National Center for Photovoltaic Research & Education (NCPRE)

Teach a 1000 Teachers Program

PV Lab Training Manual

Indian Institute of Technology Bombay

Project Supported by Ministry of New and Renewable Energy

PVLabTrainingManual

NCPRE,IITBombay

DearPVLabKitUsers

India has launched the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission (JNNSM) in 2009 with the ambitious
targetofinstalling20,[Link]
target,thereisaneedforalargenumberoftrainedpeopleintheSolarPhotovoltaicsarea.

It is our pleasure to present this PV Lab Training Manual as part of the Teach a 1000 Teachers
[Link]
[Link]
(NCPRE, [Link]), established at IIT Bombay by Ministry of New and Renewable Energy
(MNRE).We hopethat thistraininginitiativetaken byNCPREwillbeusefulinfulfilling themanpower
needsofJNNSM.

ThePVLabTrainingManualcontainsdetailedinformationonseveralcarefullyplannedexperimentson
solar PV cells and modules. The planned experiments are in the areas of characterization and
simulation. The characterization experiments are planned to allow you to measure various data on
solarcells,[Link]
circuits containing solar cells. For each experiment, the details, like its objective, expected outcome,
theory,theequipmentsused,measurementmethodology,resultsanddiscussion,aregiven.

Significant effort has gone into preparing the PV Lab Training Manual and PV Lab Training Kit. In
particular,theLabTrainingKitwasdesignedtoberelativelylowcost,sothatitcouldbeeasilyreplicated
[Link]
afterlearning,youcantrainseveralotherpeople,andthuscontributetothegrowthofthePVsectorin
thecountry.

[Link]
[Link]
thankmanyofourprojectstaffwhohavecontributedinthemakingofthisManualandKit,particularly
GauravTare,SanchitKhatavkar,ShashwataChattopadhyayandSeemaPeriwal.

BestWishes,
[Link]
[Link]
JuzerVasi
[Link]

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NCPRE,IITBombay

TableofContents

Checklistforperformingtheexperiments................................................................................................2
UserManualPVModuleCharacterizationKit.........................................................................................6
UserManualPVSystemCharacterizationKit......................................................................................11
UserManualSOLARSIMULATOR(SolarCellCharacterizationUnit)...................................................15
MeasurementofGlobalSolarIrradiationusingasolarcell...................................................................26
Exp1IdentifyingandmeasuringtheparametersofasolarPVModuleinthefield..........................33
Exp2SeriesandParallelconnectionofPVModules...........................................................................43
Exp3EstimatingtheeffectofSuntrackingonenergygenerationbysolarPVmodules...................54
Exp4EfficiencymeasurementofstandalonesolarPVsystem...........................................................64
Exp5DarkandIlluminatedCurrentVoltagecharacteristicsofsolarcell.78
Exp6Solarcellsconnectedinseriesandinparallel............................................................................87
Exp7DependenceofSolarcellIVcharacteristicsonlightintensityandtemperature.....................92
Exp8CarrierLifetimemeasurementsforasolarcell........................................................................100
Exp9SolarcellsimulationusingPC1Dsimulator..............................................................................109
Exp10SEQUEL:UsingtheGUI

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NCPRE,IITBombay

Checklistforperformingtheexperiments

Before performing the experiments, it is must to have a number of equipments available with the
remote center so that the experiments could be performed without any distraction. Other than
equipments, some appropriate spaces are also required to conduct the experiments. Although, major
equipments are made available by NCPRE to the remote centers, some of the equipments like
measuringmeters,wires,[Link]
[Link]
necessitiesavailable:

TheCheckListisgivenhereforeachexperimentthatcanbeperformedwiththelaboratorykitprovided
toremotecenters.

Contents
ChecklistforExperimentNo.1...................................................................................................................3
ChecklistforExperimentNo.2...................................................................................................................3
ChecklistforExperimentNo.3...................................................................................................................3
ChecklistforExperimentNo.4...................................................................................................................3
ChecklistforExperimentNo.5...................................................................................................................4
ChecklistforExperimentNo.6...................................................................................................................4
ChecklistforExperimentNo.7...................................................................................................................4
ChecklistforExperimentNo.8...................................................................................................................4
ChecklistforExperimentNo.9...................................................................................................................5
ChecklistforExperimentNo.10.................................................................................................................5

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NCPRE,IITBombay

ChecklistforExperimentNo.1

IdentifyingandmeasuringtheparametersofasolarPVmoduleinthefield
Requirements:
1) TwomultimetersthatcanmeasureDCvoltages(rangeupto200VDC)andDCcurrents(range
upto10ADC)
2) Low resistance wires (multistranded/flexible) for doing connections as per the connection
diagram.
3) FlatandregularroofsurfaceformountingthePVModuleCharacterizationKit

ChecklistforExperimentNo.2

SeriesandParallelConnectionofPVmodules
Requirements:
1) TwomultimetersthatcanmeasureDCvoltages(rangeupto200VDC)andDCcurrents(range
upto10ADC)
2) Low resistance wires (multistranded/flexible) for doing connections as per the connection
diagram.
3) FlatandregularroofsurfaceformountingthePVModuleCharacterizationKit

ChecklistforExperimentNo.3

EstimatingtheeffectofsuntrackingonenergygenerationbysolarPVmodules
Requirements:
1) TwomultimetersthatcanmeasureDCvoltages(rangeupto200VDC)andDCcurrents(range
upto10ADC)
2) Low resistance wires (multistranded/flexible) for doing connections as per the connection
diagram.
3) FlatandregularroofsurfaceformountingthePVModuleCharacterizationKit

ChecklistforExperimentNo.4

EfficiencymeasurementofStandaloneSolarPVSystem
Requirements:
1) TwomultimetersthatcanmeasureDCvoltages(rangeupto200VDC)andDCcurrents(range
upto10ADC)
2) TwomultimetersthatcanmeasureACvoltages(rangeupto400VAC)andACcurrents(range
upto10AAC)
3) Low resistance wires (multistranded/flexible) for doing connections as per the connection
diagram.

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NCPRE,IITBombay

4) Two25wattsincandescentlamps(oranytwonumbersofappropriateloads)eachtobeusedas
loadontheinverter.
5) Two AC switches to be used between inverter output and the connected loads (40 watts
incandescentlamps)aspertheconnectiondiagram.

ChecklistforExperimentNo.5

Measurementofcurrentvoltagecharacteristicsofcrystallinesiliconsolarcell
a)Measurementbyusing4quadrantpowersupplyandsolarcellasload
i)indarkandii)underillumination.
b)Measurementbyusingsolarcellaspowersourceunderillumination
Requirements:
(1)Atablehavinga230voltsACsupplyisrequiredforsettinguptheSolarSimulatorkit.

ChecklistforExperimentNo.6

Measurementofcurrentvoltagecharacteristicsoftwosolarcellsconnected
a)inseriesandb)inparallel.
Requirements:
(1)Atablehavinga230voltsACsupplyisrequiredforsettinguptheSolarSimulatorkit.

ChecklistforExperimentNo.7

Dependenceofcurrentvoltagecharacteristicsofcrystallinesiliconsolarcellon
a)lightintensityandb)temperatureofsolarcell
Requirements:
(1)Atablehavinga230voltsACsupplyisrequiredforsettinguptheSolarSimulatorkit.

ChecklistforExperimentNo.8

Carrierlifetimeinasolarcell
Listofequipmentthatwillberequired:

[Link].

Unit

Description/Rating
4

Qty

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DigitalStorageOscilloscopeor
ordinaryOscilloscope

DualChannel30MHz

Pulse/FunctionGenerator

Variablevoltage
(upto10V),upto1
MHz,withDCoffset

Connectingwiresand/or
breadboard

ChecklistforExperimentNo.9

PC1DSimulationsofSolarCells
Requirements:
(1)ComputersloadedwithWindowsisrequired

ChecklistforExperimentNo.10

CircuitSimulationsusingSequel
Requirements:
(1)ComputersloadedwithWindowsorLinuxisrequired
AlldetailsaboutSequelaregivenonfollowing
[Link]

NCPRE,IITBombay

PVLabTrainingManual

NCPRE,IITBombay

UserManual

PVModuleCharacterizationKit

Contents
1.

Introduction.........................................................................................................................................7

2.

PartsofthePVModuleCharacterizationKit.......................................................................................7

2.

UserInstruction................................................................................................................................10

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1.

NCPRE,IITBombay

Introduction

ThePVModuleCharacterizationKitconsistsoffourPVmodules,arrangementtochangetheangleof
PVmodules,arrangementtomakevariouselectricalconnectionsofPVmodules,arrangementtorotate
the PV modules and make them perpendicular to sun rays. With this kit several experiments for
measuring the performance of solar PV modules under various conditions can be conducted. The
purpose of this instruction manual is to guide the user through the parts of the PV Module
CharacterizationKitsothattheusercanusethekittoperformvariousexperimentsonhisown.
ThedifferentpartsofthePVModuleCharacterizationKitareindicatedbelow:

Castorwheelsattwo

Degreeprotractorat

eitherendofthekit

endsfor360rotation

TwoMono

crystallineand

Fixedlegsattwoends

twomulti

forfirmholdingofthe

crystalline

modules

kit

Lockingarrangement

Needleforshadow

attwoends

Handlefor

Keyusedinthe

openingthe

lockingarrangement

frame

Figure1:VariouspartsofthePVModuleCharacterizationKit

2.

PartsofthePVModuleCharacterizationKit

Gettingthekitreadyfortheexperiments:Attherestingpositionofthekit(storageposition),theupper
[Link]
provided in the kit, so that while carrying the kit from one place to another, the upper frame having
[Link],beforeperformingexperimentonthe
kit,[Link]
stopperunderneaththefrontcentralportionofthePVModuleCharacterizationKit.

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NCPRE,IITBombay

Upperframe
containingthePV
modules
Stopperwhich
holdstheupper

Rheostattobe

andlowerframe

usedasload

Lowerframeas
Multimetersthatcan

baseforthekit

beusedformeasuring
currentandvoltage

Figure2:Imageindicatingthecomponentsandparts

ThePVModuleCharacterizationKitconsistsofthefollowingparts:
a. MonocrystallinePVmodules
Thekitconsistsoftwonumbersofmonocrystallinemodulesarrangeddiagonally.

b. MulticrystallinePVmodules
Thekitconsistsoftwonumbersofmulticrystallinemodulesarrangeddiagonally.

c. Angleindication
Mainly the PV modules are placed inclined at the latitude angle of the local region. For that,
provisionofaDegreeProtractorismadeinthekit.TheDegreeProtractorshowsanglesfrom0
[Link].
Thiscanbeusedtoputthemodulesatappropriateinclinedangles.

d. Needle
[Link]
needle,[Link];sothatit
canbekeptfoldedwhenthereisnouseoftheneedle.

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NCPRE,IITBombay

e. Terminalsandconnections
The positive and negative terminals of each of the PV modules are provided with banana
connectors,whichmakeiteasiertoconnectthemodulesintheseriesandparallelconnections
[Link]
clipsareprovidedwiththiskit.

f.

Handle
[Link]
holdwhilealigningtheframeofthePVmodulesatrequiredangle.

g. Lockingarrangement
[Link]
the modules should be fixed. For locking the PV module frame at required angles, a locking
[Link]
[Link]
the sides of the kit; on the fixed rod through which the movable rod moves. The key can be
insertedinthekeyholeandfastenthearrangement.

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NCPRE,IITBombay

h. CastorWheels
Twocastorwheelsareprovidedatthefarendofthekit;whichcanprovide360rotationtothe
[Link]
aligningthemodulesatpositionperpendiculartotheSunatvarioustimes.

i.

Legs
[Link]
Kit fixed at one place even when there is wind pressure on the kit. While moving the kit (by
usingcastorwheels)onehastoliftthefrontportioncontaininglegs.

2.

UserInstruction

KeepthePVModuleCharacterizationKitonasmoothleveledsurfacewhileperforming
theexperiments.

KeepthePVModuleCharacterizationKitcleanbydoingmanualcleaningwiththeuseof
asoftcloth.

TakeproperprecautionbyholdingtheupperframecontainingPVmoduleswhilelocking
andunlockingthePVmoduleframeatdesiredangles.

AvoidshortingofterminalsofthePVmodulesforlongertime.

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UserManual

PVSystemCharacterizationKit

Contents
1.

Introduction......................................................................................................................................12

2.

DescriptionofcomponentsofPVSystemCharacterizationKit........................................................12

3.

UserInstruction................................................................................................................................13

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1.

NCPRE,IITBombay

Introduction

The Solar PV systems consist of various components like PV module, battery, charge controller and
inverter. In this combination it is not only the efficiency of the PV modules but efficiency of other
components also becomes important. For the purpose of measuring the efficiency of the whole PV
system,[Link]
ofthePVSystemCharacterizationKitsothattheusercanusethekittoperformvariousexperimentson
hisown.
FollowingarethecomponentsforthePVSystemCharacterizationKit:

PVmodules(NoextraPVmodulesareprovidedforthisexperiments,pleaseusethePVModule
thatareprovidedwithCharacterizationKit)

Battery

Inverter

2.

DescriptionofcomponentsofPVSystemCharacterizationKit

A. PVmodules
SeethedetailsfromthePVModuleCharacterizationLabandexperimentslabmanual
ThetwomaincomponentsofaPVSystemareprovided

B. Inverter
1. DCInput
[Link]
input terminals of the inverter are provided with screw head terminals for doing
connections.
2. Fuse
TwofusesareprovidedintheinvertercircuitattheDCInputsideforprotectionfrom
shortcircuits.
3. Switch
The switch can be used for turning the inverter ON and OFF. When the inverter is
turnedON,thebuzzerintheinvertercircuitgivessoundatstartingindicatingthatthe
inverteristurnedON.
4. DisplayCard
Thedisplaycardgivesindicationfor:
(a)InverterON
(b)Lowbatteryvoltage
(c)Overload
5. ACOutput

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Theimagebelowshowsthedifferentpartsofaninverter:

Displaycard

DCInput

Fuses

Inductors
Displaycardterminal
ACOutput

Inverterswitchterminal
Inverterswitch

Figure1:Imageofaninverterwithoutcasing.

C. Battery
Thebatteryprovidedistypicallyasealedleadacidbattery.Thebatteryratingis12volts,
[Link].

Figure2:Imageofa12V,7AhExidebattery.

3.

UserInstruction

Avoidshortingoftheinverterinputterminals.

PleasekeeptheinverterinductorsasidebeforeputtingitON.

Do not touch inverter circuit when the inverter is running, kindly switch off the inverter
beforedoingconnections.

Donotoverloadtheinverterastheinverterisdesignedfor100Wattsrating.

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Donotshortthebatteryterminals.

Donotshortbatteryterminals

Avoidoverdischargingofbattery;batteryterminalvoltagebelow11.2Vshouldbeavoided.

Replacethebatteryusedinexperimentsafteroneyear.

Battery should be used regularly for the experiments, if the battery is unused for months
thenitmaynotworkproperly.

NCPRE,IITBombay

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UserManual

SOLARSIMULATOR
(SolarCellCharacterizationUnit)

Contents
1. Introduction......................................................................................................................................16
2. ComponentsoftheSolarSimulator..................................................................................................17
3. UserInstructions...............................................................................................................................25

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1.

NCPRE,IITBombay

Introduction
This is an introduction to the apparatus you will be using to do three experiments with solar
cellstoassistinunderstandingofthepropertiesofsolarcells.
Theexperimentsyouwillbedoingare:
1)

2)

Measurementofcurrentvoltagecharacteristicsofcrystallinesiliconsolarcell
a)
Measurementbyusing4quadrantpowersupplyandsolarcellasload:
i) indark,and
ii) underillumination
b)
Measurementbyusingsolarcellaspowersourceunderillumination
Dependenceofcurrentvoltagecharacteristicsofcrystallinesiliconsolarcellon:
a)
Lightintensity,and
b)
Temperatureofsolarcell

3)

Measurementofcurrentvoltagecharacteristicsoftwosolarcellsconnected:
a)
inseries,and
b)
inparallel.

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2.

NCPRE,IITBombay

ComponentsoftheSolarSimulator

Theapparatus,SolarSimulator,isshowninthephotographbelow:

Handle

Top
Compartment

Lamp Switches

Fan Switch

Middle
Compartment

Fan

Doorknob
Temperature
Controller
Voltmeter

Ammeter

Power Switch
Figure1:SolarSimulator

Potentiometers

InthisfigureyoucanseetwoswitchesL1andL2inthetoppanel(fortwohalogenlamps).Inthe
bottompanel,thereisON/OFFpowerswitch,one31/2digitvoltmeter(measurementinvolts,
range 0 to 1.999V), one 31/2 digit current meter (measurement in milliamperes, range 0 to
1999mA),onetemperaturecontroller(measurementindegC,controlfromroomtemperature
to80C),andtwopotentiometers(0to100ohm10turnand0to10ohm1turn).Inthemiddle
panel there is a doorknob, which can be used to open the door to reach the solar cells for
[Link]
onandoff.A2Ampfuseislocatedatthebackpanel.

