
-Latitude, Altitude, Distance from the sea. Ocean currents, mid latitude cyclones

Q: How does latitude affect rainfall?

Hot air rises near the equator, causing convection currents, the air cools and condensation causes convection rain.

Q: What is the impact of altitude on rainfall?

When air rises up a mountain, it cools and condenses, causing orographic (relief) rain.

Q: How does distance from the sea affect rainfall?

Places near the sea usually receive more rain.

Q: What is the role of ocean currents in rainfall?

Warm ocean currents increase coastal rainfall.

Q: What are mid-latitude cyclones, and how do they affect rainfall?

They are low-pressure systems carried by westerly winds that bring frontal (cyclonic) rain to areas in their path,
especially in winter.

Seasonal Changes in Africa

Q: What influences seasonal changes in Africa?
*Seasonal changes are influenced by latitude, the position of the sun, and the shifting of the thermal equator.
*As the sun moves between the Tropic of Cancer (in June) and the Tropic of Capricorn (in December), the zone of
highest temperatures (the thermal equator) also shifts north and south. This movement affects temperatures and
rainfall patterns across Africa.

Q: What kind of temperatures and rainfall do places near the equator experience?
They have hot temperatures and rainfall all year round, with little seasonal change.

Q: How does temperature change as you move further away from the equator?
The difference between summer and winter temperatures becomes greater.

Q: When is it summer in the Southern Hemisphere, and where is the sun overhead?
During Southern Hemisphere summer (around December), the sun is overhead the Tropic of Capricorn.

Q: When is it summer in the Northern Hemisphere, and where is the sun overhead?
During Northern Hemisphere summer (around June), the sun is overhead the Tropic of Cancer.

Q: What is the "thermal equator"?

It is the zone of highest temperatures, which shifts north and south with the seasons.

Local Factors Affecting Weather in Africa

1. Wind near the Coast
Sea breezes (day): Blow from the sea to the land – bring cooler, more humid air.
Land breezes (night): Blow from the land to the sea – can cool down the coast.
2. Aspect (Direction a Slope Faces)
In the Southern Hemisphere:North-facing slopes get more sun and are warmer. South-facing slopes are
cooler (face away from the sun).
In the Northern Hemisphere:South-facing slopes are warmer (face the sun).North-facing slopes are cooler.
3. Altitude (Height above Sea Level)
Higher places are colder than lower ones.
Example: Mount Kilimanjaro is near the equator but always has snow on top because it is very high.
4. Mountain and Valley Winds
Day: Warm valley winds move up the mountain slopes.
Night: Cold mountain winds blow down into the valleys.
A South African berg wind
*a hot, dry wind that blows from the interior plateau down towards the coast, usually during winter.

UNIT 7 SUBSIDENCE AND CONVERGENCE: LINK TO RAINFALL

Q1: What is subsidence?
Subsidence is when air sinks or descends towards the Earth's surface. It usually involves cold, dense air from the
upper atmosphere moving downward.

Q2: What happens to the air as it subsides?

As the air descends, it becomes warmer due to compression. This warming process is called adiabatic warming. Air
warms by 1°C for every 100 m it descends (Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate – DALR).

Q3: Why does subsidence lead to dry conditions?

As the air warms, it can hold more water vapour, which prevents condensation and cloud formation. This means
there is no rain.

Q4: What is convergence?

Convergence is when two air masses move toward one another. This often happens in low-pressure areas.

Q5: What happens when air masses converge?

The air is forced to rise, which leads to cloud formation and possibly rain, because rising air cools and condenses.

Keywords:
• Subsidence – Air sinking or descending.
• Convergence – Two air masses moving toward one another.
• Adiabatic Warming – Air warms as pressure increases during descent.

🌧️Convergence: Questions and Answers

Q1: What is convergence?
Convergence happens when two air masses move towards each other.

Q2: What happens to the air when it converges?

The air is forced to rise at the point of convergence.

Q3: Why does the air cool as it rises?

As the air rises, it moves into an area of lower pressure, causing it to expand. This expansion uses heat energy, so
the air cools down.

Q4: What happens when moist air cools as it rises?

If the air contains moisture, the cooling can lead to condensation, which forms clouds and may result in rainfall.

