UNIT 2 ENVIRONMENTAL AND SOCIO -CULTURAL
CONSIDERATIONS IN PLANNING
Structure
2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Environmental Considerations
2.2.1 The Impact on Environment
2.2.2 Impact Mitigation Measures
2.3 Environmental Planning Process
2.4 Socio-cultural Considerations
2.5 Let Us Sum Up
2.6 Clues to Answers
2.0 OBJECTIVES
After reading this Unit you will be able to:
• understand why environment, society and culture are so important for tourism planning,
• know about the steps undertaken to preserve these resources, and
• learn how planning should be focussed to sustain these resources.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This Unit discusses the relationship between tourism, environment and socio-cultural quality.
Tourism, perhaps, more than most other economic activities relies heavily on a good quality
environment, society and culture (the three major resources) to deliver a product which the consumer
desires. The tourism industry has perhaps the potential to either contribute to environmental
improvement or alternatively, to destroy the assets on which tourism is built. However, governed by
immediate profit motives, many players in this industry even knowingly ignore this aspect.
It is well known that provision of facilities associated with tourism development transform the natural
environment. This process can modify and even eradicate the original source of attraction. There is
also a recognition of the fact that tourism must strive to develop as a socially responsible industry.
More specifically it must move pro-actively rather than simply responding to various pressures as
they arise. Today resident responsive tourism is the watchword for tomorrow in this industry.
Community demands for active participation in the setting of the tourism agenda and its priorities for
tourism development and management cannot be ignored. This has to be acknowledged as a fact by
the industry.
During the 1960’s, and even much of the 1970’s, tourism was developed primarily based on economic
objectives, with limited regard in many areas for environmental and socio-cultural impacts. Because
of the much manifested negative impacts resulting from that earlier development, concern in the
1980’s and 1990’s focussed on prevention and control of environmental and socio-cultural impacts,
along with achieving economic objectives.
The surge of interest in environmental issues in recent years has led to a critical assessment of the role
which tourism plays. From the Lake District in England to Acropolis in Athens, from the hills of
Chamba to the shores of Puri, tourism has taken its toll. The result has been pollution, danger to
wildlife, deforestation, strain on local resources, damage to historical monuments and negative effects
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on local culture. Though attempts have been made to prevent this kind of damage, the lure of tourism
revenue has proved too strong.
The reason why much of the development has resulted in undesirable outcomes is quite simple to
understand. A region whose comparative advantage depends on outstanding natural beauty may
attract too many tourists, leading to congestion, over crowding, pollution and the destruction of the
environment which formed the basis for the areas competitiveness. Similarly, this can occur and has
occurred with ancient buildings, monuments and waterways. Where property rights are well defined
the private markets have attempted to solve such problems by charging a price, thus excluding those
unwilling to pay and using some of the income to maintain their assets. However, substantial parts of
the touris m products are based on common property such as scenery, coastlines, mountains and
society, etc. So, they become properties / objects used by all but nobody is responsible for their
upkeep. This is where planning becomes inevitable so as to sustain these public properties and to
check that the natural and cultural resources of a region are not destroyed.
In this Unit, we will discuss how environmental and socio-cultural issues are paramount for the
development of tourism and what approach of planning should be adopted to maximise returns.
In this Unit, we will also discuss the various environmental policies and more specific impact control
measures that can be applied to achieve environmentally and socially integrated tourism development.
This kind of development does not generate negative environmental impacts but reinforces positive
ones and, where needed, improves the overall environmental quality of tourism areas.
2.2 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
The era of environmental concerns was ushered in by th e World Conservation Strategy and the
Brundtland Commission in the 1980’s. It was given renewed impetus following the Rio Summit
and the adoption of Agenda 21. In the tourism sector, too, support for ecologically sustainable
development is now emerging strongly as the logical way of balancing environmental concerns with
growth and development of the industry.
A conference held in Canada on ‘Global opportunities for business and the environment’
concluded that sustainable development holds considerable promise as a vehicle for addressing the
problems of modern tourism (Tourism Canada , 1990). What was recognised was the
interdependence between environmental and economic issues and policies. Further, the acceptance of
the fact that sound environmental management and planning does not merely cost, it pays, was a
crucial decision.
Typically, the initial force motivating tourists is the landscape, encompassing attributes of both the
physical and social environment. As a tourist destination matures, attractions are added, facilities are
provided and infrastructure is expanded to present a new blend of structures, activities and functions.