The two quartz halogen lamps used as light source in the solar simulator are OSRAM 50 W
(230V)[Link]
connectionscanbeaccessedbyremovingthetopcover,ifnecessary.

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Figure2:QuartzHalogenLamps

NCPRE,IITBombay

[Link]
inserted between the lamps and the lower chamber as shown in the figure below. Two glass
platesareprovided:i)clearglassplateandii)[Link]
to avoid breakage from heat of the lamps. The glass plates reduce the heat from the lamps
reachingthesolarcells.

Frostedglassplatehelpstodiffusethelightandmakeituniform,particularlywhenperforated
metal plates are used as light attenuators to reduce the light intensity. Intensity of the light,
measured by using a radiometer (Pyranometer) under various conditions (clear glass, frosted
glassandfrostedglassplus4differentperforatedmetalfilters)isgiveninatableelsewherein
thismanual.

Lamps

Frosted Glass
Plate

Figure3:LampsandGlassPlate(ViewfromBottomside)
TwoBELmakesolarcellsarelocatedinthebottomchamberasseenin thefigurebelow. The
[Link]
temperatureofthealuminumblock.A100ohmPtsensorisusedtomonitortemperatureofthe
aluminum block. Heater and temperature sensor are connected to a temperature controller,
whichcanraisetemperatureoftheAlblocktoabout80 [Link]
towithin+/1 [Link]
[Link].

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Fan

Solar Cells

Heater

Terminal D

Figure4:SolarCellsandsomeotherinternalparts

DPDT Switch

The two solar cells are connected to 4 terminals A, B, C, D as shown. MAKE SURE THAT THE
LEADSCONNECTEDFROMSOLARCELLSTOTERMINALSARETIGHT.
Terminals A and D are brought to central terminals of the DPDT switch seen in front of the
[Link]
panel.Theseterminalsarebroughtoutontherightsideofthepaneltoconnectto4quadrant
powersupplyforIVmeasurementswithsolarcellconnectedasload.

Abriefdescriptionofthe 4quadrantpowersupplyfollows.Thefrontpanelofthe4quadrant
powersupplyhaspowerONswitch,apotontheleftsidetocontrolthevoltageoutput,apoton
the right side to control the current limit, and two terminals for connecting the supply to the
solar cell terminals on the right side of the SOLAR SIMULATOR BOX. The 4quadrant power
supply has voltage range +/ 15 volts. Before connecting the supply terminals to the solar cell
(terminalsontherightsideofthesimulatorbox),MAKESURETHEVOLTAGESETONTHEFRONT
PANEL IS ZERO BY ADJUSTING THE POT ON THE LEFT SIDE. WHEN ADJUSTING THE VOLTAGE
OUTPUT OF THE 4QUADRANT POWER SUPPLY, DO NOT SET THE VOLTAGE (AS INDICATED IN
THEFRONTPANEL)ABOVE+/0.7V(Exceedingthisvoltagemayburnthesolarcell).Theright
side pot should always be left in the maximum clockwise position (max. current limit set at
0.7A).
TomakeIVmeasurementswithsolarcellassourceofpower,theDPDTswitchiskeptintheINT
[Link]
[Link]
below. Two jumper leads are also provided and can be seen (RED and BLACK) in the figure
[Link] cell measurements,wecan connectajumperbetween terminalsBandDas
shown below. This arrangement allows measurement of solar cell located on the left side in
[Link]
areshowninFigure5below.(TOENSURETHEJUMPERISMAKINGPROPERCONNECTION,TAKE
OUT AND INSERT THE BANANA PLUG 2 TO 3 TIMES IN THE TERMINAL, IN CASE THERE IS
FLUCTUATIONINTHEREADINGS.)

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Figure5:SolarCellinterconnectionswiththejumpersshownbydottedlines

[Link]
thisfigureareafrostedglassplateinpositionandaperforatedmetalplateattenuatorkepton
topofthefrostedglassplate.

Perforated Metal Plate

Attenuator
Glass Plate

Jumpers

Figure6:MetalPlateAttenuatorplacedovertheGlassPlate

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Figure7:PerforatedMetalPlateAttenuators

Figure8:GlassPlatesClear(Left)andFrosted(Right)

Anoteonthelightsource

Colourtemperatureofhalogenlampsis2800K,whiletheSunsexteriortemperatureisabout
5800K. As a result the halogen lamp light spectrum differs significantly from the AM1.5 solar
[Link]
[Link],weput
[Link],theintensityoflightsuppliedby
[Link]
[Link]
the intensity uniform. However, frosted glass filter further reduces the light intensity. For
varyingthelightintensity,4additionallightattenuatorsareprovidedfabricatedfromperforated
[Link]
isabout1200W/[Link]/filtersare
insertedinthepathoflight.

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Table1:Variationoflightintensitywithdifferentglassplatesandfilters
(MeasurementdoneusingPyranometer)

ComparisonofSpectrumofTungstenHalogenLampandSolarSpectrum

[Link]
[Link]
isclosetothatofblackbodyat2800K.Weseethespectrumpeaksatwavelength0.85micron
(8500 A) in the infrared, whereas the solar spectrum peaks at wavelength about 0.5 micron
(5000A) in the green. As a result, the efficiency obtained from the experiments with halogen
lampisdifferentfromthatobtainedfromirradiatingthesolarirradiation.

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Figure9:SolarSpectrum(top)andBlackbodySpectrumatdifferenttemperatures(bottom)

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AnoteontheTemperatureofSolarcellandTemperatureController

ThesolarcellsaremountedonAlstageshownbelowinanexplodedview.

Figure10:ArrangementofHeaterandTemperatureSensor

We see the heater on the left side in this view. Also seen is the Pt 100 resistor temperature
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
theextentofdifferencebetweentheactualtemperatureandthatusedinthecalculation.
Shown below is front panel of the temperature controller. Green button is used to set the
temperature. Press green button for about 4 seconds until the front panel display begins to
[Link]
the required temperature, press the green button again to enter the value. The heating will
[Link]
[Link]
crosses the set temperature, the indicator red lamp will extinguish. Controller will control the
temperaturetowithin+/1 oC.Thehighesttemperatureyoucansetis80 [Link]
tousethemaxtemperatureupto70oCinyourexperiments.

Figure11:TemperatureControllerFrontPanel

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[Link]
the laboratory. IF YOU EXPERIENCE PROBLEM IN CONTROL OF TEMPERATURE, please contact
MsHemaShahofWRIC,UniversityofMumbaiatemailaddress:hemakeivan@[Link]

3.

UserInstructions
TheON/OFFswitchinthebottompanelservesastheMainSwitchforthekit.
FanshouldbekeptONatalltimeswhenthelampsareON.
Before doing the experiments, make sure that the leads connected from Solar Cells to the
terminals A, B,[Link] ensurethat theJumpersaremaking properconnections,
take out and reinsert the banana plugs into the terminals 2 to 3 times, in case there are
fluctuationsinthereadings.

The door of the middle panel should be kept closed while doing the experiments to prevent
entryoflightfromexternalsources.

Tosetthetemperatureinthetemperaturecontroller,keeptheGREENbuttonpressed(about4
seconds) till the display starts blinking, then adjust the set point for the controller using the
BLUEbuttonsandfinallypresstheGREENbuttononceagaintoregisterthevalue.
Itisadvisablenottosettemperatureshigherthan70oCinyourexperiments.
DONOTTOUCHtheAluminumblockandHeaterwhileconductingtheexperimentswithraised
temperature settings. Also keep in mind that even after the experiment is over and power is
switchedoff,theAlblockmaytakesignificanttimetocooldown.

When connecting the 4quadrant power supply to the solar cells, make sure that the Voltage
outputofthesupplyisZEROvolts,byadjustingthepotentiometerontheleftsideofthefront
[Link],take
carenottosetthevoltage(asindicatedinthefrontpanel)above+/0.7Vashighervoltages
mayBURNthesolarcell.

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MeasurementofGlobalSolarIrradiationusingaSolarCell
(SolarcellasPyranometer)

Contents
1.

Introduction:Direct,diffuseandglobalsolarirradiation.................................................................27

2.

Pyranometerformeasuringdirect,diffuseandglobalsolarirradiation..........................................28

3.

Needtomeasureglobalsolarirradiation.........................................................................................29

4.

UseofSolarcellforglobalsolarirradiationmeasurements.............................................................30

5.

Howtomeasuresolarirradiation(W/m2)fromcalibratedsolarcell...............................................31

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MeasurementofGlobalSolarIrradiationusingaSolarCell
(SolarcellasPyranometer)
1.

Introduction:Direct,diffuseandglobalsolarirradiation

Earthcontinuouslyreceivesabout174*1015Wofincomingsolarirradiationattheupperatmosphere.
Whenitmeetstheatmosphere,[Link]
[Link]
through the earth atmosphere it undergoes several interactions (absorption and scattering) with the
gaseousmolecules(CO2,Ozone,watervapours)[Link]
[Link],theenergy
[Link],itis
alossofradiation.
Typically,about16%[Link]
scattering interaction, the direction of sun rays changes (Figure 3). This results in redistribution of
[Link]
radiationwhichdoesnotgothrougheitherabsorptioninteractionorscatteringinteraction,reachesthe
earthsurfacedirectly,[Link]
theEarthssurfacesomeofit(diffuseanddirectaswell)getreflectedbythegroundandotherobjects
[Link],thetotalradiationreaching
agivenpointontheearthsurfaceissumofdiffuseradiation,[Link]
sumisknowsasglobalradiation.Inanormalsunnydaythediffuseradiationisabout15to20percentof
[Link],diffuseradiationdependsontypeofclouds,anditcould
[Link]
natureofthesurfacecoverage;whetherthereiswater,snow,tallbuildings,etc.

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Extraterrestrialradiation
AM=0
scattering
Direct AM=1
radiation
absorption Diffuseradiation

AM=1/cos
Albedo

Earths
atmosphere
The earth

Figure3:InteractionofsolarradiationinEarthsatmosphere(orairmass,AM).
2.

Pyranometerformeasuringdirect,diffuseandglobalsolarirradiation

Solarradiationreceivedatalocationcanbecategorizedasglobal,[Link]
theglobal,beamanddiffusedradiationforalocationandtimecanbeestimated,itisbettertomeasure
[Link]
ordertomeasuretheglobalanddiffuseradiationaninstrumentcalledpyranometerisused,itisshown
in Figure 4. Normally, temperature sensors are employed in these equipments. The response of the
temperature sensor is proportional to the light intensity falling on the sensor. The signal from the
[Link]
used for these instruments must have a response independent of wavelength of radiation over solar
energyspectrum.
Athermocoupleorsetofthermocouples(thermopile)[Link]
thermopileisattachedbeneathablackplate,[Link]
of Pyranometer (light collection from hemisphere), both direct and diffuse radiation falls on the black
plate from all directions. The black plate is covered with two hemispherical glass covers which are
evacuated so that the convection and radiation heat loss can be minimized. The other end of
[Link]
[Link]
on the black plate. This voltage is then converted to equivalent solar irradiation using a calibrated
device. The Pyranometer can also be measure only diffuse radiation. This is done when the direct
radiationfallingonthesensor,theblackplate,[Link]
instrument for this purpose. When shading ring is used, the thermocouple voltage and thus the
[Link]
thedirectsolarirradiationfallingonthehorizontalplane.

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Inordertomeasurethebeamordirectsolarradiation,intheplaneperpendiculartothesunrays,an
[Link]
[Link]
only receives small amount of diffuse radiation that falls within the acceptance angle of the tube.
[Link]
tube should be accurately directed towards the Sun. For this purpose tube is mounted on a two axis
[Link]
incaseofpyranometer.

Glassdomes

Optionalringusedfor
shading

Lightsensor

Thermopile

PhotographofaPyranometer

Leveladjustor

SchematicofPyranometer

Figure4:Pyranometerfordiffuse,directandglobalsolarirradiationmeasurementsonthehorizontal
plane.
3.

Needtomeasureglobalsolarirradiation

The information about the amount of solar irradiation falling at a given location at a given time is
[Link]
components (direct, diffuse, and global) of solar irradiation. In many experiments that are to be
performed during 1000 teachers training program on PV requires measurement of solar irradiation.
For instance, we need to know the solar irradiation to measure the efficiency of solar PV cells and
modules,efficiencyofsolarPVsystems,etc.
[Link]
cellprovidediscalibratedwithreadingsobtainedfromaPyranometer.

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4.

NCPRE,IITBombay

UseofSolarcellforglobalsolarirradiationmeasurements

Pyranometers are expensive and not easily available. Therefore in order to measure the global solar
irradiationasolarcellcanbeused.
[Link],the
current output of solar cell does not depend strongly on the temperature of the solar cell. Therefore
solarcellcurrentcanbeusedasameasureofsolarirradiationatagiventime.
Cell current
or

Solar Irradiation

Solar Irradiation (W / m ) K * Cell current ( Amp)

2

HereKistheproportionalityconstant.
Normally solar cells in short circuit mode are used for measurement of solar irradiation. A calibrated
solarcell(Figure5)[Link]
iscalibratedagainstthePyranometer.

Figure5:Calibratedsolarcell
NoteherethePyranometerprovidesinstantaneousvalueofglobalsolarirradiationonhorizontalplane.
ThesolarcellusedfortheirradiationmeasurementisamonocrystallineSicellof4x4cm2area.
Themeasuredvalueofshortcircuitcurrent(Amp)andPyranometerreadings(W/m2)isplottedinFigure
6.FromFigure6oncecannoticethelinearrelationshipbetweenshortcircuitcurrentofsolarcelland
global solar irradiation on horizontal plane. From the slope of the linear fit, one can obtain the
proportionality constant between solar irradiation and cells short circuit current. The value of K
[Link]
andsolarcellcurrent.

Solar Irradiation (W / m 2 ) 2175* Cell current ( Amp )

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Figure6:Measurementofsolarcellcurrentwithmeasuredvalueofsolarirradiationusinga
pyranometer.
5.

Howtomeasuresolarirradiation(W/m2)fromcalibratedsolarcell

Step1:Atanyinstance,measuretheshortcircuitcurrentofthesolarcellbykeepingthesolarcellona
horizontalsurface.
Onecanalsomeasurethesolarirradiationnotonlyhorizontalplane,[Link]
whenPVmodulesareinstalledatanangle,weneedtomeasurethesolarirradiationatthesametilted
plane in which solar PV modules are installed. In this case the calibrated solar cell should also be
installedinthesameplane.

Step2:Multiplythevalueofshortcircuitcurrent(inAmps)[Link]
ofradiationinWatt/m2inaplanewherecalibratedsolarcellisinstalled.

[Link]
theconstant2175andcalculatesthevalueofglobalsolarirradiationatthatparticulartime(intheplane
ofinstallationofsolarcells).Commentifthemeasuredvalueof solarirradiationisperexpectationor
now.

Note 1: Please note here that current output of this solar cell is linear function of solar irradiation.
Particularly for solar irradiation of more than 200 W/m2, the accuracy of irradiation measurements is
within10%.Forthelowerthan200W/m2solarirradiationtheaccuracywaswithin25%.

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Note 2: The constant multiplying factor used in this case, that is 2175, is only valid for the solar cell
[Link],
youwillhavetocalibrateyourcellagainstPyranometer.

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LaboratoryExperimentsonSolarPhotovoltaics

ExperimentNo:1

IdentifyingandmeasuringtheparametersofasolarPVmoduleinthe
field

Contents
1.

Objectives:........................................................................................................................................34

2.

Expectedoutcomeofexperiment:...................................................................................................34

3.

Theory:..............................................................................................................................................34
AboutPVmodules:..........................................................................................................................34
Variousparametersofasolarmodule:...........................................................................................35

4.

EquipmentsRequired:......................................................................................................................37

5.

MethodologyforMeasurements:.....................................................................................................38

6.

Measurements:.................................................................................................................................39

7.

Resultsanddiscussion:.....................................................................................................................40

8.

Conclusions:......................................................................................................................................42

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1.

Objectives:

PV modules can be used in PV system for generating electricity. PV modules are available in range of
[Link],thesemodulesare
[Link]
[Link],engineersandtechniciansworking
intheareaofsolarPVmodulesshouldbeabletocharacterizethePVmodulesfortheirpowerratings
[Link]:

IdentifythecellsandtechnologyusedinPVmodule
Tomeasurethecurrentvoltage(IV)characteristicsofaPVmodule
Measuring or estimating various parameters including Short Circuit Current (ISC), Open
Circuit Voltage (VOC), Fill Factor (FF), Maximum power (Pm), Series Resistance (RS), Shunt
Resistance(Rsh)andefficiency()ofasolarPVmodule.

