Chapter I

Introduction
The study of Fluid Mechanics is directed towards the behaviour of a fluid at rest or in motion.
Some of the notable examples of application are: consideration of fluid statics for the design
of a dam; flow of water through pipes and distribution to domestic service lines; production
of mechanical power in hydraulic, steam or gas turbines; working of a hydraulic pump or of a
compressor; load carrying "capacity of a hydrodynamic bearing; motion of an aircraft or a
missile in the atmosphere and the like.

1.1 CONTINUUM

Under normal circumstances, the gaseous medium is said to be a ‘continuum’ affording

characterization of its state in terms of macroscopic observations, such as density, pressure,
temperature etc. The molecules being more closely spaced in a liquid, the continuum concept
is always satisfied.

The term ‘fluid’ encompasses both liquids and gases, and for our purpose, we shall assume
the concept of ‘continuum’ to be satisfied always.

In carrying out our studies we shall frequently refer to an ‘element of fluid’ which
encompasses an infinitesimal volume, or area, delineated in the continuum under
consideration. In Fig. 1.1, ABC is a fluid element identified through a boundary in the
continuum.

Fig. 1.1 Forces on a Fluid Element

1.2 SOLID vs FLUID

In Fig. 1.1 FB and FS are respectively the body and surface forces on a fluid element. The
surface force FS on the face ADC can be resolved into normal and tangential components, viz.
Fn and Ft.

The kinematic differences between a solid and a fluid lie in their response to the tangential or
shear force Ft.

We know that the behaviour of a solid under the action of a shear force, with in the elastic
limit, are:

Fluid Mechanics 1 Introduction

 (i) deformation by a definite amount depending on the magnitude of the force,
irrespective of the length of time of application, and
(ii) (ii) recovery of the shape prior to the application of the force, when the applied
force is withdrawn.

The behaviour of a fluid under the action of a shear force can be contrasted with the effects of
shear force on a solid and stated as follows:

(i) A fluid under an external shear force is in continuous deformation so long as the
force is applied.
(ii) The deformation, which is observed as motion of fluid layers, ceases when the
shear force is withdrawn. The fluid, however, does not return to its original state
obtaining before the application of the force.

In summary, therefore, the kinematic definition of a fluid is “a matter that deforms

continuously under the action of a shear force”. Conversely, a fluid at rest cannot sustain a
shear force.

1.3 TIME RATE OF DEFORMATION AND VISCOSITY

Consider a thin layer of fluid contained between two parallel plates. The lower plate is fixed
and the upper plate moveable. A tangential force Ft is applied to the upper plate, because of
which the plate moves with a velocity whose magnitude depends on the resistance offered by
the fluid layer.

Fig. 1.2 Shear Strain in a Fluid.

A point C on line BA at a height y will move to C' due to the local fluid velocity u. The
displacement CC’ = u dt = y d, or d/dt = u/y.

The angle d may vary with height for a finite value of y. Therefore, we make the above
statement in differential form for the sake of precision:

d du
 (1.1)
dt dy

The point to be noted is that the displacement CC' and the angle of deformation d increase
with time, but the time rate, d/dt, remains constant so long as Ft is unchanged.

If A be the area of contact of the moveable plate, the force Ft is resisted by an internal shear
stress of magnitude Ft/A. The shear stress is of constant magnitude, since Ft is maintained
Fluid Mechanics 2 Introduction
invariant with time. The shear stress can therefore be dependent on the rate of shear strain, but
not on the strain, since the rate alone is constant.

A fluid, in which the shear stress is linearly proportional to the time rate of strain, is said to
obey Newton's law of shear stress and is called Newtonian. Thus in a Newtonian fluid,

d

dt
or
du
 (1.2)
dy

where the constant of proportionality  is known as the "Dynamic Viscosity" or simply the
"Viscosity" of the fluid.

All gases and water obey Newton's law of shear stress.

The concept of an "ideal fluid", where  = 0, is of much analytical convenience in the study of
fluid mechanics. In the light of Eq. (1.2), an ideal fluid offers zero resistance to deformation.

The condition of zero shear stress thus occurs in two cases: ideal fluid in rest or motion, for
 = 0; and any fluid at rest, for u = 0.

With the increase of temperature, the viscosity of a liquid decreases and that of a gas
increases. The change in the value of viscosity due to pressure variation is negligible, both in
gases and liquids. A "kinematic viscosity" is defined as  = / where  is the density of the
fluid.

1.4 PRESSURE AND NORMAL STRESS

The average pressure acting on an area A of the fluid element due to the normal component of
the surface force is defined as

Fn
Pav  
A

The pressure p at a point is obtained when the area A is shrunk to zero, i.e.

 F 
P  Limit   n  (1.3)
A 0  A

By convention, the pressure is stated to act in the inward direction of the exposed surface;
hence the negative sign before Fn. The direction of a surface is positive along its outward
normal. Since an ideal fluid or a fluid at rest cannot develop shear stress, the only stress
developed is in the normal direction. And if we define the normal stress to be positive when
tensile,
 = -p (1.4)
in an ideal or static fluid.

When a real fluid is in motion, the normal stress is modified by an additional term due to
viscosity.
Fluid Mechanics 3 Introduction
1.5 DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

The SI system is based on seven basic and two supplementary units as given in Table 1.1.
Table 1.1 SI Units
Parameters Dimensions Symbols Units
Basic Units
(i) Mass M kg kilogram
(ii) Length L m metre
(iii) Time T s second
(iv) Temperature t K kelvin
(v) Electric current A ampere
(vi) Luminosity cd candela
(vii) Amount of substance mol mole
Supplementary Units
(i) Plane angle rad radian
(ii) Solid angle sr steradian

Derived Units The units of common parameters of interest in fluid mechanics can be derived
using the relevant definitions.

Density = mass per unit volume  kg/m3

Force = mass  acceleration  kg . m/s2 = N or newton
Pressure = Force per unit area  N/m2 = Pa or Pascal
Work = Force  distance  newton  metre = Nm = J or joule
Heat  Work  J
Power = Work per unit time = J/s = W or watt

The unit of viscosity may be derived by using Newton’s law of shear stress:
du

dy
or
dy N m.s kg m s
    2 2
du m2 m s m
or
  kg / m.s  N.s / m2  Pa s
The kinematic viscosity

 kg m3
   m2 / s
 [Link]

Since a pressure of 1 Pa is of very small value, the engineering unit for pressure is adopted as
bar
1 bar =105 N/m2 or 105 pascals

1 atm = 1.013 bar = 760 mm Hg

Fluid Mechanics 4 Introduction