Not all such additions are incorrect and change always does not mean a negative impact. If carried
out sensitively, tourist development can contribute to substantial upgrading of the environment and
enhance visitor enjoyment along with ecological sustainability. What is important to understand is
that decline is not inevitable. With sound planning and management it is possible for the downturn to
be checked, rejuvenation achieved and viability sustained. A more positive alternative could be to
sustain and enhance the environment for tourism.
2.2.1 The Impact on Environment
As mentioned earlier, change is not necessarily negat ive but tourism does induce profound changes in
the character and form of destinations and built areas. In MTM-1, we have discussed them in detail.
Some major potential impacts of tourism on the built environment have been discussed in Table-1.
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Table-1
Impact Aspect Potential Consequences
Urban Form • Change in character of built area through urban expansion or
redevelopment.
• Change in residential, retail or industrial land uses (e.g. move from private
houses to hotels).
• Changes to the urban fabric (e.g. roads, pavements etc.)
Infrastructure • Overload of infrastructure (e.g. roads, railways, car parking, electricity
grid, communication systems, waste disposal, buildings, water supply.
• Provision of new infrastructure or upgrading of existing infrastructure.
• Environmental management to adapt areas for tourist use (e.g. sea walls,
land reclamation)
Visual Impact • Growth of the built-up area
• New architectural styles
• People and belongings, litter
• Beautification
Restoration • Re-use of disused buildings
• Restoration and preservation of historic buildings and sites
• Restoration of buildings and second homes.
Erosion Damage of built assets from feet and vehicular traffic (including vibration
effects)
Pollution • Air pollution from tourists and tourist traffic.
• Air pollution from non-tourist sources causing damage to built assets.
(Source: Hunter, Colin & Green, Howard, Tourism and the Environment: A Sustainable Relationship?, Routledge, 1996.)
2.2.2 Impact Mitigation Measures
Butler (1991) provides a review and critique of measures which can be used to decrease the pressures
of tourism on the environment. According to him, there are four main approaches to impact
mitigation, namely:
i) changing the tourist type,
ii) changing the resource for resistance,
iii) education, and
iv) curbing tourist numbers.
Changing the tourist type means moving away from mass tourism to some form of alternative
tourism . This means involving a different type of responsible tourist who is unlike a traditional mass
tourist. However, Butler has criticised this measure in a number of ways. Firstly, he is of the view
that there are insufficient alternative tourists to supply all the destinations which seek them. Secondly,
a large proportion of expenditure of such tourists is made out with the destination area. Thirdly, even
the most environmentally conscious tourists can degrade the environment. Finally, it is suggested
that small-scale alternative tourism operations may well grow and change through time into
potentially more destructive forms.
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Another possibility is to try and change the resource base so that one is able to understand tourism
pressure. This might involve making the resource more resistant. This is particularly appropriate in
and around fragile heritage resources, wildlife parks, monuments, etc. This would involve
discouraging tourist exploration and provide new infrastructure, etc. Butler recognises that
increasing the resistance of the resource base has been successful in some cases. At the same time he
questions it’s acceptability to tourists and others in situations where:
• any change to the resource base might reduce its inherent attractiveness, or
• where tourists are unconvinced of the need for protection.
Butler is also sceptical of a management approach based on curbing tourist numbers, whether this is
used to reduce numbers where they are already high, or to limit numbers before they reach some level.
He argues that attempts to reduce tourist numbers are rare, because of the risk to jobs and the standard
of living amongst the host population which a reduction in tourist revenue might bring.
For Butler, the best and possibly only prospect of reducing tension pressures in existing tourist
centres over long run lies in education. According to him, the environmental impacts of tourism
need to be better understood by developers and others in the industry, governments and other
public sector agencies, local population and tourists themselves.
Many destinations have already initiated measures in this regard. Certain tourism organisations like
the PATA have also come forward for generating awareness through educational films, formulating a
code of conduct for the tour operators, etc.
However, education is not the only solution. An evaluation of both, the environmental as well as
social considerations at the planning stage itself can ensure environment friendly tourism
development.
2.3 ENVIRONMENTAL PLANNING PROCESS
The best way to avoid negative environmental impacts and reinforce positive impacts is to plan
tourism properly, i.e., using the environmental planning approach before development. This planning
must take place at all levels – national, regional, local and site specific areas for hotels, resorts and
tourist attraction features.