2.

Expectedoutcomeofexperiment:
KnowledgeofthesolarcellsandthetechnologyusedinmakingsolarPVmodules
AbilitytoidentifyPVmodulebasedonthetechnology
AbilitytomeasureIVcharacteristicsofaPVmodule
AbilitytoestimatetheparameterslikeShortCircuitCurrent(ISC),OpenCircuitVoltage(VOC),
Fill Factor (FF), Maximum power (Pm), Series Resistance (RS), Shunt Resistance (Rsh) and
efficiency()ofasolarPVmodule.

3.

Theory:

AboutPVmodules:Asolarcellproducessmallpower,[Link]
ourapplicationsweneedthepowerintensofWatts,[Link],in
ordertogeneratelargerpowerusingsolarcells,manysolarcellsareconnectedtogethertomakeaPV
module. A solar PV module comes in various power ratings, ranging from few watts to few hundred
[Link]
solar cells are fabricated using two types of crystalline Si wafers (1) monocrystalline and (2) multi
crystalline. The monocrystalline Si solar cells are either circular in shape of pseudosquare, while the
multicrystalline Si cells are normally square or rectangular. Due to their shape the solar PV modules
madeusingmonocrystallinecellhaveemptyspacebetweenthecellswhilethesolarPVmodulesmade
usingmulticrystallineSicellswillbetightlypackedandwillnothaveemptyspacebetweenthecells.
[Link]
second generation solar cell technology which include CdTe (cadmium telluride), CIGS (copper indium
gallium sellenide) and aSi (amorphous Si). These second generation technologies are also referred as
thin film technologies. These technologies are also commercially available. The PV modules that are
madeusingcrystallineSiappearsbluishincolorandalsohavethinmetalcontactlines(appearwhite)on
[Link]
visible metal contacts are not there, because instead of metals, transparent oxides are used to make

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[Link]
showninFigure7.
Mono crysatlline Si

Mono crysatlline Si

Thin film

Multi crysatlline

Multi crysatlline Si

Thin film

Multi crysatlline Si
Thin film

Figure7:DifferenttypesofsolarPVmodules
Variousparametersofasolarmodule:
TheCurrentVoltagerelationshipofasolarPVmodulecanbegivenbyfollowingequation:

I I L I 0 e q (V IRS ) / nkT 1
WhereILiscurrentgeneratedduetolight,RsisseriesresistanceofPVmodules,nisidealityfactor,Iois
reversesaturationcurrent,TistemperatureandkistheBoltzmanconstant.
The various parameters of a solar PV module includes Short Circuit Current (ISC), Open Circuit Voltage
(VOC),FillFactor(FF),Efficiency(),PeakPower(Pm),SeriesResistance(Rs)andShuntResistance(Rsh).
I
Isc
Im

Pm

Figure8:Currentvoltage(IV)curveofasolarPVmodule
ShortCircuitCurrent:
Short circuit current ISC is the maximum current produced by a solar PV module when its
terminalsareshorted(SeeFigure8).
MostlyIsc=IL

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OpenCircuitVoltage:
OpencircuitvoltageVOC isthemaximumvoltagethatcanbeobtainedfromasolarPVModule
whenitsterminalsareleftopen(SeeFigure8).

VOC

kT I L
ln 1
q I 0

Maximumpower

Thisisdefinedasthemaximumpower(PmaxorPm)outputofaPVmoduleunderstandardtest
condition (STC), which corresponds to 1000 W/m2 and 25oC cell temperature in PV module.
UndertheSTCthepoweroutputofaPVmoduleismaximum;thereforeitisalsoreferredas
peakpowerorWatt(peak)[Link](SeeFigure8).

Pm Vm I m
FillFactor:
The Fill Factor (FF) is defined as the squareness of the IV curve and mainly related to the
[Link]
to the ideal maximum power output. In ideal case, its value can be 100% corresponding to
[Link]
reduces the value of FF. The best value of FF that can be obtained for a solar module can
empiricallybewrittenasafunctionofVOC

FF

VOC ln VOC 0.72

VOC 1

TheFillFactor(FF)[Link]
inpercentage.

FF

Vm I m
%
VOC I SC

Efficiency:
Themoduleefficiencyiswrittenas:

Pmax Vm I m Voc I sc FF
%

pin
pin
pin

where,[Link]%.Normallyefficiencyof
a PV module is specified at Standard Test Condition (STC), which is corresponding to input
powerdensityof1000W/m2and25oCcelltemperatureinPVmodule.

SeriesResistance:
Theseriesresistanceisthesumofresistancesduetoallthecomponentsthatcomeinthepath
of current. This includes the base, emitter, semiconductormetal contact resistance and
resistance of metal contact. It is desirable to have the value of series resistance as low as
[Link]
modules.TheeffectofseriesresistanceonPVmodulecharacteristicsisshowninFigure9.

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Figure9:TheeffectofSeriesResistance.InthiscasetheR4>R3>R2>R1>Ro

ShuntResistance:

[Link]
around the periphery of cell or due to the crystal defect or precipitates of impurities in the
junction region. It is desirable to have the value of shunt resistance as high as possible. The
[Link]
effectofshuntresistanceonthePVmodulecharacteristicsisshowninFigure10.

Figure10:TheeffectofShuntResistance.InthiscaseR1<R2<R3<R

4.

EquipmentsRequired:

Followingequipmentswillberequiredtoconductthisexperiment.

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[Link].

5.

NCPRE,IITBombay

Unit

Description/Rating

Quantity

SPVModule

10Watts

DCVoltmeter

Range:050VoltsDC

DCAmmeter

Rheostat

Range:02AmpsDC
For varying load to PV
module,0to200,2.5A

Multimeter

Digital multimeter, able to

measureDCcurrent(upto
10 A) and voltage (up to
200V)

4x4cm2crystallineSisolar
SolarcellinplaceofPyranometer
cell calibrated against
forradiationmeasurements
Pyranometer

Connectingwires(multistranded)

MethodologyforMeasurements:

InordertofindoutvariouscurrentvoltagepointsofPVmodule,resistances(R)ofdifferentvaluesmust
be connected with PV module. For these variable resistance requirements a rheostat is used. In the
diagram below (Figure 11), the solid line is IV curve of solar PV module and dotted lines are the IV
[Link]
[Link]:R1<R2<R3<R4<[Link]
twocurvesprovidestheoperatingpoint(currentpointandvoltagepoint).Theseoperatingpointscanbe
measuredusingammeterandvoltmeterandcanbeplotted.
Beforedoingtheconnections,theopencircuitvoltage(VOC)istobemeasuredbyconnectingvoltmeter
across PV Modules terminals (without connecting any load or rheostat). Same way, the Short circuit
current(ISC)istobemeasuredbyconnectingammeterinseriestothePVmodule(withoutconnectany
otherload).NotedownthevaluesofVOCandISC.

Figure11:FindingvariouspointsoncurrentvoltagecurveofsolarPVmodule.HereR1<R2<R3<R4<
R5.

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Now,inordertofindoutcurrentversusvoltagecharacteristicofaSolarPVmodule,theconnectionsare
tobemadeasperthegivenconnectiondiagram(seeFigure12).Afterconnectingload(rheostat)tothe
PV module, set the rheostat to get low resistance value. In this position measure the current and
[Link].
Thisnewpositionoftheknobofrheostatwillgivenewvalueofcurrentandvoltage,notethereading.
Increasetheresistanceagainandnotethereading,continuethistillyoureachtothehighestvalueof
[Link]
Xaxis and current on the Yaxis. In this way one can plot the IV Characteristics curve of a solar PV
module.
6.

Measurements:

The figure below shows the connection diagram for the experiment. The single PV Module Output
terminals(+veandve)[Link]
[Link].

Figure12:ConnectiondiagramtofindoutcurrentversusvoltagecharacteristicsofasingleSolar
PVModule

UsingtheabovesetupnotedownyourobservationsinthefollowingTable:

Table:Tabletobeusedforrecordingthemeasurements.

Voltage(V)Volts

Current(I)Amp

Power(Watt)

[Link].

Resistance()

=V*I

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10

7.

Resultsanddiscussion:

Based on your measurements, let us now discuss the results that you obtained. Please provide
responsestofollowingpoints:
A. What is the difference between monocrystalline Si PV module and Multicrystalline Si PV
module?

B. WhatisthedifferenceinappearanceofacrystallineSiPVmoduleandathinfilmPVmodule?

C. Baseonthemeasurementspleaseprovidevaluesoffollowingparameters:
a. OpenCircuitVoltage(VOC)=
b. ShortCircuitCurrent(ISC)=
D. Plot (a) current voltage (IV) graph of PV module and (b) powervoltage (PV) graph of PV
module.

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CurrentVoltage(IV)graph:

PowerVoltage(PV)graph:

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E. WritedownthenameplateratingofthePVmodule,includingthenameofmanufacturer:

F. Whatisthevaluesofsolarintensityatthetimeofexperiment,Pin=W/m2
G. WhatisthemaximumpowerthatthePVmodulecandeliver,Pm=Watt
IndicatethismaximumpowerpointonthePVandIVgraph.
H. CalculatethefollowingparametersofaPVmodule:
a. VoltageatMaximumPowerPoint(Vm)=
b. CurrentatMaximumPowerPoint(Im)=
c. FillFactor(FF)=
d. Efficiency()=
I. IsthePmmeasuredandPmasperthenameplateratingofthePVmoduleisdifferent?Ifyes,
Why?

8.

Conclusions:

[Link]
fromthisexperiment,whatyoucantellaboutthePVmodulethatyouusedinexperiment.

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LaboratoryExperimentsonSolarPhotovoltaics

ExperimentNo:2

SeriesandParallelConnectionofPVmodules

Contents
1.

Objectives:........................................................................................................................................44

2.

Expectedoutcomeofexperiment:...................................................................................................44

3.

Theory:..............................................................................................................................................44
3.1SeriescombinationsofPVmodules..........................................................................................45
3.2ParallelcombinationsofPVmodules........................................................................................45
3.3SeriesandParallelcombinationsofPVmodules......................................................................46

4.

EquipmentsRequired:......................................................................................................................48

5.

MethodologyforMeasurements:.....................................................................................................48

6.

Measurements:.................................................................................................................................49

7.

Observations:....................................................................................................................................49

8.

Resultsanddiscussion:.....................................................................................................................50

9.

Conclusions:......................................................................................................................................53

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1.

NCPRE,IITBombay

Objectives:

PV modules can be used in PV system for generating electricity. PV modules are available in range of
power ratings that vary from small 2 Wp module to up to 300 Wp module. In real life our power
[Link]
requirementismorethanfewhundredwatts,thePVmodulesneedstobeconnectedinbothseriesas
well as in parallel combination. Also, when we need to generate very large amount of power, like in
solar PV mega watt scale power plants, then PV modules are connected in both series and parallel
configuration to increase the required current as well as voltage. This experiment is designed to
[Link]:

ToconnectthePVmodulesinseriesandparallelcombinations.
Tomeasurethecurrentvoltage(IV)characteristicsoftheseriesandparallelcombinations
ofPVmodules.
Tomeasureand/orestimatevariousparametersincludingShortCircuitCurrent(ISC),Open
Circuit Voltage (VOC), Fill Factor (FF), Maximum power (Pm), Series Resistance (RS), Shunt
Resistance(Rsh)andefficiency()ofseriesandparallelcombinationsofsolarPVmodules.

2.

Expectedoutcomeofexperiment:
AbilitytoconnectPVmodulesinseriesandparallel.
Obtaining higher current and higher voltage by series and parallel combination of PV
modules.
Abilitytodoconnectionsinseriesandparallel.
AbilitytomeasureIVcharacteristicsofPVmodulesconnectedinseriesandparallel.
AbilitytoidentifytheeffectofseriesandparallelconnectionsonVOCandISC.
AbilitytoestimatetheparameterslikeShortCircuitCurrent(ISC),OpenCircuitVoltage(VOC),
Fill Factor (FF), Maximum power (Pm), Series Resistance (RS), Shunt Resistance (Rsh) and
efficiency()ofsolarPVmodulesconnectedinseriesandparallel.

3.

Theory:

It is required that you have the knowledge of the theory of PV modules and its parameter given in
[Link].

PVmodulesareneedstobeconnectedtogetherinseriesorinparallelinordertoachievehigherpower
[Link]
toconnectPVmodulesinseriesandparallelcombinationswithanobjectivetoincreasethecurrentand
[Link],manyPVmodules
[Link]
[Link],overallweobtain
higherpoweroutputs.

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3.1SeriescombinationsofPVmodules
The series connection of PV modules is similar to series connection of solar cells in a PV module. The
[Link];itisnotonly
thePVmodulevoltagethatincreasesbutalsothetotalPpowergeneratedalsoincreases.
Series combination of PV modules is achieved by connecting opposite polarity terminals of modules
[Link]
of the other module. When two modules with open circuit voltage of Voc1 and Voc2 are connected in
series, the voltage of series combination is addition of two voltages, which is Voc1+Voc2 (as shown in
Figure13)

Figure13:SeriesconnectionoftwoPVmodules
TheexampleofadditionofvoltageinseriesconnectedPVmodulesisshowninTablebelow.

OpencicuitVoltageofModule1

Voc1

18V

OpencicuitVoltageofModule2

Voc2

18V

OpencicuitVoltageofModulesconnectedin
series

Voc2

=Voc1+Voc2
=18+18
=36V

3.2ParallelcombinationsofPVmodules
InparallelcombinationofPVmodules,thevoltageofthecombinationremainsameasthatofindividual
module voltage (provided all modules have identical voltage) whereas the current of the parallel
[Link]
Isc1andIsc2,thenthetotalcurrentofparallelconnectionwillbe=Isc1+Isc2.

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[Link],the
positive terminal of one module is connected to positive terminal of the other module and similarly
negative terminal of one module is connected to negative terminal of other module. The parallel
combinationofPVmodulesisshowninFigure14.

Figure14:ParallelconnectionoftwoPVmodules
TheexampleofadditionofcurrentsinparallelconnectedPVmodulesisshowninTablebelow.

ShortcicuitcurrentofModule1

Isc1

2A

ShortcicuitcurrentofModule2

Isc2

2A

ShortcicuitcurrentofModulesconnectedin
parallel

Isc

=Isc1+Isc2
=2+2
=4A

3.3SeriesandParallelcombinationsofPVmodules
[Link]
[Link]
PVpowerrequirementismorethanfewhundredwatts,thePVmodulesneedstobeconnectedinboth
[Link],whenweneedtogenerateverylargeamountofpower,like
in solar PV mega watt scale power plant then PV modules are connected in both series and parallel
configuration to increase the required current as well as voltage. Just to remind you that the series
connection of PV module increases the voltage levels while the parallel connection of PV modules
[Link],manyPVmodulesareconnectedinseries.
[Link],numberofPV
modulesisfirstconnectedinseries(string)[Link]
[Link]
4PVmodulesisshowninFigure15.

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Figure15:APVarrayhavingtwoparallelstringsofPVmodules,eachhavingtwoPVmodulesinseries

TheexampleofadditionofcurrentsinparallelconnectedPVmodulesisshowninTablebelow.
AssumingallPVmodulesareidentical,havingopencircuitvoltageofVocandShortcircuitcurrentofIsc.
OpencircuitVoltageoftwoPVmodulesconnectedinseries
modules

2Voc

ShortcircuitcurrentoftwoPVmodulesconnectedinseries

Isc

OpencircuitvoltageoffourPVmodules(twoconnectedin
series,andtwosuchseriesconnectedinparallel)

2Voc

ShortcircuitcurrentoffourPVmodules(twoconnectedin
series,andtwosuchseriesconnectedinparallel)

47

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4.

EquipmentsRequired:
[Link].

5.

NCPRE,IITBombay

Unit

Description/Rating

Quantity

SPVModule

10Watts

DCVoltmeter

Range:0100VoltsDC

DCAmmeter

Range:05AmpsDC

Rheostat

ForvaryingloadtoPV
module,0to200,2.5A

Multimeter

Digital multimeter, able

to measure DC current
(up to 10 A) and voltage
(upto200V)

4 x 4 cm2 crystalline Si
SolarcellinplaceofPyranometer
solar cell calibrated
forradiationmeasurements
againstPyranometer

Connectingwires(multistranded)

MethodologyforMeasurements:

InordertofindoutvariouscurrentvoltagepointsofPVmodule,resistances(R)ofdifferentvaluesmust
be connected with PV module. For these variable resistance requirements a rheostat is used. In the
diagram below (Figure 16), the solid line is IV curve of solar PV module and dotted lines are the IV
[Link]
[Link]:R1<R2<R3<R4<[Link]
curves provides the operating point (current point and voltage point). These operating points can be
measuredusingammeterandvoltmeterandcanbeplotted.
Beforedoingtheconnections,theopencircuitvoltage(VOC)istobemeasuredbyconnectingvoltmeter
across PV Modules terminals (without connecting any load or rheostat). Same way, the Short circuit
current(ISC)istobemeasuredbyconnectingammeterinseriestothePVmodule(withoutconnectany
otherload).NotedownthevaluesofVOCandISC.