Q5: What type of pressure system does convergence create on the surface?
Convergence leads to the formation of a low-pressure system at the Earth’s surface.
Impact of Subsidence and Convergence on Rainfall in West Africa
Dry Season (Winter Months)
• The ITCZ (Intertropical Convergence Zone) is south of the equator.
• Areas north of the ITCZ (e.g. Kano and Atar) experience dry weather.
• Dry Harmattan winds blow from the northeast, carrying dry air.
• The air sinks and warms as it descends (subsidence), making it even drier.
• Rain only falls in the far south of the region.
• Atar stays dry the longest because moist winds don’t reach that far north.
Wet Season (Summer Months)
• The ITCZ shifts northward.
• Moist tropical air (mT) is brought in from the Atlantic by south-westerly winds.
• In areas under the ITCZ (e.g. Calabar and Kano), warm moist air rises and cools, causing rainfall.
• Heavy rain falls in the central and southern parts of the region.
• Northern areas like Atar get little rain and only for a short time.

PLEASE LOOK AT ACT 9 PAGE 98 YOU HAVE TO TAKE EVERYTHING YOU’VE LEARNT AND ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS

🌍 What is the ITCZ?

ITCZ stands for Intertropical Convergence Zone.
It’s a belt of low pressure around the Earth near the equator, where warm, moist air from the northern and
southern hemispheres meets.
When these air masses meet:
The warm air rises because it’s lighter.
As it rises, it cools, and the water vapour condenses, forming clouds and rain.
That’s why the ITCZ is linked to heavy rainfall and thunderstorms, especially in tropical areas.

🌀 Easy way to remember it:

Think of the ITCZ as a rain belt that moves up and down across the equator with the seasons.
In summer, it moves towards the warmer hemisphere.
Wherever the ITCZ goes, it brings lots of rain!
Subsidence process
 Cold dense air in the upper atmosphere subsides to Earth’s surface
 Subsidence leads to development of high pressure areas on Earth’s surface
 Subsiding air becomes warm – it becomes compressed and air is released
 This is known as adiabatic warming( air warms as pressure increases ) 1degree for every 100m that
it descends – dry adiabatic lapse rate
 Warmer air holds more water vapour
 Condensation cannot happen because the air is not saturated with water vapour causing no rainfall
 Clouds and water in atmosphere evaporate

Convergence process
 Air moves form high pressure are to low pressure area
 Air converges on low pressure areas on earths surface
 When 2 air masses converge on earth’s surface, air rises and low pressure is formed
 Rising air becomes cool because heat energy is used when air expands
 Process where air cools when rising is adiabatic cooling
 Rising air cools 1 degree every 100m – dry adiabatic lapse rate
 Air cools and capacity to hold water vapour decreases
 Condensation happens, clouds form and there can be rainfall

Effect of subsidence and convergence rainfall in Africa

1. EQUATOR TROPICAL REGIONS: Strong convection currents close to the equator create low
pressure areas
 Strong winds from the north and south converge on the equatorial low pressure (winds are called
tropical easterlies)
 Zone where these winds converge is the ITCZ
 Hot rising air at the equator and convergance of tropical easterlies on ITCZis reasons for rising,
cooling and condensing of air in tropical regions
2. Between 15degrees and 30 degrees latitude: Areas of high pressure between 15 degree and 30
degree latitude because air is subsiding
 High pressure areas are called subtropical high pressure belts
 Condensation does not take place as descending air gets warmer
 Leads to drier conditions between these latitudes
 Sahara, Namib and Kalahari desert in areas of subsiding air that’s why it is dry
3. BETWEEN 30 DEGREES AND 40 DEGREES IN North of Africa and masses at polar front
 Convergance of air masses at polar front cause air to rise
 Mid latitude cyclones carried by westerly winds form at polar front
 Cold fronts (part of mid latitude cyclones)cause Western cape to get cyclonic or frontal rain in
winter

UNIT 8 ROLE OF OCEANS IN CLIMATE CONTROL IN AFRICA

Q1: Why do oceans have a moderating effect on temperature? Explain the heating and cooling processes.
The ocean heats up and cools down more slowly than land. This affects nearby land temperatures in two ways:
*During the day and in summer: The land heats up quickly, but the ocean remains cooler. Winds blow from
the cooler ocean to the warmer land, bringing cool air and lowering land temperatures.
*At night and in winter: The land cools down quickly, but the ocean retains its heat. Winds blow from the
warmer ocean to the cooler land, bringing warm air and raising land temperatures.
This process results in more stable and mild temperatures along the coast.

Q: What is the difference between a maritime and continental climate?