Environmental planning follows the same process which is used for development planning, but more
emphasis is placed on considerations of the physical environment and socio-cultural requirements.
The process involves the steps outlined below:
i) Establishing Development Objectives
The general objectives of de veloping tourism must be decided as a basis for planning. These must
necessarily be preliminary until they are determined as realistically compatible with one other.
Environmentally oriented objectives in a regional plan, for example, often include developing tourism
in such a manner that no serious negative impact results, and using tourism as a means of achieving
conservation objectives such as preservation of cultural monuments or development of national parks,
etc.
ii) Survey of the Existing Situation
This survey includes all aspects of the existing situation, particularly the detailed characteristics of the
environment. For example in a beach resort area, the survey would include the climatic and weather
patterns of rainfall, temperatures, humidity, sunshine and winds; land and underwater topography;
extent and quality of the beach, beach erosion; near shore water current flows, etc.
There is now an increasing awareness of environmental auditing but it is by no means a general
practice. The audit has its origins in manufacturing industry where the technique was developed to
measure a company’s compliance with environmental regulations and controls. The European
Union uses the following definition in this regard:
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“A management tool comprising a syste matic, documented and periodic
evaluation of how well organisations, management and equipment are
performing with the aim of safeguarding the environment by facilitating
management control of environmental practices.”
Few tourism companies in the developing countries have adopted this practice although some hotels
in India have done so. Few tour operators have also taken note of this.
It may be that as governments become more concerned about the environmental issues, legislation
will be used to enforce standards. There is no single approach to environmental auditing. The
methodology selected will depend very much on the nature of tourism business and the location of the
activity. Some countries such as Singapore, have very high standards of environmental legislation
and control, whereas others have none.
iii) Analysis
The planning process includes several types of inter -related analysis such as socio-economic impact
of tourism development; types of tourist attractions to be developed; type and extent of transportation
facilities and services required. The physical environmental characteristics are analysed to determine
the carrying capacity of the area, the levels of tourism development and how best the development can
fit into the environment. From the environmental standpoint, one of the most important analytical
techniques is determination of the carrying capacity of the planning area.
Carrying capacity analysis is a basic technique now commencing to be widely used in tourism and
recreational planning. It is done to systematically determine the upper limits of development and
visitor use and optimum utilisation of tourism resources.
As defined by Mathieson and Wall (1982), carrying capacity “is the maximum number of people
who can use a site without an unacceptable alteration in the physical environment and without
an unacceptable decline in the quality of experience gained by visitors”. To this definition should
be added, without an unacceptable adverse impact on the society, economy and culture of the
tourism area. Establishing carrying capacities is based on the concept of maintaining a level, of
development and use, that will not result in environmental or socio -cultural deterioration or be
perceived by tourists as depreciating their enjoyment and appreciation of the area. Carrying capacity
analysis provides an essential guideline to be used in formulating a tourism plan at any level.
2.4 SOCIO-CULTURAL CONSIDERATIONS
Let us now see what are the socio-cultural considerations involved in tourism planning.
There can be both positive and negative socio-cultural impacts resulting from tourism. This depends
on the type and intensity of the tourism developed as well as the characteristics of the host society.
Whether impacts are considered positive or negative depends, in part, on the objective criteria (such
as income earned) and also on the perceptions of the host community. It is also possible that different
community groups have varying reactions to their tourism development, with no consensus reached
by the whole community.
There are some generally accepted socio -economic policies and impact control measures that are
being applied with some successful results in various places in the world. These are applied to prevent
the negative socio-cultural impacts in future or mitigating the existing ones. Reinforcing positive
impacts is the other side of these measures.
Tourism can be used as a technique of cultural conservation and revitalisation. However, for
achieving this, it should be based to the extent possible on the cultural resources of an area. By proper
planning and policy, tourism can be deliberately used to help justify and financially support:
• the preservation of archaeological and historic sites,
• conservation and even expansion of traditional dances, music, drama, arts and handicrafts
unique to the area,
• development of museums and cultural centres, and organisation of cultural events.