Figure16:[Link]
1<R2<R3<R4<R5.

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Now,inordertofindoutcurrentversusvoltagecharacteristicofaSolarPVmodule,theconnectionsare
tobemadeasperthegivenconnectiondiagram(seeFigure17).Afterconnectingload(rheostat)tothe
PVmodule,[Link]
[Link]
new position of the knob of rheostat will give new value of current and voltage, note the reading.
Increasetheresistanceagainandnotethereading,continuethistillyoureachtothehighestvalueof
[Link]
Xaxis and current on the Yaxis. In this way one can plot the IV Characteristics curve of a solar PV
module.
6.

Measurements:

[Link]
(+veandve)[Link]
[Link].

Figure17:CircuitforseriesandparallelconnectioncombinationsofPVmodules.
7.

Observations:

Basedonthemeasurements,writeyourobservationsinthefollowingtable.
NumberofPVmodulesinSeries:
NumberofPVmodulesinParallel:
NumberofseriesconnectedmodulesinParallel:
NumberofparallelconnectedPVmodulesinseries:

Voltage(V)Volts

Current(I)Amp

Power(Watt)

[Link].

Resistance()

=V*I

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10

8.

Resultsanddiscussion:

Basedonyourmeasurements,[Link]
responsestofollowingpoints:
A. WhathappenstoPVarrayvoltagewhenmodulesareconnectedinseries?

B. WhathappenedtoPVarraycurrentwhenmodulesareconnectedinseries?

C. WhathappenstoPVarrayvoltagewhenmodulesareconnectedinparallel?

D. WhathappenedtoPVarraycurrentwhenmodulesareconnectedinparallel?

E. CouldthemismatchinmodulecurrentinseriesconnectedPVmodulesaffecttheoverall
currentofPVarray?

F. CouldthemismatchinmodulevoltageinseriesconnectedPVmodulesaffecttheoverall
currentofPVarray?

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G. InthesetupofexperimenthowthePVmoduleswereconnectedtogether?

H. WhatisexpectedpowerratingofthecombinationofseriesandparallelconnectedPV
modules?

I. Baseonthemeasurementpleaseprovidevaluesoffollowingparameters:
a. OpenCircuitVoltage(VOC)=
b. ShortCircuitCurrent(ISC)=
J. Plot(a)currentvoltage(IV)graphofPVmoduleand(b)powervoltage(PV)graphof
PVmodule.

CurrentVoltage(IV)Graph

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PowerVoltage(PV)Graph:

3
4
5
6

K. WritedownthenameplateratingofthePVmodules,includingthenameof
manufacturer:

L. Whatisthevaluesofsolarintensityatthetimeofexperiment,Pin=W/m2
M. WhatisthemaximumpowerthatthePVarray(havingtwoparallelstringsofPV
modules,eachhavingtwoPVmodulesinseries)candeliver:
Pm=Watts
IndicatethismaximumpowerpointonthePVandIVgraph.
N. ForaPVarrayhavingtwoparallelstringsofPVmodules,eachhavingtwoPVmodulesin
seriesprovidefollowingparameters:
VoltageatMaximumPowerPoint(Vm)=
CurrentatMaximumPowerPoint(Im)=
FillFactor(FF)=
Efficiency()=
O. IsthePmmeasuredandPmasperthenameplateratingofthePVmoduleisdifferent?If
yes,Why?

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9.

Conclusions:

[Link]
fromthisexperiment.

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LaboratoryExperimentsforSolarPhotovoltaics

Experiment3

Estimatingtheeffectofsuntrackingonenergygenerationby
solarPVmodules

Contents
1.

Objectives:........................................................................................................................................55

2.

Expectedoutcomeofexperiment:...................................................................................................55

3.

Theory:..............................................................................................................................................55
DeclinationAngle..........................................................................................................................55
ApparentMotionoftheSunandSolarAltitude..............................................................................56
Optimalangleoffixedcollector......................................................................................................57
Optimalangleoftrackingcollector.................................................................................................58

4.

Equipmentsrequired:.......................................................................................................................59

5.

Methodologyformeasurements:.....................................................................................................59

6.

Measurements:.................................................................................................................................60

7.

Observations:....................................................................................................................................60

8.

Resultsanddiscussion:.....................................................................................................................62

9.

Conclusions:......................................................................................................................................63

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1.

NCPRE,IITBombay

Objectives:

[Link]
theamountoflightinterceptedbyPVmodulesislesscomparedtothecasewhensolarPVmodulesare
placed perpendicular to the sunlight. Due to this there is gain in energy generation when the PV
modules are placed perpendicular to the sun light. The purpose of this experiment is to study the
differenceinenergygenerationwhenPVmoduleisfixedatanangleandwhenPVmoduleistrackingthe
[Link]:

Identifylatitudeangleofalocation.
Tomeasurethecurrentvoltage(IV)characteristicsofPVmodules.
Measuring or estimating various parameters including Short Circuit Current (ISC), Open
CircuitVoltage(VOC),FillFactor(FF),Maximumpower(Pm),SeriesResistance(RS),Shunt
Resistance(Rsh)andefficiency()ofasolarPVmodule.
PlacingthePVmodulesperpendiculartosunrays.
CalculatetheenergygeneratedwhenPVmodulesareplacedatlatitudeangle.
CalculatetheenergygeneratedwhenPVmodulesareplacedperpendiculartosunrays.
Compare the energy gain when the PV modules are placed perpendicular to the
sunlight,asincaseofsuntracking.

2.

Expectedoutcomeofexperiment:
AbilitytoinstallPVmodulesatlatitudeangle.
UnderstandingsuntrackingofsolarPVmodules.
MeasureelectricitygeneratedfromaPVmodule/sundervariousinstallationconditions.
Abilitytoidentifyorientationofcollectorinhorizontalplane.
Abilitytoidentifyangleofsunraysonsolarcollector.
AbilitytofindouttheenergygainwhenPVmodulesareplacedfacingperpendicularto
thesun.

3.

Theory:

[Link]
theamountoflightinterceptedbyPVmodulesislesscomparedtothecasewhensolar PVmodulesare
placed perpendicular to the sunlight. Due to this there is gain in energy generation when the PV
modules are placed perpendicular to the sun light. Though the understanding of the above fact is
simplersomedetailsofthesunearthmovementneedstobeunderstood,sothatonecanestimatethe
angleatwhichPVmodulesareinstalled(modulesarefixedoveraperiod,mostlythroughouttheyear)
atgivenlocation.
[Link]()anddeclination
angleofgivenday().
DeclinationAngle
The declination angle is defined as the angle between the lines joining the centre of the earth to the
centre of the sun with its projection on the equatorial plane of the earth. The declination angle is

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graphically shown in Figure 18. The variation in the declination angle is due to the inclination of the
earths polar axis and its revolution around the sun. The declination angle varies between 23.45
(Decembersolstice)to+23.45(Junesolstice).Twiceintheyearthevalueofdeclinationbecomeszero,
on two equinoxes (in March and September) as shown in the figure. The value of declination angle
remains positive when the larger area of the northern hemisphere is illuminated than the southern
[Link]
mathematicallypresentedbythefollowingequation:

360
284 n

365

23.34 sin

Here n is the nth day of the year starting from January, i.e., n=1 for January 1st. The declination angle
[Link],
due to which it is an important parameter in the estimation of amount of solar radiation falling on a
[Link],itisthechangeinthedeclinationangle,duetowhichthe
sunspositiontoanobserveratafixedlocationappearstobedifferentinwinterandinsummer.

Figure18:Variationinthedeclinationangleovertheyear
ApparentMotionoftheSunandSolarAltitude
Withrespecttoanobserver,[Link]
sun(apparentsince,inreality,itistheearththatismoving)foranobserveratalocationoflatitude
alwayshappensinaplanethatistiltedto90fromthehorizon,theplaneofapparentmotionofthe
sun is schematically shown in Figure 19. The plane is represented by a straight double line which is
makinganangleof90withhorizon(shownbyNSline,thenorthsouthaxis).Theeastwestisexactly
perpendiculartoNSline,[Link](Figure19).For
anobserver,thesunraisesatpointAinthemorning;asthetimeprogressestheheightofthesunor
solar altitude (normally given by altitude angle ) increases. At noon the sun reaches to its peak
position,pointBinFigure19,[Link]
the sun falls in the same plane as it moves towards the evening. Solar altitude is normally measured
[Link]
valueofis 0inthe [Link] maximumvalueofoccurswhenthesunisdirectly

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[Link]
47inayear.Thisiscorrespondingtothechangeofdeclinationanglefrom23.45to+[Link]
thisreasonthemaximumchangeinthesolaraltitudeangleforanylocationontheearthis47.
Though, the angle of the plane of apparent motion of the sun with respect to horizon remains same
throughout the year, yet its position with respect to an observer changes every day. For an observer
(facingthesouth)inthenorthernhemispheretheapparentmotionplaneliesinfrontoftheobserverin
thewinter(lowsolaraltitudeangle).Thus,[Link]
[Link]
latitudeismorethan23.45,[Link]
observerslatitudeislessthan23.45,theplaneofapparentmotionwillgobehindtheobserverinthe
summer(Figure19).Inthiscasethesunwouldberisingandsettingbehindtheobserver.
The solar altitude angle, (at the noon time only), for the location at northern hemisphere can be
estimatedusingthefollowingequation:

90
Note that is presented with respect to the south, also the value of can be negative as well as
positive. Thus, solar altitude will be minimum for winter season (negative ) and maximum for the
summerseason(positive).Thisinformationaboutthesolaraltitudeangleisveryusefulindecidingthe
orientation of solar energy collectors, PV modules are solar thermal devices. If the collector is not
trackingthesun,itssurfaceshouldbeorientedsuchthattheangleofthesurfacenormalwithrespectto
thesouthisequaltothesolaraltitudeangleatnoontime.

Figure19:Apparentmotionforthesunforanobserverinthenorthernhemisphere.
Optimalangleoffixedcollector
A fix solar PV module if installed in the Northern hemisphere, should be facing true South and if it is
installed in the Southern hemisphere, it should be facing true North. The optimal inclination of the
surfacewouldbegivenas:

90 90 (90 )

Intheaboveexpression,[Link]
everyday,[Link]

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is not practical. Therefore instead of changing PV modules inclination every day, people choose to
[Link]
[Link]:

a a
WhereaaveragedeclinationangleoveragivenperiodandaistheoptimalinclinationangleofthePV
moduleoverthatperiod.
Theaveragedeclinationangleoverayeariszero,i.e.a=[Link]
overayear(facingSouthforNorthernhemisphere),ay,wouldbe:

ay

Optimalangleoftrackingcollector
WhenwemakearrangementtotracktheSunbyPVmodulestherequirementisthattheincidentangle
[Link]
shouldalwaysbeperpendiculartotheSunrays.
Modules produces maximum power (for given light intensity) when sunlight falls perpendicular to the
[Link],italwaysgiveslessoutput
[Link],somepart
of light falling on module is reflected. Hence, the actual light utilized by a module is less than the
amountoflightfallingonit.
So,theoutputpowergeneratedislesswhenlightisnotfallingperpendiculartomoduleasshowninFigure
20Figure20:Theeffectoftheangleofsunlightfallingonamoduleonoutputpowerofmodule(a)light
isatanglelessthan90,(b)lightisatangle90and(c)lightisfallingparallel.

.InthiswaywhensunlightisfallingperpendicularthePVmodulesenergygeneratedbyPVmodulesis
higherthanthecasewhenPVmodulesarefixedatanangle.

Figure20:Theeffectoftheangleofsunlightfallingonamoduleonoutputpowerofmodule(a)lightis
atanglelessthan90,(b)lightisatangle90and(c)lightisfallingparallel.

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4.

Equipmentsrequired:
[Link].
Unit
1
SPVModule
2
DCVoltmeter
3
DCAmmeter
4

6
7

Description/Rating
10Watts
Range:0100VoltsDC
Range:05AmpsDC
200,2.5A
Rheostat
Range:0200
Digitalmultimeter,able
to measure DC current
Multimeter
(up to 10 A) and
voltage(upto200V)
4 x 4 cm2 crystalline Si
SolarcellinplaceofPyranometer
solar cell calibrated
forradiationmeasurements
againstPyranometer
Connectingwires
Multistranded

NCPRE,IITBombay

Quantity
4
1
1
1

5.

Methodologyformeasurements:

In this experiment we need to estimate the energy generated by PV module or combination of PV

moduleswhen(a)theyareinstalledatfixedangle(equaltolatitudeangle,facingsouth)and(b)when
[Link]
inboth theseconditions. ForthefixedinstallationtheangleofPVmoduleinstallationwithrespectto
[Link],theshadowof
the needle provided in the center can be used (there should not be any shadow of needle when the
moduleisperpendiculartotheSunrays).
In order to do this study we need to measure the IV characteristics of PV modules in both cases at
regularintervals.Theintervalcouldbeabout15to30minutesbetweenmeasurements.
InthiscasewearegoingtoestimatetheenergygeneratedandenergyisproductofPowerandtime.
ThereforeourmethodistofindoutthepeakpowerofPVmoduleorcombinationofPVmodules(for
each measurement) and multiply each peak power by the duration between the measurements. For
instanceifthepeakpowermeasuredforfixedangle,moduleinstallationisPm1,Pm2,Pm3,Pm4,Pm5andPm6
and if the measurements are done at 2:00, 2:20. 2:40, 3:00, 3:30 and 3:40 PM respectively then the
energygeneratedisgivenasfollowing:
Energy=Power*time
=Pm1*t1+Pm2*t2+.+Pmn*tn
Considering20minis0.33hour

=Pm1*0.33+Pm2*0.33+.+Pmn*0.33WattHour

[Link]
hastoberepeatedforthecasewhenPVmodulesaretrackingtheSun.
In order to find the peak power of PV modules under each installation condition we need to find out
current(I)voltage(V)characteristicofthegivenSolarPVmodule/[Link],the
opencircuitvoltage(VOC)hastobemeasuredbyconnectingvoltmeteracrossthePVModuleterminals.

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Sameway,theShortcircuitcurrent(ISC)istobemeasuredbyconnectingammetertothePVmodule.
[Link],
afterconnectingload(rheostat)tothePVmodule,theIVCharacteristicscanbeplottedbyvaryingthe
resistancevaluemanuallyandloggingdownthevoltageandcurrentvaluesforeachvaluesofresistance.
[Link]
currentcanbetabulatedand/orplottedintheXYcurvetakingvoltageontheXaxisandcurrentonthe
[Link]
atdifferenttimes.
6.

Measurements:

[Link]
(+veandve)[Link]
[Link].

Figure21:ConnectiondiagramtofindoutcurrentversusvoltagecharacteristicsofaSolarPVModule
Themeasurementsaretobeperformedfortwocases:
Case1:Moduleisinstalledatlatitudeangleofthelocation,southoriented.
Case 2: At direct incident sunlight at perpendicular on the PV module surface. (Use of needle placed
perpendicular on the SPV plane can be done for tracking the perpendicular sunlight on the PV module
surface).
7.

Observations:

In this experiment comparison of energy generation from a PV module when PV module is fixed and
[Link]
[Link],writeyourobservationinthefollowingTables.

Table1:MeasurethepointswhenthePVmodulesarefixedatanangleequaltothelatitudeangleof
thelocation(Case1)

Time:

Time:

Time:

Time:
60

Time:

Time:

Time:

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Sr.
No.

NCPRE,IITBombay

10

Peak Pm1:
Power

Pm2:

Pm3:

Pm4:

Pm5:

Pm6:

Pm7:

CalculateenergygeneratedinCase1:
Energy=Pm1*T1+Pm1*T2+..+Pm1*T7
Note:pleasenoteherethatTisthetimedifferencebetweenthecurrentreadingandnextreading.
DuringthisperiodthepowergeneratedbyPVmodulesisassumedtobeconstant.

Table2:MeasurepointsundertheconditionofsuntrackingwhenSunlightisfallingperpendicularto
thePVmodulesurfaceinallmeasurements(Case2)

Sr.
No.
1

Time:
V

Time:

Time:

Time:

Time:

Time:

Time:

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10

Peak Pm1:
Power

Pm2:

Pm3:

Pm4:

Pm5:

Pm6:

Pm7:

CalculateenergygeneratedinCase2:
Energy=Pm1*T1+Pm1*T2+..+Pm1*T7
Note:pleasenoteherethatTisthetimedifferencebetweenthecurrentreadingandnextreading.
DuringthisperiodthepowergeneratedbyPVmodulesisassumedtobeconstant.