Maritime climate: Found in places near the ocean; has mild temperatures and small seasonal and daily (diurnal)
temperature ranges.
Continental climate: Found inland; has extreme temperatures and large seasonal and daily temperature ranges.

Influence of Ocean Currents on Temperature

Q: What causes ocean currents to form?

Continual winds blowing over the ocean's surface create a dragging action, which forms ocean currents.

Q: How do warm ocean currents affect air temperature?

Warm ocean currents heat the air above them. Prevailing winds then blow this warm air toward the land, raising the
temperature of coastal areas.

Q: How do cold ocean currents affect air temperature?

Cold ocean currents cool the air above them. When prevailing winds carry this cooler air onto the land, they lower
the temperatures of nearby coastal areas.

Q What is the effect of the Agulhas Current?

The warm Agulhas Current flows along the east coast of southern Africa. It raises the temperatures of coastal areas
such as Durban.

Q What is the effect of the Benguela Current?

The cold Benguela Current flows along the west coast of southern Africa. It cools the temperatures of areas like
Swakopmund.

What is the effect of the Canary Current?

The cold Canary Current flows along the west coast of North Africa, lowering temperatures along those coastal
areas.

Q: What does the comparison between Durban and Swakopmund show?

Durban, influenced by the warm Agulhas Current, is warmer than Swakopmund, which is cooled by the cold
Benguela Current. This shows how ocean currents directly affect the temperature of coastal cities.

LAND AND SEA BREEZE: What are land and sea breezes and how do they work?
Sea breeze (daytime): Land heats faster than the ocean → warm air over land rises → cool air from the sea moves in.
Land breeze (night): Land cools faster than the ocean → warm air over the sea rises → cool air from land moves out
to sea.

What causes land and sea breezes

  Caused by difference in pressure because of temperature differences between landmasses and oceans

What is a maritime climate and where is it found?

A maritime climate is found in coastal places near the ocean. It has mild temperatures because the ocean cools the
land in summer and warms it in winter.

What is a seasonal temperature range and how does the ocean affect it?
It’s the difference between summer and winter temperatures. Coastal areas have a small seasonal temperature
range because the ocean keeps temperatures more stable.

What is a diurnal temperature range and where is it larger?

It’s the difference between daytime high temperature and the night time low temperature. Inland areas have a large
diurnal temperature range because they heat up and cool down faster than coastal areas.

What is a continental climate and how does it differ from a maritime climate?
A continental climate is found in places far from the ocean. These areas have extreme temperatures and large
seasonal and diurnal ranges, unlike coastal areas with a maritime climate.

What are prevailing winds and what role do they play in climate?
Prevailing winds are winds that blow most often in a region. They carry warm or cold air from the ocean currents to
the land, influencing temperatures.

8.2 The Role of the Ocean in Influencing Rainfall

What is the main source of rainfall in Africa?

The evaporation of water from the ocean is the main source of rainfall on the continent.

How does rain from the ocean reach land areas?

Onshore winds (winds blowing from sea to land) carry moisture to coastal regions. When this moist air rises and
cools, it can condense and fall as rain.

Why do places closer to the sea receive more rainfall?

Coastal areas benefit from:
Onshore winds bringing moist air
The moderating influence of the ocean
These regions tend to have a maritime climate and higher rainfall.

Why do inland areas receive less rainfall?

Areas far from the ocean are less affected by moist onshore winds. They have a continental climate and are usually
drier.

How do warm ocean currents affect rainfall?

Warm ocean currents heat the air above them.
Warm air holds more water vapour, increasing the chance of rain.
Example: The warm Agulhas Current on the east coast of southern Africa leads to higher rainfall.

How do cold ocean currents affect rainfall?

Cold currents cool the air above them.
Cool air holds less water vapour, so there’s less chance of rain.
Example: The cold Benguela Current on the west coast causes low rainfall.

How does fog form along the west coast?

Moist air condenses over the cold Benguela Current, forming mist and fog.
In the morning, this fog drifts inland.
As the sun heats the land, hot rising air causes the fog to evaporate.
Why does the Namib Desert exist along the west coast of southern Africa?
Because the cold Benguela Current lowers temperatures and reduces moisture in the air, causing very low rainfall.
The Namib Desert receives less than 25 mm of rain per year and is classified as arid.

Why is the Kalahari Desert classified as semi-arid?

The Kalahari Desert receives less than 500 mm of rain per year, which is more than the Namib, but still very low —
enough to be classified as semi-arid.