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As per the World Tourism Organisation’s publication on National and Regional Tourism
Planning (1994), tourism, if well planned, developed and managed in a socially responsible manner,
can bring several types of socio-cultural benefits. These include the following:
i) Improves the living standards of people and helps pay for improvements to community facility
and servic es, if the economic benefits of tourism are well distributed.
ii) Conserves the cultural heritage of an area which otherwise might be lost as a result of general
development taking place.
iii) Helps develop and maintain museums, theatres and other cultural facilities. These are in part
supported by tourism but are also enjoyed by residents. Many major museums and theatres in the
world receive much financial support from the admission fee paid by tourists.
iv) Reinforces or even renews a sense of pride by residents in their culture when they observe tourists
appreciating it. This is especially true of some traditional societies which are undergoing rapid
change and loosing their sense of cultural and self confidence.
v) Provides opportunity for cross-cultural exchange between tourists and residents who learn about
and come to respect, one another’s cultures. This exchange can best be achieved through certain
forms of tourism-educational and other types of special interest tours; village tourism; home visit
programmes etc., whereby tourists can arrange to visit local families.
At the same time absence of proper planning leads to socio -cultural disasters also. Many of these may
not be immediately visible but they appear in due course of time. For example:
1) Overuse and over-crowding at monuments, archaeological sites etc. not only deteriorates their
condition but adversely effects their conservation leading to loss of precious heritage.
Example : Too many visitors in the Ajanta Caves at a time were adversely effecting the paintings
leave aside checking grafitti.
Solution : At a time entry of visitors restricted to 30 in a cave.
Problem: More expenses on guards; visitors would attempt to bribe their way in.
Solution : Sensitise the visitors before allowing entry; tour operators and escorts to be educated on
the issue. Heavy fines on defaulters; close monitoring and all these you need to incorporate in the
plan.
2) Commercialisation of performing arts can bring about loss of authenticity.
Example : A tour operator packaging a Rajasthani dance for evening entertainment. Performers
wear the traditional dance dress but dance on film songs – the gestures, steps, etc. no where near
the authentic dance form.
Solution : Well, educate the tour operator. Tell him if the tourists realise this false staging he will
loose business.
3) Increase in drug abuse, prostitution, crime, etc. at a destination as a result of tourism.
4) Overcrowding can lead to tensions between residents and tourists/tourism services providers.
Example : Consumption of water, electricit y increases and residents face cuts; parking problems
for locals, price rise; short supplies.
Result: Hostility, tensions.
Solution : Better advance planning.
5) Demonstration effect, i.e., imitation of tourist by residents without knowledge of economic or
cultural gaps.
6) No respect for local customs, values, social norms, etc. by tourists or vice-versa.
Hence, there emerges the need for specific socio-cultural impact control measures that can be applied
in tourism areas. These can include aspects like maintaining the authenticity of local culture-dance,
drama, arts, crafts and dress. In particular, religion and religious rituals should never be modified for
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adapting to the needs of the tourists. Infrastructure that is developed for tourists should be such that
residents not only utilise it but also have convenient access to it. If residents can’t afford to use
existing commercial tourist facility they should be provided with inexpensive or subsidised facilities.
For example it is common practice for allowing residents to pay lower admission fee to attraction
features than those paid by foreign tourists. Another very important aspect of tourism is to educate
residents about tourism – its concepts, benefits and problems. Public awareness programmes about
tourism can be organised utilising radio, television, newspapers, magazines and public meetings. This
should exist at both ends. Tourists should also be informed about the local society – its customs,
dress codes, acceptable behaviour in public places, courtesies etc. Lastly, there should be strict
controls on drugs, crime and prostitution if tourism has to succeed.
Check Your Progress
1) What do you think can be the possible measures that can be used to decrease the pressure of
tourism on environment?
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2) What do you understand by environmental planning process?
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3) What type of socio-cultural benefits can tourism bring?
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2.5 LET US SUM UP
For both socio-cultural and environmental reasons, it is important to develop tourism in a gradual
manner so that the local residents have sufficient time to adapt to, understand and participate in it and
that the government can properly plan, organise and monitor tourism development as it proceeds.
A form and scale of tourism development that is appropriate for the local society and the environment
should be planed and maintained. The concept of social and environmental carrying capacity should
definitely be included in the overall carrying capacity study. If the social carrying capacity or
tolerance level is exceeded, not only will residents be irritated and resentful, but they will also not
present a hospitable and friendly face to tourists, which will result in tourist dissatisfaction. On the
other hand if environmental carrying capacity is not adhered to, it will result in tourists keeping away
from that destination as they have no lure in it.
2.6 CLUES TO ANSWERS
Check Your Progress
1) Consult Sub-sec. 2.2.2.
2) See Sec. 2.3.
3) See Sec.2.4.
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