8.

Resultsanddiscussion:

A. Notedownthefollowingangles,usedinyourexperiments:
Declinationangle()=
Latitudeoflocation()=
Inclinationofthesurface(),forfixedmoduleinstallation=
B. Timeinterval,ifconstant,afterwhichthemeasurementsarerepeated(t)=
C. DrawthegraphofPeakpowerwithrespecttotimeofPVmoduleorcombinationofPVmodules
[Link]
case.

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D. Energygeneratedwhenthemodulesareplacedatlatitudeangle=
E. EnergygeneratedwhenthemodulesaretrackingtheSun=
F. [Link]
generated?

G. Whythereisdifferenceinenergygeneratedincase1andincase2?

H. WritedowntheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofthecasewhenPVmodulesareinstalledat
fixedangle.

I. WritedowntheadvantagesanddisadvantagesofthecasewhenPVmodulesarealwaystracking
theSun.

9.

Conclusions:

[Link]
from this experiment, what you can tell about electricity generated by PV modules under different
installationconditions?

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LaboratoryExperimentsonSolarPhotovoltaics

ExperimentNo:4

EfficiencymeasurementofStandaloneSolarPVSystem

Contents
1.

Objectives:........................................................................................................................................65

2.

Expectedoutcomeofexperiment:...................................................................................................65

3.

Theory:..............................................................................................................................................65

4.

Equipmentsrequired:.......................................................................................................................67

5.

Methodology:....................................................................................................................................67

6.

Measurements:.................................................................................................................................69

7.

Observations:....................................................................................................................................71

8.

Resultsanddiscussion:.....................................................................................................................74

9.

Conclusions:......................................................................................................................................77

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1.

NCPRE,IITBombay

Objectives:

Standalone solar PV system use solar PV panels to generate electricity and use storage medium like
[Link]
modules,battery,inverter,[Link]
PV systems. The objective of this experiment is to assemble a standalone PV system and estimate its
efficiency.

AssembleastandalonesolarPVsystem
Identifying ratings of the equipments used in standalone solar PV system, line solar PV
modules,battery,inerterandload
ToknowthetimerequiredtofullychargethebatteryusedinthePVsystemwithdifferent
stagesincharging
ToestimatetheenergyfallingonsolarPVmodules
ToestimatetheenergygeneratedbysolarPVmodules
ToknowthetimerequiredtodischargethebatteryofthePVsystemthroughinverterwith
differentratingsofloads
TocalculatetheenergyconsumedbytheloadinthePVsystem.

2.

Expectedoutcomeofexperiment:
AbilitytounderstandthedesignofastandalonesolarPVsystem
AbilitytoidentifyandspecifyvariouscomponentsusedinstandalonesolarPVsystem
AbilitytomeasuretheenergygenerationandconsumptioninthePVsystem
Abilitytomeasurethechargestoredinabattery
Abilitytoestimatetheenergytakenoutofabatteryforagiventimeperiod
Ability to connect various loads to the inverter and measure the energy dissipated during
certaintimeperiod
AbilitytofindouttheefficiencyofstandalonesolarPVsystem

3.

Theory:

ThecomponentsofastandalonesolarPVsystemandflowofenergyinthesystemaregiveninFigure
22. Energy flow occurs from solar PV modules to battery then to the load. In order to estimate the
efficiencyofthewholesystem,theefficiencyofeachcomponentshouldbeknown.
InthesystemshowninFigure22,[Link]
solar radiation of the location where the system is installed, we can estimate the amount of energy
generatedbyasolarPVmodule.Forinstanceif1kWpPVmodulesareinstalledatalocationhavingan
averagesolarradiationof5kWhr/m2/day(thisisequalto5hr/day*1000W/m2),thenthedailyenergy
generationbyPVmodulesis:
=5hr/day*1kWp=5kWHr/day
ThisistheaverageenergygeneratedbysolarPVmodules.

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Figure22:EnergyflowdiagramofatypicalstandalonesolarPVsystem.

Also,ifweknowthepowerratingtheloadconnectedinaPVsystem,andiftheloadsarerunningfor
some number of hours we can estimate the energy consumed by the loads in the PV system. For
instance if a CFL with wattage of 20 is connected and is operated for 4 hrs per day, then the energy
consumedbyCFLonperdaybasisis:
=20Watt*4Hr/day=80Whr/dayor0.08kWhr/day

OnecanusetheTable1belowtoestimatetheenergyconsumedbytheload:
Table1:Estimationofenergyconsumedbytheload
Load

Watts

Hr/day

Number

WattHr

CFL

135

Fan

TV(21")

TotaldailyWattHr/dayorWh/day

Byusingtheabovetablewecanestimatetheenergyrequiredforagivenapplication.
In the experiment we can also estimate the energy consumed by the load by measuring the input
voltage,currentanddurationoftheontimefortheload.
In case of DC load the energy supplied to the load can be known by measuring I and V. The energy
suppliedis:
=I*V*time
Thus,ifwemeasurethecurrentflowingthroughandvoltageacrosstheload,andtheoperationaltime
oftheload,wecanestimatetheenergyconsumedbytheload.

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IncaseofACloadtheenergysuppliedtotheloadis:
=I*V*powerfactor*time
InthecaseofACload,alongwithV,I,andtimethepowerfactorfortheloadisalsotobemeasuredor
[Link],thepowerfactorforthe
incandescentlampis1(becauseitisresistiveload).Forothertypesofloads,normallythepowerfactor
[Link],theapproximatevaluescan
beused.Typicallypowerfactorisinrangeof0.8to1.

4.

Equipmentsrequired:

Followingequipmentsarerequiredtoconducttheexperiments:
[Link].

Unit

Description/Rating
10Watts

Quantity

SPVModule

Inverter

Battery

12V,7Ah

DCVoltmeter

Range:050VoltsDC

ACVoltmeter

Range:0250VoltsAC

DCAmmeter

Range:02AmpsDC

ACAmmeter

Range:05AmpsAC

Filamentbulb(Load)

40Watts

Multimeter

Digital

10

4 x 4 cm2 crystalline Si
SolarcellinplaceofPyranometer
solar cell calibrated
forradiationmeasurements
againstPyranometer

11

Connectingwires

100Watts
12VDCto230VAC

multistranded

2
1

5.

Methodology:

InthisexperimentitisrequiredtomeasuretheenergyproducedbythePVmodules,energystoredin
the battery, and energy consumed by the load. By doing the measurement of energy flow at various

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pointsinthePVsystem,wecanestimatetheefficiencyofvariouscomponents,aswelltheefficiencyof
the whole PV systems. Measurement of energy flow at various points in the system requires
measurementofcurrent,voltagesforthedurationduringwhichbatteryischarged,orloadisrunning.
With the time, depending on the solar radiation, depending on the status of charge of battery,
depending on the rating of load connected, the voltage and current value will change in the system.
Therefore,calculationscaneitherbedoneconsideringthedynamicvaluesofthecurrentandvoltage,or
foragivenduration(letussay5minor10minorsomeothertimeperiod),currentandvoltagevalues
canassumedtobeconstant,[Link]
notedownthevaluesofcurrentandvoltageanddurationforwhichtherecordingisdone,theestimate
ofenergygeneratedorconsumedcanbedoneusingfollowingequation:
Energy=V*I*time
Theexperimentcanbeperformedintwosteps:
Step1: In the first step the circuit for charging the battery through solar PV modules can be
connected (without turning the inverter and load ON). Measurement of energy input and energy
output(duringagivenperiod)willprovidetheenergyefficiency.
Step2:Inthissteptheinverterandloadcircuitcanbeconnected(withoutconnectingthePV
modules).

EfficiencyofsolarPVmodules:
PVmoduleefficiencydependsonmanyparameterslikesolarradiation,temperature,area,cell
[Link]
parameters. Therefore in order to find out the PV module efficiency, instantaneous input solar
radiation and instantaneous PV module peak power is measured. Since both radiation and peak
powerwillchangeduringthetimeofmeasurements,PVmoduleefficiencyshouldbemeasuredfew
timesduringthemeasurementandaveragevalueofPVmoduleefficiencyshouldbeused:
PVmoduleefficiencycanbeestimatedusingfollowingequation:
PVmodule efficiency

measured Wp

Instantaneous radiation*module area

..(1)

Efficiencyofbattery:
In case of battery efficiency, the efficiency of charging (increasing the state of charge) and
dischargingofthebattery(decreasingthestateofcharge)istobemeasured.
Statusofamountofchargestoredinabattery(thatisstateofchargeorSOC)atanygiventime
can be obtained by measuring the terminal voltage of battery. This terminal voltage of battery
[Link]
typesofbatteriestheStateofChargeandterminalvoltagetablesareavailableintheliterature.
The process of charging a rechargeable battery and discharging it into a desired load is called
[Link]
battery are same. Thus for a battery efficiency calculation, the initial terminal voltage of battery
(beforebeginningofchargingcycle)andfinalterminalvoltageofbattery(attheendofdischarging
cycle)[Link]:

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Battery Efficiency=

NCPRE,IITBombay

Energy output
(forsameinitialandfinalterminalvoltage)
Energy input

..(2)

Efficiencyofinverter:

In case of inverter efficiency, the amount of energy input to the inverter and the amount of
[Link]
duration,sothattheenergyinputandenergyoutputoftheinverterisknown.

Inthiscasetheinverterefficiencycanbegivenas:
Inverter Efficiency=

Energy Output

Energy Input

..(3)

PVsystemefficiency:

Thewholesystemefficiencyisnothingbuttheproductofefficienciesallthecomponentsinthe
[Link]:

PV SystemEfficiency = PV Module Efficiency Battery Efficiency Inverter Efficiency

6.

..(4)

Measurements:

[Link]
sideofthefigureisthechargingcircuitwithPVmodulesandbattery,andtherightsideofthefigureis
[Link],voltage
[Link],Voltageandtime
at the output of PV modules or input of battery terminals will give energy generated by PV modules.
Currentvoltageandtimemeasurementattheoutputofbatteryterminalwillgivetheenergysupplied
by the battery. Current, voltage and time measurement at the input of the load will give the energy
[Link],bytakingtheratio
of energy at output and input we can find out the efficiency of each component or the efficiency of
wholesystem.

Figure23:ConnectiondiagramtostudythecharginganddischargingcharacteristicsofasimplePV
system

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Theexperimentcanbeperformedintwosteps:
Step1: In the first step the circuit for charging the battery through solar PV modules can be
connected (without turning the inverter and load ON). Measurement of energy input and energy
output(duringagivenperiod)willprovidetheenergyefficiency.
Step2: In this step the inverter and load circuit can be connected (without connecting the PV
modules).
TofindoutefficiencyofthesolarPVmodule:

DotheconnectionsasshowninFigure24.

Withtheuseofrheostat,plotanIVcharacteristicscurveatdifferentvaluesofresistance.

FindoutthevalueofPmfromtheIVcharacteristicscurvedrawn.

Usingequation(1),findoutthePVmoduleefficiency.

Figure24:CircuitdiagramtofindoutIVcharacteristicsofaPVmodule

Tofindoutefficiencyofthebatteryandtheinverter:
Beforedoingtheconnections,measurethebatteryterminalvoltageandwritedowninthetable
provided.
ConnectDCAmmeterinserieswithPVoutputandbatteryinputasshowninFigure25.
ConnectDCVoltmeterinparallelwithoutputofPVmodules.
Measure the charging current taken by the battery from one PV module for a specific time
interval(say30minutes)andenterthereadingsintheTableprovided
Disconnect the battery and measure the output voltage of the battery, write down the
measuredvalueintheTable.
MeasurethechargingcurrenttakenbythebatteryfromtwoPVmodulesconnectedinparallel
(say30minutes)
Disconnect the battery from the circuit and measure its output voltage, write down the
measuredvalueintheTable.
Writedownyourobservationsinthetableprovided

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Figure25:Circuitdiagramfordoingconnectionsinthechargingside

ConnectthedischargingsidecircuitasshowninFigure26.
ConnectACAmmeterinserieswiththeinverteroutputandtheloads.
ConnectACVoltmeterinparalleltotheinverteroutput.
SwitchonS1foraspecifictime(say10mins);writedownthecurrentandvoltagevaluesinthe
tableprovided.
Measurethebatteryvoltageandwritedowninthetableprovided.
Now switch on S1 and S2 for specific time (say 10 mins), write down the current and voltage
valuesinthetableprovided
Measurethebatteryvoltageandwritedowninthetableprovided.
Usingequation(3),findouttheefficiencyoftheinverter

Figure26:Circuitdiagramfordoingconnectionsinthedischargingside

7.

NCPRE,IITBombay

Follow the instruction below for discharging of battery, then using equation (2), find out the
efficiencyofthebattery

Observations:

Table2:ForfindingoutefficiencyofthePVmodule
[Link]. Resistance()

Voltage(V)Volts

Current(I)Amp

Power(Watt)
=V*I

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10

Table3:Forfindingefficiencyofthebattery
NOTE:Inordertomeasuretheefficiencyofthebattery,theinitialvoltagebeforestartofchargingand
finalvoltageafterdischargingshouldbethesame.
NOTE:Thebatteryterminalvoltageshouldalwaysbemeasuredafter23minutesofdisconnectingit
fromotherdevices(likePVmodulesorinverter).
BatteryCharging(outputfromPV
modules)
Sr.
No.

Duration

Batterydischarging(inputto
inverter)

Energy
(Wh)

Duration#
T

(V) (A) (W)

Battery
Voltage
VBATT@

Energy
(Wh)

(V) (A)

(W)

(hrs)

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(hrs)

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Initialterminalvoltageofbattery(atthebeginningofcharging):_____V
Finalterminalvoltageofbattery(attheendofcharging):_____V
TotalenergyinputtothebatteryfromPVmodules:_____Wh
Terminalvoltageofbattery(atthestartofdischarging):______V
Terminalvoltageofbattery(attheendofdischarging):______V
Totaloutputenergygivenbythebattery:______Wh
NOTE: In order to measure the efficiency of the battery, the initial voltage before start of
chargingandfinalvoltageafterdischargingshouldbethesame.
Isthefinalvoltageofbatteryterminalaftercompletingbatterydischargingcycleissameasthe
thebatteryterminalvoltageatthebeginningofchargingcycle:__Yes/No
IfanswerisNo,appropriateenergyshouldbetakenforcalculatingtheefficiencyofbattery.
BatteryEfficiency:_______________%

Table4:Forfindingefficiencyoftheinverter
InverterInput(Batterysidewhile
discharging)
Sr.
No.

Duration

Energy
(Wh)

Battery
Voltage

Inverteroutput
V

Duration#
T

(V) (A) (W)

VBATT@

Energy
(Wh)

(V)

(V) (A)

(W)

(hrs)

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Initialvoltageofthebatteryatthestartofdischargingcycle:______V
Finalvoltageofthebatteryattheendofdischargingcycle:______V
Totalloadconnectedtotheinverter:__________Watt
Total time for which the battery discharging is done or total time for which the load has
run:______Min.
Theamountofenergytakenbytheinverterfromthebattery:________Wh
Theamountofenergysuppliedbytheinvertertotheload:________Wh
TheEfficiencyoftheinverter:__________%
#durationforwhich,IandVareconstantinthemeasurements.
@Statusofamountofchargestoredinabattery(thatisstateofchargeorSOC)atanygiventimecan
be obtained by measuring the terminal voltage of battery. This terminal voltage of battery should be
measuredafterdisconnectingthebatteryfromthecircuitforatleast23minutesinpracticeandideally
[Link]
areavailableintheliterature.
Now calculate the efficiency of overall PV system by multiplying the efficiencies of individual
components.

8.

Resultsanddiscussion:

Based on your measurements, let us now discuss the results that you obtained. Please provide
responsestofollowingpoints:
A. EnlistthecomponentsusedinastandalonePVsystem.

B. BaseonthemeasurementpleaseprovidevaluesoffollowingparametersofthePVmodule:
a. OpenCircuitVoltage(VOC)= ______
b. ShortCircuitCurrent(ISC)=______
C. Plot(a)currentvoltage(IV)graphofPVmoduleand(b)powervoltage(PV)graphofeach
PVmodule.