Why does Durban have warm temperatures, low seasonal variation, and high rainfall?
Durban is close to the warm Agulhas Current, which raises temperatures.
It has a maritime climate, which means small temperature ranges.
It receives moist onshore winds, which bring high rainfall.

Why does Pretoria have a large seasonal temperature range?

Pretoria is far from the ocean, so it does not benefit from the ocean's moderating effects.
It has a continental climate with extreme temperatures and a larger seasonal range.

Unit 9: The El Niño and La Niña Events and Their Effects on Africa's Climate
Q&A Summary

What are the El Niño and La Niña events?

They are short-term climate events that change ocean temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific Ocean, which
then affect global weather patterns, including those in Africa.

What is El Niño?
A climate change event caused by warmer-than-normal sea surface temperatures in the central and eastern Pacific
Ocean.
Associated with hotter and drier conditions in parts of Africa.

What is La Niña?
A climate change event caused by cooler-than-normal sea surface temperatures in the central and Eastern Pacific
Associated with cooler and wetter conditions in parts of Africa.

How do ocean temperatures affect climate?

Changes in ocean temperature affect:
Atmospheric circulation (how air moves) and Rainfall patterns
This leads to changes in climate, especially in Africa and other parts of the world.
What is the normal process in the Pacific Ocean
Easterly trade winds blow from South America to Asia across the Pacific Ocean.
These winds push warm surface water westward (towards Asia and Australia).
Cold water rises (upwelling) on the east side of the Pacific, near South America.
The west Pacific (Asia/Australia) gets warm seas, rising moist air, and heavy rainfall.
The east Pacific (South America) has cold seas, sinking dry air, and dry conditions.
This balance is called normal conditions – any change in this pattern can lead to El Niño or La Niña.

Q: What happens in the Pacific Ocean during an El Niño event?

Normal atmospheric circulation is disrupted.
Easterly trade winds weaken due to changes in atmospheric pressure.
This reduces the upwelling of cold water near the east Pacific.
As a result, the central and eastern Pacific Ocean becomes warmer.
Warm surface water shifts eastwards (instead of staying in the west).
Rising air and rain now occur over the central Pacific.
Eastern Australia and Southeast Asia experience subsiding air and drier conditions.

Q: What happens in the Pacific Ocean during a La Niña event?

Tropical easterly winds become stronger than normal.
Upwelling of cold water increases, making the eastern Pacific Ocean very cold.
Heavy rainfall occurs over eastern Australia, Southeast Asia, and the western Pacific Ocean.
Dryer-than-normal conditions occur along the west coast of South America.
Effects of El Niño and La Niña on Africa

What are the effects of El Niño on Africa?

Higher temperatures
Drier conditions in many areas
This can lead to drought and water shortages.

What are the effects of La Niña on Africa?

Cooler temperatures
Wetter conditions, especially in some parts of Africa
This can lead to flooding or better agricultural growth in some regions.

Key Terms Recap

El Niño: Warmer Pacific Ocean, hotter and drier in Africa
La Niña: Cooler Pacific Ocean, cooler and wetter in Africa
Upwelling: Rising of cold water to the surface when warm water is blown away
Tropical easterlies: Winds that blow from east to west across the Pacific
Low pressure: Rising warm, moist air – often brings rain
High pressure: Sinking, warming air – often brings dry weather
Onshore winds: Winds blowing from sea to land – bring moisture

Comparison Table: El Niño vs La Niña

Feature El Niño La Niña
Ocean Conditions Warmer water in the eastern Cooler water in the eastern
Pacific Pacific
Airflow Downward over Africa Upward over Africa
Southern Africa Weather Hot and dry – risk of drought Cool and wet – more rainfall
East Africa Weather Heavy rains, floods, and Usually drier than normal
mudslides
Impact on Farming Poor harvests, famine risk Good rains – better harvests,
but flooding
Economic Effects Lower food production, food Possible boost to farming,
shortages but damage risk

What is El Niño?
El Niño is a weather event where warm water builds up in the eastern Pacific Ocean. This causes rising air
and rainfall over the Pacific but leads to dry, warm air sinking over parts of Africa, especially southern
Africa, often resulting in drought.