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CurrentVoltage(IV)graph:

PowerVoltage(PV)graph:

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D. WhatisthemaximumpowerthatthePVmodulecandeliver,Pm=.Watt
IndicatethismaximumpowerpointonthePVandIVgraph.
E. CalculatethefollowingparametersofaPVmodule:
e. VoltageatMaximumPowerPoint(Vm)= ______
f. CurrentatMaximumPowerPoint(Im)=______
VI
g. FillFactor(FF)= m m =______
VOCISC
h. Efficiency()= ______

F. Writedowntheratingofthebattery,includingthenameofmanufacturer:

G. WritedownthemeasuredandcalculatedvaluesfortheBattery:
a. Initialterminalvoltagebeforecharging(V1dc)= ______ volts
b. Timeforwhichthebatteryisbeingcharged(Tdc)=______ hrs
c. Finalterminalvoltageaftercharging(V2dc)=______ volts
d. Initialterminalvoltagebeforedischarging(V1ac)= ______ volts
e. Timeforwhichthebatteryisdischarged(Tac)=______ hrs
f. Finalterminalvoltageafterdischarging(V2ac)=______ volts
g. Efficiency()= ______
H. Writedowntheratingoftheinverter,includingthenameofmanufacturer:

I. WritedownthemeasuredandcalculatedvaluesfortheInverter:
a. VoltagewhenS1isclosed(V1)= ______ volts
b. TimeforwhichtheS1isclosed(T1)=______ hrs
c. Time for which S1 and S2 are closed (T2)=______ hrs
d. VoltagewhenS1andS2areclosed(V2)= ______ volts
e. CurrentdrawnbyloadwhenS1isclosed(I1)= ______ Amps
f. CurrentdrawnbyloadwhenS1andS2areclosed(I2)= ______ Amps
g. Efficiency()= ______
J.

TheamountofenergytakenbythebatteryfromthePVmodules:________Wh

K. Theamountofenergysuppliedbythebatterytotheinverter:________Wh
L. TheEfficiencyofthebattery:__________%
M. Theamountofenergytakenbytheinverterfromthebattery:________Wh
N. Theamountofenergysuppliedbytheinvertertotheload:________Wh

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O. TheEfficiencyoftheinverter:__________%
P. WhatistheefficiencyofoverallPVsystem:________%
Q. What is the effect of charging the battery with two PV modules in parallel instead of
usingonePVmodule?

R. WhatistheeffectofincreasingtheloadinthePVsystemonthebatteryvoltage?

S. What is the value of efficiency obtained for the PV system? And also mention, the
differenttypesoflossestakingplaceinthesystem.

9.

Conclusions:

[Link]
fromthisexperiment,whatyoucantellaboutastandalonePVsystem.

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LaboratoryExperimentsonSolarPhotovoltaics

ExperimentNo:5

DarkandIlluminatedCurrentVoltageCharacteristicsofSolarCell

Contents
1.

Objectives..........................................................................................................................................79

2.

Expectedoutcomeofexperiment....................................................................................................79

3.

Theory...............................................................................................................................................79

4.

EquipmentsRequired........................................................................................................................81

5.

MethodologyforMeasurements......................................................................................................81

6.

Measurements..................................................................................................................................83

7.

Results...............................................................................................................................................85

8.

Questionstobeanswered................................................................................................................86

9. References.86

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1.

NCPRE,IITBombay

Objectives:

Tomeasurethecurrentvoltagecharacteristicsofacrystallinesiliconsolarcell

a) Measurementbyusing4quadrantpowersupplyandsolarcellasload
b) Measurementbyusingsolarcellaspowersourceunderillumination

2.

Expectedoutcomeofexperiment:
AnUnderstandingofthebehaviorofsolarcellasadiodeindarkandunderillumination,in
particular parameters such as i) open circuit voltage VOC, ii) short circuit current ISC, iii) Fill
factorFF.
Useofsolarcellasasourceofelectricalpowerwithparameterssuchasi)maximumpower
pointPm,ii)voltageatmaximumpowerpointVm,iii)currentatmaximumpointIm,andiv)
efficiency.

3.

Theory:

[Link],the
currentvoltagecurveliesinquadrantsIandIIIasforadiodeandisdescribedas:
I=I0[exp(qV/kT)1](1)
Where,Iiscurrentflowingthroughthedevice,qischargeonelectron,Visvoltageacrossthe
device, T is temperature in deg Kelvin, k is Boltzmann constant, and I0 is reverse saturation
current.
Underillumination,thecurveisshiftedsuchthatnowitliesinquadrantsI,III,andIVasshowninFigure
[Link]:
I=I0[exp(qV/kT)1]Iph

(2)

Where, Iph is the light induced current , and depends on the intensity of illumination. We see
that when leads of the solar cell are shorted (V=0), a current Isc = Iph flows through the leads
(short circuit current). Voltage across the leads is Voc if the leads are kept unconnected (open
circuitvoltage).

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Figure1:CrystallineSiliconSolarCell(left)anditsIVCharacteristicsCurve(right)
[Link]
powersupplyinthelaboratorycanbeusedtomeasureIVinquadrantsIandIII(asrequiredforthedark
IV).Foranilluminatedsolarcell,forthepartoftheIVcurveinquadrantIV,currentisnegative,while
the voltage is positive. It is not possible to measure negative current at positive voltage by using a
[Link],the4quadrantsupplyisabletomeasurethesecharacteristicssinceit
cansourceaswellassinkcurrentforvoltageofanypolarity.

Figure2a:4QuadrantPowersupply
Figure2b:Solarcellassourceofpowerwithavariable
schematicwiththesolarcellconnectedasload
loadresistorR

Figure 2b shows schematic of solar cell connected as source of power to variable R load. Under
illumination,thedevicebehavesasasourceofelectricalpower(solarcell)inthe4thquadrant,withthe
nsideterminalbecoming()[Link]
the solar cell IV characteristics in only the 4th quadrant part and inverted as shown in Figure 3 [for a
typical Bharat Electronics (BEL) solar cell which is used in the present apparatus]. The inverted IV
(Figure3)isdescribedas:
I=IphI0[exp(qV/kT)1](3)

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BELSolarCellArea~14cm2,

TestConditions:
Irradiance=100mW/cm2
Temperature=25C

VOC=600mV,ISC=490mA,FF=0.75

Figure3:IVCurve(inverted)ofSolarCellsuppliedbyBEL
4.

EquipmentsRequired:
[Link].
1
2

Unit

Description/Rating

SolarCell

BELMakecSicell

LightSource:HalogenLamps

50W,230V

Blackcloth

0to1.999V

Qty
1
2

31/2digitVoltmeter

Potentiometers

31/2digitAmmeter

0to1999mA

4QuadrantSupply

0to+/10V,0to+/1A

010singleturn,
010010turn

5.
MethodologyforMeasurements:
Inthisexperiment,weshallmeasureIVcharacteristicsofasinglesolarcellbytwodifferentwaystoget
characteristicsasshowninFigure1(PartA)andasshowninFigure3(PartB).

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Thesolarsimulatorhousinghastwosolarcells(bothcellswillbeusedforthe
experimentontwocellsinseriesandparallel).Inordertodotheexperimentwithsingle
cell,seethefigurebelowandusejumperbetweenleadsBandDasshown.
Thisallowsustomeasuresolarcellkeptontheleftsideinthehousing.

Figure3:IVCurve(inverted)ofSolarCellsuppliedbyBEL
PartA(Measurementusing4quadrantpowersupplywithsolarcellasload(Figure2a)):
i)

Toconnectcellto4quadrantpowersupply,keepDPDTswitchSintheEXTposition.

ii) Connect the power supply to the leads of the solar cell , brought out on right side of the
lamp/solarcellhousing.
Iii) [Link]
shutthedoorinfrontofthehousing.
iv) Measure IV by gradually turning the bias voltage knob located on the left side of the 4
quadrantsupply(therightsideknobshouldbekeptintheextremeclockwisepositionand
shouldnotbemovedduringtheexperiment).
Theappliedbiasvoltage(involts)[Link]
measuresthecurrentinamperes.MeasureIVoverbiasvoltagefrom0.7Vto+0.7V.
v) REMOVE THE BLACK CLOTH AND TAKE IT OUT OF THE BOX. Turn on the fan. Turn ON the
twolampswitchesL1andL2.

vi) [Link]
this adjustment, the voltmeter reads open circuit voltage Voc. Wait until the reading
becomesstable(Voc readingwilldecreaseinitiallybecauseofriseofcelltemperaturedueto
heatfromthelamps).
When reading becomes stable, measure IV characteristics by gradually varying the bias
voltagefrom0.7Vto+0.7V.
vii) Turnoffthelampsandturnthebiasvoltageknobtillthevoltageiszero.

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PartB(Measurementusingsolarcellunderilluminationaspowersource(Figure2b)):

For this measurement, meters on the simulator panel will be used. Change the position the
DPDTswitchStoINT.
i)

[Link].

ii) Turnonthefan.TurnonthetwolampswitchesL1andL2.
iii) See the reading on temperature indicator. Wait (a few minutes) till the temperature
readingstabilizes.
iv) [Link]
condition;voltagewillbehighandcurrentlow.
v) Reduce resistance by turning 0100 ohm potentiometer anticlockwise. This is a 10turn
[Link].
vi) Afterthe100ohmpotreachestheminimumsetting(fullyanticlockwise),turn010ohm
potentiometergraduallyanticlockwiseandrecordIVreadings.
Vii)[Link],currentwillbethehighest
[Link].
Afterreachingtheminimumofthetwopotsandrecordingthereadings,setthe10ohmpotto
maximum (fully clockwise). Then set the 100 ohm pot also to the maximum (fully clockwise).
[Link],this
checksthatthetemperaturedidnotchangeduringtheabovemeasurements.
6.

Measurements:

Part(A)RecordIVmeasurementsinthedarkinatabularformbetween0.7to0.7V.
[Link].

Voltage(mV)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

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[Link]
similartoFigure1.
Part(B)RecordyourIVmeasurementsinatabularform,asshownbelow:
[Link].

Voltage(mV)

Current(mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

PlotIversusVonagraphpaper,[Link]
[Link].
CurrentVoltage(IV)graph:

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PowerVoltage(PV)graph:

7.

Results:

Part(A)
Usingplotofln(I)[Link],
getidealityfactorofthediode,nbyusingtherelation:

ln(I)=ln(I0)+qV/nkT

Part(B)
Multiply I and V and plot P(mW) versus V. Determine the maximum power point Pm. Determine
[Link],Isc,VmandIm,determineFF.

FF=([Link])/([Link])
Inordertofindtheefficiency,,we needto know theintensity oflightincidenton [Link]
have estimated the light intensity of two lamps with clear glass filter by using a pyranometer. The

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estimatedintensityPin ~900mW/cm2.Takingtheareaofcell14cm2,estimatethetotallightpowerPin
[Link].

=([Link])/Pin
8.

Questionstobeanswered:

i) What are the precautions necessary for accurate measurements of current voltage
characteristics?
Note:Itisnecessarytomeasurevoltagedirectlyacrossthedevicetoavoiddropacrossthe
leads.

ii)ObtainvalueofI0byplottinglnIversusVofdarkIVcharacteristicsasdescribedinresults.
FindkTxln(Isc/I0)andcomparewithVocmeasuredfromtheIVmeasurementwiththecell
under illumination. Are the Voc obtained in the two ways same? Comment on possible
reasons,ifthetwoaredifferent.

iii) The parameters of solar cell are generally specified at standard operating conditions as in
the box in Fig. 3. Find out how one converts the parameters measured under conditions
differentfromstandardoperatingconditionsintostandardparameters.

9.

References:

1) C S Solanki, Solar Photovoltaic Technologies: Fundamental Technologies and Application, 2nd

Edition,PrenticeHallofIndia,2011.
2) Photovoltaicmeasurements,SAshokandKPPande,SolarCells14,61(1985).

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LaboratoryExperimentsonSolarPhotovoltaics

ExperimentNo:6

SolarCellsconnectedinseriesandinparallel

Contents
1.

Objectives..........................................................................................................................................88

2.

Expectedoutcomeofexperiment....................................................................................................88

3.

Theory...............................................................................................................................................88

4.

EquipmentsRequired........................................................................................................................88

5.

MethodologyforMeasurements......................................................................................................89

6.

Measurements..................................................................................................................................90

7.

Results...............................................................................................................................................91

8.

Questionstobeanswered................................................................................................................91

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1.

NCPRE,IITBombay

Objectives:
To measure the overall current voltage characteristics of two crystalline silicon solar cells
connectedi)inseriesandii)inparallel.

2.

Expectedoutcomeofexperiment:
An Understanding of behavior of solar cells connected in series and parallel for the design of
solarmodules

3.

Theory:

Cells connected in series / parallel combinations

follow Kirchoffs laws. For cells in series, the
voltages generated by different cells add, the
[Link]
case of cells in parallel combination, the voltage
acrossthecombinationissame,butwecandraw
more current than obtainable from a single cell.
By measurement on series and parallel
combinations of two solar cells, we get curves of
total currentvoltage behavior of such
combinations as compared to that of single cell
showninthefigure.

Figure1:CurrentVoltageCurveofSolarCell
4.

EquipmentsRequired:
[Link].

Unit

Description/Rating

Qty

SolarCells

BELMakecSicell

LightSource:HalogenLamps

50W,230V

Voltmeter

Potentiometers

Ammeter

01999mA

Jumperwires

0 1.999V
010singleturn,
010010turn

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5.

NCPRE,IITBombay

MethodologyforMeasurements:

[Link]
measurement is the same as used for a single cell. One can do both types of measurements
(using 4 quadrant supply and combination of cells, keeping the switch S in EXT position). The
[Link],the
switch S will be in position INT. Figures given below show the cells connected in series or in
parallel by using jumpers appropriately ( For series combination , connect jumper between B
and C; for parallel combination , connect one jumper between A and C and second jumper
betweenBandD).

Figure2:SolarCellsconnectedinseriesandinparallel

i)

[Link].

ii)

[Link].

iii)

[Link].

iv)

Note the readings on current meter and voltmeter. This condition is close to the open
circuitcondition,voltagewillbehighandcurrentlow.

v)

Reduce resistance by turning 0100 ohm potentiometer anticlockwise. This is a 10 turn

[Link].

vi)

After the 100 ohm pot reaches the minimum setting (fully anticlockwise), turn 010 ohm
pot anticlockwise and record IV readings. 10 ohm pot is single turn. Once it reaches the
minimumsetting,currentwillbethehighestandvoltageisminimum.

vii)

Afterreachingtheminimumofthe10turnpotandrecordingthereadings,setThe10ohm
pottomaximum(fullyclockwise).Thensetthe100ohmpotalsotothemaximum(fully
clockwise).Checkthevoltmeterandcurrentmeterreadingsaresameasinthebeginning.

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Observations:
RecordyourIVmeasurementsinatabularform,asshownbelow:
[Link].

Voltage(mV)

Current(mA)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

PlotIversusVonagraphpaper,[Link]
ofVOCandISC.Comparewiththecorrespondingresultfromexperiment5.

Plotofcurrentversusvoltageforcellsinseries

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Plotofcurrentversusvoltageforcellsinparallel

7.

Results:

VerifythebehaviorofIscandVocofcellsconnectedinseriesandinparallel.

8.

Questionstobeanswered:

WhatistheeffectofnonuniformlightingofthetwocellsontheIVcurve?
Supposeonecellisshaded,whiletheotherisfullyilluminated,howaretheIVcurvesmodified
ini)seriescombination,ii)parallelcombination.

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LaboratoryExperimentsonSolarPhotovoltaics

ExperimentNo:7

DependenceofSolarcellIVCharacteristicsonlightintensityand
temperature

Contents
1.

Objectives..........................................................................................................................................93

2.

Expectedoutcomeofexperiment....................................................................................................93

3.

Theory...............................................................................................................................................93

4.

EquipmentsRequired........................................................................................................................94

5.

MethodologyforMeasurements......................................................................................................94

6.

Measurements..................................................................................................................................96

7.

Results...............................................................................................................................................98

8.

Questionstobeanswered................................................................................................................99

9.

References....99

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1.

NCPRE,IITBombay

Objectives:

Tomeasurethecurrentvoltagecharacteristicsofacrystallinesiliconsolarcell

2.

a) atdifferentlightintensities
b) atdifferenttemperatures

Expectedoutcomeofexperiment:

AnUnderstandingofthemannerinwhichthesolarcellparameterssuchasi)opencircuitvoltageVOC
andii)shortcircuitcurrentISCvarywiththelightintensityandthecelltemperature.

3.

Theory:

a) Dependenceonlightintensity:
TheequationdescribingtheIVcharacteristicsofsolarcellwithilluminationis:
I=IphI0[exp(qV/kT)1]

(1)

whereIphisthelightinducedcurrent,andvarieslinearlywiththelightintensity.
SinceIsc=Iph,weexpecttheshortcircuitcurrentIsctovarylinearlywiththelightintensity.
FromEq(1)Voc=(kT/q)ln[(Iph+I0)/I0]~(kT/q)ln[Iph/I0].Thus,theopencircuitvoltageis
[Link],weshallvarylight
intensitybyi)puttingafrostedglassplate,andii)wiremeshfilterbetweenthelampsand
thecell,whichattenuatelightuniformlyatallwavelengths.
b) Dependenceoncelltemperature:
[Link],consider
thesolarcellequationI=Iph I0[exp(qV/kT)1].Inthisequation,I0 increasesstronglywith
increaseofcelltemperature,expressedas:

I0=qA[(Dp/[Link])+(Dn/[Link])]ni2=I00exp{Eg/kT}=ABT3Exp(Eg/kT)
whereEgisbandgapofthesemiconductor(siliconinthepresentcase)andAiscellarea,B
=q[(Dp/[Link])+(Dn/[Link])]{2(2me*k/h2)3/2}{2(2mh*k/h2)3/2}containsfactorswhichare
relativelytemperatureindependent.
Asaresult,thetemperaturedependentsolarcellequationis:
I(T)=Iph(T)I00[exp{(qVEg)/kT}1]
Thusweget,

Isc(T)=Iph(T),and

Voc(T)=Eg(T)/q+(kT/q){lnIsc(T)ln(ABT3)}(2)

VocofSisolarcellsdecreasesbyabout2.2mV/C.Sincethebandgapdecreasesbyabout0.5
meV/CwithincreaseoftemperaturethatcausespartofdecreaseinVoc.

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RestofthedecreaseofVociscausedbythesecondfactorinequation(2).Incomparisonto
Voc ,[Link]
enhanced absorption of solar spectrum due to reduction in the band gap with increase of
temperature.FractionaldecreaseofVocisnearly10timeslargerthanfractionalincreaseof
[Link].

Figure1:IVcharacteristicsofsolarcellasafunctionoftemperature

4.

EquipmentsRequired:

[Link].
1

Unit

Description/Rating

Qty

SolarCell

BELMakecSicell

LightSource:HalogenLamps

50W,230V

and

Stainlesssteelsieves

LightAttenuators

46%,29%,14%,7,5%

Voltmeter

01999mA

Potentiometers

010ohm,o100ohm

Ammeter

01999mA

Temperatureindicatorand
controller

RoomTempto70C

1
2
4

5.
MethodologyforMeasurements:
This experiment will be done on a single cell with the solar cell as the source of power and two
[Link],keeptheSwitchSintheINTpositionas
doneinPartBofExpt.5.

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PartA(LightIntensityDependenceofSolarCellCharacteristics)
i)

[Link].

ii)

[Link].

iii)

[Link].

iv)

Note the readings on current meter and voltmeter. This condition is close to the open
circuitcondition,voltagewillbehighandcurrentlow.

v)

Reduce resistance by turning 0100 ohm potentiometer anticlockwise. This is a 10 turn

[Link].

vi)

Afterthe100ohmpotreachestheminimumsetting(fullyanticlockwise),turn010ohm
potanticlockwiseandrecordIVreadings.

vii) [Link],currentwillbethehighest
andvoltageisminimum.Afterreachingtheminimumofthe10turnpotandrecordingthe
readings,setthe10ohmpottomaximum(fullyclockwise).Thensetthe100ohmpot
alsotothemaximum(fullyclockwise).Checkthevoltmeterandcurrentmeterreadingsare
sameasinthebeginningtoensuretemperatureisconstant.

viii) Replacetheclearglassplatewithfrostedglass.Thisreduceslightintensitytoabout70%
[Link])tovii).
ix) Put a stainless steel sieve attenuator on frosted glass and repeat steps i) to vii).
Therearefourwiremesh/[Link])
tovii)withallthefourattenuators.
Lightintensitiesmeasuredwithpyranometerusingvariousattenuators are shown
inthetablebelow.

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PartB(TemperatureDependenceofSolarCellCharacteristics)
(Measurementusingsolarcellunderilluminationaspowersource(Fig2b))
i)

[Link].

ii)

[Link].

iii)

[Link].

iv)

Note the readings on current meter and voltmeter. This condition is close to the open
circuitcondition,voltagewillbehighandcurrentlow.

v)

Reduce resistance by turning 0100 ohm potentiometer anticlockwise. This is a 10 turn

[Link].

vi)

Afterthe100ohmpotreachestheminimumsetting(fullyanticlockwise),turn010ohm
potanticlockwiseandrecordIVreadings.

vii) [Link],currentwillbethehighest
andvoltageisminimum.
After reaching the minimum of the 10 turn pot and recording the readings, set the 10
ohm pot to maximum (fully clockwise). Then set the 100 ohm pot also to the maximum
(fully clockwise). Check the voltmeter and current meter readings are same as in the
beginning.
Viii) To set temperature press the SET button on temperature controller for about 45 secs.
The indicator reading will start fluctuating. Using up/down arrow keys, set the desired
[Link]
thesamplestage.Supposetheinitialtemperaturewas35Candyouhavesetthedesired
temperature 45C. The controller will cut of heating when the temperature reaches 45C.
Afterthis,[Link]
asinstepsi)tovii).
ix)

6.

Setthecontrollertoinstepstohighertemperatures50C,60Cand70Candaftereach
temperaturestabilizes,repeatthemeasurementsfromstepsi)tovii).

Measurements:

RecordyourIVmeasurementsinatabularform,asshownbelow:

[Link].

Voltage(mV)

1
2
3
4

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5
6
7
8

Part(A):IVasfunctionoflightIntensity
[Link]
[Link].
[Link].
PlotVocversusLognaturallightIntensity
Part(B):IVasfunctionofTemperature
MakeIVplotswithmeasurementsdoneatthelowesttemperaturewithoutheating,andat45
C,50C,60Cand70C.
FindIsc,VocfromtheIVplotsatdifferenttemperatures.
PlotIscversustemperatureT.
PlotVocversustemperatureT.

Plotsofcurrentversusvoltageatvariouslightintensities

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PlotofCurrentversusvoltageatvarioustemperatures

7.

Results:

Part(A)
i) FindthedependenceofIsconlightintensity
ii) FindthedependenceofVoconlightintensity

Part(B)
i) FindthecoefficientoftherateofchangeofIscfromslopeofIscversusT
ii) FindthecoefficientoftherateofchangeofVocfromslopeofVocversusT

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8.

NCPRE,IITBombay

Questionstobeanswered:

Error in the measurement of the temperature of the solar cell will give the experimental results
[Link],
wemonitorthetemperatureofthestageonwhichsolarcellismounted.

i) Howdoeserrorintemperaturereadingaffectthemeasuredbehavior?

ii)Howwillyouimprovethemeasurement?

9.

References:
1) C S Solanki, Solar Photovoltaic Technologies: Fundamental Technologies and Application, 2nd
Edition,PrenticeHallofIndia,2011.
2) Photovoltaicmeasurements,SAshokandKPPande,SolarCells14,61(1985) MEASUREMENTS

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LaboratoryExperimentsonSolarPhotovoltaics

ExperimentNo:...8

CarrierLifetimeMeasurementsforaSolarCell

Contents
1.

Objectives:......................................................................................................................................101

2.

Expectedoutcomeofexperiment:.................................................................................................101

3.

Theory:............................................................................................................................................101

4.

EquipmentsRequired:....................................................................................................................104

5.

MethodologyforMeasurements:...................................................................................................104

6.

Observations:..................................................................................................................................106

7.

Results:............................................................................................................................................107

8.

Questionstobeanswered..............................................................................................................107

9.

Conclusions:....................................................................................................................................108

10. References:.....................................................................................................................................108

Generation
Recombination
Photon

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1.

NCPRE,IITBombay

Objectives:

Inasolarcellchargecarriersmotion,theirgenerationandtheirrecombinationtakeplaceallthetime
[Link].
The recombination process represents the loss of generated charge carrier and hence loss of a useful
photon. In order to obtain high efficiency solar cells, the recombination rate in solar cells must be
[Link]
[Link]:

2.

Tomeasuretheopencircuitvoltagedecayofacrystallinesiliconsolarcell.
Tomeasurethereverserecoverytransientofthesolarcell.
Tocalculatethelifetimeofthesolarcell.

Expectedoutcomeofexperiment:

3.

AnUnderstandingoftheconceptoflifetimeinsolarcells.
Abilitytoconnectasolarcellinanelectricalcircuit.
Abilitytoplotthereadingsandcalculatethelifetime.

Theory:

Minoritycarrierlifetime(0)playsanimportantroleinmanysemiconductordevicesincludingthesolar
[Link],thelifetimeisimportantbecausethephotogeneratedcarriers(electronsandholes)
must stay alive long enough to be separated and caused to flow through an external circuit. The
carriersdieoutthroughtheprocessofrecombinationofelectronsandholes,wheretheyannihilate
[Link],givenby

(1)

n=Aexp(t/0),

[Link],thecarrierswillrecombinerapidlybefore
being separated, and so will not contribute to external current. The lifetime of carriersin a solar cell
should therefore be large to get good efficiencies. An ability to measure and monitor this important
parameterwillenableustomakebettersolarcells.

Therearemanycommerciallyavailablelifetimemeasurementunitswhichemployavarietyofmethods.
[Link],wecangetafairlygoodestimateofthelifetimeofcarriers
inasolarcellbyusingtwosimplemethods,theOpenCircuitVoltageDecay(OCVD)method,andthe
Reverse Recovery Transient (RRT) method. Furthermore, these simple methods also allow for a good
physical insight into the concept of lifetime. In this experiment, we will measure the lifetime using
boththesemethods.
Inpart(A)ofthisexperiment,[Link]
onanopencircuitedsolarcell,itresultsintheopencircuitvoltageVoc [Link]
whenthelightisturned off?ItisclearthateventuallyVoc [Link]
happen instantaneously, but with a certain time delay. What are the physical processes at play to
removeallthephotogeneratedcarriers,whichinturnwillreduceVoctozero?Ingeneral,therearetwo

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processescontributingtotheremovaltheexcesscarriersoneispullingthemoutviaacurrentflow,
and the second is recombination. In this case, since the device is open circuited, only the second
[Link](t)decayswithtimewillgive
a good idea of the recombination process and therefore the lifetime 0. Refer to the book Solar
PhotovoltaicsbyChetanSinghSolankiformoredetails[1].
Theopencircuitvoltagedecay(OCVD)goesapproximatelyas:
Voc(t)=Voc(0)(kT/q)(t/0)

(2)

Intheaboveequation,Voc(0)istheinitialvoltageattimet=0whenthelightisturnedoff,and(kT/q)
is the thermal voltage, which is about 25 mV at room temperature. This decay transient is shown in
Figure1.

Figure1:PlotofthedecayofVocwithtime

NotetheinterestingfactthatVoc [Link]
oneremembersthattheexcesscarriersdecayexponentiallywithtimeconstant0asseeninEq.(1),and
the open circuit voltage depend on carrier density through the equation n = n(0) exp(qVoc/kT). The
lineardecayisvalidonlyintheinitialphase;eventuallythevoltagedecreasesmoregraduallyandfinally
goestozeroatlargetimes(whichisexpected qualitatively,but notpredictedbyEq. (1) whichisonly
validforsmalltimes).Eq(2)thereforegives:

0=(kT/q)[1/(dVoc/dt)],

(3)

thus,enablingustoextract0fromthelinearslope.
Inpart(B)oftheexperiment,[Link](includingasolarcell
operated in dark) is forward biased, a large forward current If flows through it, and there are many
[Link],thecurrentwillnotinstantaneouslygo
to zero, because the excess carriers all have to be removed before the diode can turn off. Until this
happens,alargereversecurrentIrcanflow.(Notethatthisdoesnotcontradictthewellknownfactthat
adiodecannotconductcurrentinthereversedirectionbecausewearenowinatransientstate,and
notasteadystate).Inthiscase,thecarriersareremovedbothbyrecombinationaswellasthereverse
currentwhichpullsouttheexcesscarriers.

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Figure2:CircuitdiagramfortheRRTexperiment
Consider the simple circuit shown in Figure 2. The pulse generator alternates between a forward
voltageVfandareversevoltageVr,drivingthediode(orsolarcell)[Link](t)(which
canbeconvenientlymeasuredbythevoltageacrosstheresistor)hasaformshowninFigure3.

Vf
v(t)

V
If

i(t)

Ir

ts

Figure3:Plotofthereverserecoveryofasolarcellundertransientconditions
Itcanbeseenthatuntiltheexcesscarriersareremoved,thediodestillremainsforwardbiased,and
soalargereversecurrentIr(Vr/R)[Link],
during which the excess carriers are removed by the combined action of recombination and reverse
currentflow,[Link]
[Link]
[1]that
ts=0ln{1+(If/Ir)}

(4)

Qualitatively,thismakessense:thesmaller0is,thesmallerwillbethestoragetimebecauseofrapid
recombination;andalso,thelargerIris,thesmallerwillbethestoragetime,becauselargecurrentspull
outexcesschargefaster.(Ontheotherhand,makingIflargermeansthatmorechargeisbeingpumped

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into the diode when forward biased, so it will take longer to eventually remove this charge, thus
increasingts.)TheplotofFig.3iscalledthereverserecoverytransient.
4.

EquipmentsRequired:
[Link].

Unit

Description/Rating

Qty

SolarCell

Singlesolarcellabout2
cmX2cm

LEDBank

4/6/8whiteLEDbank
about2cmX2cm

DigitalStorageOscilloscopeor
ordinaryOscilloscope

DualChannel30MHz

Resistors

Various

Pulse/FunctionGenerator

Variablevoltage(upto
10V),upto1MHz,
withDCoffset

Connectingwiresandbreadboard

5.

MethodologyforMeasurements:

PartA:OpenCircuitVoltageDecay

Figure4:CircuitdiagramfortheOCVDexperiment

1) [Link]
squarewavegenerator,andthelightshiningonthesolarcellwillthereforebeturningonandoff.
Sincethesolarcellisopencircuited,thevoltagemeasuredwhenthelightgoesoffwillbetheOCVD
transientVoc(t).Byusingarepetitivepulsedwaveformastheinputweobviatetheneedforadigital
storageoscilloscope.

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2) Generate light pulses by turning the LED bank on and off with positive pulses of about 5 10 V
[Link]
lightpulseseffectivelyfallontheopencircuitedsolarcell.
3) Adjust the frequency such that the transient is properly displayed on the oscilloscope. Very high
frequencieswillnotallowtoOCVDtobecompleted(thiscanbenotediftheVoctransientdoesnot
gotozero);verylowfrequencieswillmakeitdifficulttogetagoodwaveformonthescope.
4) [Link]
channels of the scope, and look at the input (square) voltage and the OCVD transient
simultaneously.
5) NotethatagoodOCVDtransientwillhavearapidbuildupofVoc(t)whenthesolarcellisturnedon,
andaslow(er)[Link]
plotisshowninFigure5.
6) [Link]?Why?

Figure5:AtypicalVocplotwhenthesolarcellisrepeatedlyturnedONandOFF

PartB:ReverseRecoveryTransient

Inthispartoftheexperimentwefirstfindoutthestoragedelaytime(ts)andplotitforvariousvaluesof
forwardandreversecurrents.

1) [Link]
wave with a positive forward voltage and a negative reverse voltage. Use an appropriate value of
resistor R. The output voltage measured across R is directly proportional to the current flowing
throughthesolarcell.
2) Adjust the frequency, amplitude and the DC offset of the square wave in order to get a reverse
recoverytransient,[Link],sincesolar
[Link],itisgoodtolookatboththeinputandoutputvoltages
simultaneouslyonthescreen.
3) Nowchangetheoffsetvoltagetogetdifferentvaluesofforwardvoltageandreversevoltage,and
[Link]
theoutputvoltagelevelsdividedbyR.

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4) Measure the storage time ts for different values of If and Ir (make sure these values generate
significantlydifferentvaluesofIf/Ir).Itmaynotbeeasytoestimatets,becauseitisdifficulttotell
exactlywhenthecurrentstartstodecrease.

6.

Observations:

PartA:OpenCircuitVoltageDecay
ObservetheOCVDcurveontheoscilloscope,[Link]
the decay, calculate the slope. This can be done using slope = V/t, where V and t are
approximatelyreadofffromtheoscilloscopescreen.

Part(B):ReverseRecoveryTransient
Recordyourmeasurementsfromthetraceontheoscilloscopescreeninatabularform,asshown
below:

[Link].

If(mA)

Ir(mA)

If/Ir

ln(1+If/Ir)

ts(s)

Takeasmanymeasurementsaspossible(upto5)fordistinctvaluesofIf/[Link],plottsversusln(1+
If/Ir).AccordingtoEq.4,theplotshouldbeastraightline.
Note:Ifyoudonotgetenoughdatapointsinthismeasurement,donotattempttoplotagraph,but
justuseEq.4toestimate0foreachofthemeasureddatapoints.

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Plotofstoragetimetsversusln(1+If/Ir)

7.

Results:

Part(A):
FromtheslopeofthegraphofVocversustime(intheearlytimes),find0usingEq.3.