What is La Niña
La Niña is the opposite of El Niño. Cold water builds up in the eastern Pacific, causing air to sink there but
rise over Africa. This can bring more rain and even floods, especially in parts of East and southern Africa.
How does El Niño affect Africa’s climate?
Southern Africa: Less rainfall and possible droughts
Eastern Africa: Sometimes experiences heavier rainfall and floods
Impact: Crop failures, food shortages, and economic problems due to poor harvests

How does La Niña affect Africa’s climate?

Southern Africa: More rainfall and even floods
Eastern Africa: Generally wetter conditions
Impact: Good harvests and full dams, but too much rain can damage crops and cause flooding

Why are El Niño and La Niña important to Africa?

These weather patterns can greatly affect agriculture, water supply, and the economy. Farmers rely on
predictable weather, so sudden droughts or floods can cause food shortages and harm people's livelihoods.

Do these effects happen the same way every time?

Not always. Although El Niño usually brings drought to southern Africa, other weather factors may lead to
some areas getting normal or even above-average rainfall, like what happened in the 1997–1998 El Niño
event.

Unit 10 Synoptic weather maps

What is a synoptic weather map?
It’s a map that shows the weather conditions at a specific time on a specific day across a large area, like South
Africa.

Where does the data for these maps come from?

Weather stations across the country collect data every day at the same time (usually 08h00) and send it to the
Weather Bureau. They also use satellite images to help make forecasts.

What is the first thing you should look at on a synoptic map?

Atmospheric pressure. It helps predict weather conditions.

How is atmospheric pressure shown on a weather map?

With isobars, which are lines joining places with the same air pressure. Pressure is measured in hectopascals (hPa).

What do the numbers and patterns of isobars tell us?

If the pressure is high or low.
If isobars are close together, the pressure changes quickly (steep pressure gradient) and winds are strong.
If isobars are far apart, the pressure changes slowly (gentle pressure gradient) and winds are gentle.

Q6: What is a ridge of high pressure?

A: It’s when high pressure spreads into an area of lower pressure. In South Africa, this often happens in the south
and causes strong onshore winds.
What is a trough of low pressure?
A trough of low pressure occurs when an area of low pressure extends outward toward areas of higher pressure.

When and where does a trough of low pressure commonly occur in South Africa?
In South Africa, a trough of low pressure often forms across the interior during summer.

What weather conditions does a trough of low pressure cause?

It causes the uplift of moist air, which leads to thunderstorms.

How are high and low pressure cells shown on a synoptic weather map?
High pressure cells are marked with the letter H in the middle.
Low pressure cells are marked with the letter L in the middle.

What is the pressure at the centre of a high pressure cell, according to the example?
The centre of the high pressure cell has a pressure of 1020 hPa, and it decreases outward from the centre.

How do winds behave in a high pressure cell?

Winds blow outward from the high pressure cell toward areas of lower pressure.
They do not blow directly along the pressure gradient because they are deflected by the Coriolis force.

How does the Coriolis force affect wind direction in different hemispheres?
In the Southern Hemisphere, the Coriolis force causes winds to move anticlockwise around a high pressure cell.
In the Northern Hemisphere, the winds blow clockwise around a high pressure cell.

What kind of weather is associated with high pressure cells?

High pressure cells generally bring fine weather.

What is the impact of steep pressure gradients around high pressure cells in South Africa?
Steep pressure gradients often result in strong winds coming from high pressure cells.

Low Pressure Cells and Fronts on a Synoptic Weather Map

How do winds behave in a low pressure cell?
Winds blow into the low pressure cell from areas of higher pressure.
Winds do not blow directly along the pressure gradient.
They are deflected by the Coriolis force.

How does the Coriolis force affect winds around a low pressure cell?
In the Southern Hemisphere, winds blow into the low pressure cell in a clockwise direction.
In the Northern Hemisphere, winds blow into the low pressure cell in an anticlockwise direction.

What letter marks the centre of a low pressure cell on a synoptic weather map?
The centre of a low pressure cell is marked with the letter L.

What is the pressure at the centre of a typical low pressure cell?

In one example, the pressure is 996 hPa at the centre and it increases outward.

What kind of weather is linked to low pressure cells?

Low pressure cells usually bring changeable weather, such as wind, clouds, and rain.

Fronts on a Synoptic Weather Map

What do cold fronts and warm fronts represent?
A cold front shows the edge of a cold air mass.
A warm front shows the edge of a warm air mass.

What kind of weather is associated with cold and warm fronts?

Both are linked to low pressure systems and bring changeable weather with clouds, wind, and rain.