Part(B):
Findtheslopeofthegraphoftsversusln(1+If/Ir),[Link]
enoughdatapoints,useEq.4directlyoneachdatasettofind0.

Comparethetwovaluesfoundbythetwodifferentmethods.

8.
Questionstobeanswered
1) Itisnecessarytoassumethattheon/offtimesoftheLEDsaremuchsmallerthanthesolarcell
[Link].

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2) DerivethelinearOCVDequation.

3) IntheOCVDmeasurement,whyistheturnonmuchfasterthantheturnoff?

4) [Link]?Give
reasonswhytheymaynotbethesame.

9.

Conclusions:

Writeyouconclusionsforthisexperiment.

10.

References:

1) Chetan Singh Solanki, Solar Photovoltaics: Fundamentals, Technology and Applications, PHI
LearningPrivateLimited,NewDelhi(2009)
2) [Link],SolidStateElectronicDevices,6thEdition,PHILearning
PrivateLimited,NewDelhi(2006).

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LaboratoryExperimentsonSolarPhotovoltaics

ExperimentNo:9

SolarCellSimulationUsingPC1DSimulator

Contents
1.

Objective:........................................................................................................................................110

2.

Outcomeofthisexperiment:.........................................................................................................110

3.

Backgroundtheory..........................................................................................................................110

4.

ThePC1Dsoftware:.........................................................................................................................113

5.

Methodology...................................................................................................................................113

6.

SimulationExercise.........................................................................................................................120

7.

ResultsandDiscussion....................................................................................................................122

8.

Conclusions.....................................................................................................................................123

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1.

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Objective:

Solarcellefficiencydependsonmanymanyparameterswhichincludingtypeofsubstrate(NtypeofP
type), doping of the substrates, depth of the junction, doping profile of the junction, thickness of
antireflective coating, material of antireflective coating, metal contacts, texturing, etc. If you need to
find out how much a given parameter affects the performance of a solar cell, it will be a big job to
[Link]
do the simple simulation to estimate the effect of a given parameter on solar cell efficiency. PC1D
(photoconductance one dimensional) is name of simulator which is freely available. This is one
[Link]
beenpublishedbasedontheresultsobtainedfromPC1D.ConsideringtheimportanceofPC1Dsimulator,
the objectives of these experiments are to learn to use the simulator for solar cell simulations. The
objectiveisdividedinfollowingways:
TogetfamiliarwithPC1D
Tounderstandthebasicparametersofinterestinfabricationofsolarcell
Toknowtypicalvaluesoftheseparameters
TosimulatePNjunctionunderequilibrium,darkandilluminatedconditions

Tobeablesimulateinbatchoftostudytheeffectofparameterslikejunctiondepths,SRVetconcell
performance
2.

Outcomeofthisexperiment:

AbilitytousePC1D
Abilitytofigureoutimportantparametersforsolarcelloperation
Knowsometypicalvaluesoftheseparametersandtoknowsolarcellefficiencyunderthesetofvalues
Abilitytoplotdifferentparametersagainstdifferentspatialandtemporalvariation
Abilitytosimulateinbatchandexportthedatatootherformat
Abilitytochangethemodeofexcitationtostudysolarcellunderdifferentconditions

To simulate and understand the behaviour of PN junction diodes through the medium of a 1
dimensional device simulator named PC1D. The basic characteristics of a PN junction diode will be
[Link]
mainaimoftheexercisesprovidedistogetahandsontrainingintheuseofPC1Dthroughsimulationof
basicdevices.

3.

Backgroundtheory

InaPNjunctiondiode,thediodecurrentisgivenbytheShockleyEquation:

I IS e

VD
nV T

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Where,
Iisthediodecurrent,
ISisthereversebiassaturationcurrent,
VDisthevoltageacrossthediode,
VTisthethermalvoltage,
nis theideality factor, also known as thequality factoror sometimesemission coefficient. The ideality
factornvariesfrom1to2dependingonthefabricationprocessandsemiconductormaterial.

Figure1:IVcharacteristicsofaPNjunctiondiodeofdifferentmaterials.

WhenaPNjunctionisilluminatedwithlight(asinasolarcell),thephotonsexcitetheelectronsinthe
valencebandtojumptotheconductionbandsuchthattheelectronnowhasextraenergyequaltothat
of the photon. The EHP thus created adds onto the reverse current due to minority carriers in the
[Link],theelectronsgeneratedinthepsidemovedowntheenergybarrierandthe
[Link],theoverallIVcurveisdragged
down the Yaxis by an amount equal to the light generated current. The generated current creates a
forwardbiasacrossthePNjunction.

I IL ID

VD
nV

IL IS e
1

Where,
IL=lightgeneratedcurrentduetothephotovoltaiceffect
ID=DiodecurrentgivenbyShockleyequation.

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Figure2:IVcurveshiftincaseofanilluminateddiode.

Solarcellstructure:

A standard solar cell is described in Figure 3. The structure is similar as a diode. The n+ emitter (n+
meanshigherdopingthanntype)[Link]
provided on the front side to reduce reflection. The front surface is textured to reduce reflection
further. There is a back surface field (BSF) provided at the back side to reduce surface recombination
[Link](p+typeinthiscase,p+meanshigher
dopingthanP).[Link]
[Link]
onsemiconductor.

Figure3:Standardindustrialsolarcellstructure

Formulae:
FillFactor(FF)=Pmax/(Voc*Isc)

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Efficiency(%)=(Voc*Isc*FF)/Pin

Pin=Intensity*area
4.

ThePC1Dsoftware:

[Link]
downloadedfromthefollowingwebsite.
[Link]

(Publisher:UniversityofNewSouthWales)

DownloadURL:[Link]
Installationguide:[Link]/[Link]'PC1D5'
[Link]'[Link]'.
[Link]
shortcutondesktoporelsewhereforquickaccess.
5.

Methodology

Once you start the software by double clicking, a parameter page will open. Here you will find three
major subsections named DEVICE, REGION 1 and EXCITATION. The last section is RESULS where the
resultsaftersimulatingthedeviceyoupreparewillbeprinted.
Nowunderthesesectionsyouwillfinddifferentoptionsthoseyoucanspecifytodefineyoursolarcell.
[Link],youmaydouble
clickontheoption(InitiallysomeoptionmaybewrittenasnulllikeNosurfacetexturing)andapopup
[Link]
downmenusinmenubar.
Devicearea:[Link]
1cm2ascellareaastheshortcircuitcurrentdensity(A/cm2)thenwouldbesameasshortcircuitcurrent
(A).

Surfacetexturing:[Link]
like15mandanglesaretypically54O.

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Surface charge: This might be used when there is accumulation of charges at the surface (surface
depletion)duetohighersolubilityofemitterdopantatomsinthepassivationlayer.
Front and rear reflection: You can put the flat reflection coefficient for the whole spectrum if you
choosea'Fixed'[Link]'BroadbandReflectance'andARCcoating'Thickness'and
RIunder'Coated'[Link].

Emitter contact: You have to put the series resistance provided by emitter. Position of the emitter
contactis'0m'asthedistanceiscountedfromthesurface.
Basecontact:[Link]
[Link],itwillstillcalculatetaking
thedevicethicknessasposition.

Internalshuntelement:[Link]
[Link]'0m'andcathodepositionisagainassameas
[Link].

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Thickness:Putthevalueofthethicknessofthesolarcelllike250mor180metc.
Material:Doubleclickonthisoptionandawindowwillappearinwhichdifferenttypeofmaterialsare
listed. Suppose you select '[Link]', then all the material properties like 'Carrier mobilities', 'Dielectric
constant','Bandgap'[Link]
tosetthevalueanypropertyseparately.

Diffusion:Thetwomaingoverningparametersfortheprocessofdiffusionaretemperatureatwhichthe
dopantatomsaregettingdiffused(T)andtimeforwhichthediffusionishappening(t).Wecannotfeed
temperature andtimedirectlyinPC1DinsteadPC1Dtakesinaccountoftheseparametersbyasingle
[Link].

L Dt

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Where D is diffusivity in cm2 /s which is a function of temperature and t is the time of diffusion in
seconds.
D=D0eEa/K*T
D0=Diffusivityconstant
K=Boltzmanconstant
T=Temperature.
FromtheaboveArrheniusequationitisclearthatdiffusivityisafunctionoftemperature.
So the depth factor has the temperature (by means of diffusivity) and time parameter taken into
account.
Clickonthe'Firstfrontdiffusion'[Link](porn)bycheckingthe
[Link]'Profile'(youshouldcheckthebulletcorrespondingtoprocess
bywhichintroducedopantatoms)

Predepositiondiffusionerfc.
DriveindiffusionGaussian.
IonimplantationUniform.

Now manage 'Peak Doping' and 'Depth factor' in such a way that you get desired/expected sheet
resistance30to100Ohm/square)andjunctiondepth(fewhundrednmtoaboutonemicrometer).

Recombination:Forbulkrecombinationsetthevalueof'NetLLItau'orthe'Diffusionlength'andother
[Link].
Incaseofsurfacerecombination,settheeffectivesurfacerecombinationvaluesbyputting'NetLLIS'.
[Link].

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Excitation: The excitation file is '[Link]' for IV testing and '[Link]' for spectral response
(this is explained in the graph section). Select the 'Excitation Mode' as 'Transient' one. The
'Temperature'mustbestandardtestingtemperature25OC.
Basecircuit:Letthebasecircuit'SteadyState'resistancebe20ohmcm2and'Voltage'[Link]
set the base circuit Transient' resistance to be 20 ohmcm2 and 'Initial voltage' to be 1 V and 'Final
voltage'tobe1V.

Primary Light source: Click on this option, go to the 'Spectrum' tab, select the 'External' file to be
'[Link]'.[Link]
[Link]
onthe'Enable'buttonin'Intensity'tabtospecifythe1000W/m2or0.1W/m2intensity.

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Run: After setting all the parameters, click on the 'Run' button in the tool bar. The command is also
availableunder'Compute'menu.

Graph:[Link],P
V, shunt current against voltage, electric field carrier density throughout the depth of cell, doping
profile and many others. Even you can view the diffusion and drift current density separately for
electronandhole.

Mostofthesegraphsarelistedinthe'Graph'menuinmajorlytwodivisions'Spatial'and'Temporal'.
Youmayalsodefineaparticulartypebyclickingthe'Defined'optioninthe'Graph'menu.
Youmayalsoclickonthe'FourGraphView'buttoninthetoolbarandfourdefaultgraphswillappearin
that case. Double click on any of the graph and it will get enlarged. You can also select a rectangular
portion of the graph using the left click of your mouse and that portion will get enlarged. You may
further enlarge a small section of that part too. To go back to previous view, use right clicks of the
mouse.

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IncaseofEQE,IQEandtheReflectance,[Link]
'Open' option under 'Excitation' menu. Select the file 'SCANQE'. Now run the simulation again. Now
under 'Graph' menu and in 'Temporal' option, select 'Quantum Efficiency' and the EQE, IQE and
Reflectanceagainstwavelengthwillbevisible.
Toviewothergraphsyouhavetoagainchangetheexcitationfileto'ONESUN'andrunthesimulation
again.
To get the data of a particular graph, click on the graph now select 'Copy Graph Data' option from
'Graph'[Link].
Note:Use'ParameterView'buttontogobacktothedeviceparameterlist.

QuickBatch:ThisoptionisusedtoseetheeffectsofdifferentparametersonVoc,IscandPmaxbroadly
by doing simulation in a batch. Select the 'Batch' option from 'Compute' menu or click on the 'Quick
Batch'[Link]'Quickbatch'inthewindowtoenable
[Link]'BaseR'.Nowspecifytherangesay'0.01'to'1'and
Numberofstepssay'100'.Youcanvarytherangeinlogarithmicwaytoo.

Nowselectoutputparametersthoseyouwantstudy'BaseVoc','BaseIsc'and'BasePmax'.Nowselect
'Ok' and 'Run' the simulation. The results will be displayed on a new section in the parameter page
named'BATCH'.[Link]'CopyBatchData'under'Graph'[Link]
thedatawillbecopiedandyoucanpastetheminnotepadorexcelandsavethem.
Ifyouwanttoseetheeffectofvariousparameters,thenyoucanmakepermutationsofthevaluesof
[Link]'Permute'option,itwilldividetherange
insamenumberofstepsasofthefirstandparallelvalueswillbeconsidered.
Torunsinglesimulation,clickonthe'QuickBatch'buttonontoolbarorselect'Batch'optionfrommenu
[Link]'Disablebatchmode'optionandnowyoucanrunsinglesimulation.

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6.

SimulationExercise

Selectthe'Open'optionunderthe'File'menuandselect'[Link]'correspondingtoparameterfileof
csilicon solar cell. Use these parameters for a basic solar cell structure or change the value any/all
[Link]:
Equilibriumcondition
A. Simulate a pn junction in equilibrium condition. (This means that the device is isolated from
external illumination or bias disable the light source and change the excitation mode to
equilibrium)
B. Notedownthebandgapenergyfromtheenergybanddiagram.
C. Notedownthebarrierheightatthejunction.
D. Notedownthemajorityandminoritycarrierdensitiesinbothpsideandnside.
Darkcondition

A. Simulate a pn junction in dark condition. (This means that the device is isolated from external
illuminationbutanexternalbiasisapplieddisablethelightsourceandchangetheexcitationmode
[Link],setSteadystatevoltageto0.2VandinTransient,setInitial
Voltageas0.2VandFinalVoltageas0.8V.)
B. PlottheIVcurve.
C. Notedownthebarrierheightatthejunction.
D. NotedowntheKneevoltage.
Illuminatedcondition
A. Simulateapnjunctionindarkconditionbychoosingsametypicalvaluesofdifferentparameters.
(This means that the device illuminated but voltage sweep is applied enable the Primary Light

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[Link],setSteadystatevoltageto0.8Vand
inTransient,setInitialVoltageas0.8VandFinalVoltageas0.8V.)
B. PlottheIVcurve.
C. CalculatetheFFandefficiency.
D. SelecttheQuickbatchmodeandvarythejunctiondepthwithinarangeofvaluesandcalculatethe
efficiencies.
Srno.

Junctiondepth
(nm)

Voc(V)

Isc(mA)

Pmax(W)

Efficiency(%)

E. ChangetheexcitationfromONESUNtoSCANQEandplottheEQE,IQEandReflectanceagainst
[Link].
F. Change the front surface recombination velocity to 1e7, 1e6, 1e5, 1e4 cm/s etc and tabulate the
[Link].

Srno.

SRV(cm/s)

EQE(%)

IQE(%)

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G. Design and simulate a solar cell with 15% efficiency and note down the values of important
parameters.
7.

ResultsandDiscussion

[Link]:
Bandgap__________
Barrierheightatthejunction__________
Pside:edensity:__________hdensity:__________
Nside:edensity:__________hdensity:__________

[Link]
Barrierheightatthejunction___________
Kneevoltage___________

[Link]
FF:___________
Efficiency:___________
[Link]
valueofjunctiondepthatwhichhighestefficiencyhasbeenachieved?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------[Link],darkandilluminatedconditions?

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------F. Discuss the effect of front surface recombination velocity on the quantum efficiency value? If you
want to match EQE with IQE values under same condition, which parameters should be changed?
Explainbycitingvalues.

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---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------8.

Conclusions

[Link]
from this simulation, what you can tell about the solar cell structure or any particular parameter of
interest.

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Referencefile:[Link]

123

LaboratoryExperimentsonSolarPhotovoltaics

ExperimentNo:10

SEQUEL:UsingtheGUI
Contents

1.

Introduction......................................................................................................................................1

2.

Atutorialexample................................................................................................................................6
2.1Creatingthecircuitblock.............................................................................................................7
2.2Creatingthesolveblocks...........................................................................................................11
2.3Executingtheprogramandviewingplots.................................................................................13

Introduction

The purpose of the SEQUEL GUI is to make it easier for the user to enter the circuit
schematic, specify analysis options, and view the simulation results. Using the GUI involves
the following steps:
(a) entering the circuit schematic
(b) preparing the solve sections
(c) generating the circuit file
(d) running SEQUEL on the circuit file
(e) viewing the results
When the GUI is started, one gets the display shown schematically in Fig. 1. Of the various
Menu bar

Left window
(tool box)

Central window

Right window
(configuration panel)

Bottom window
(message area)

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of the GUI window.

windows, the menu bar remains fixed, but the contents of the other windows may change,
depending on the context. For example, when the circuit editor menu is selected, a canvas
for drawing the circuit schematic appears in the central window. When graphs is selected,
plotting options appear in the central window, and so on.
The best way to get started with the GUI is to run an existing example and view the results,
by following the steps below:
1

(i) Click1 on the open project menu. A new window will appear, showing the directory
structure and files in the current directory, Select the directory2 electronics_gnrl.
The SEQUEL projects available in this directory (each with extension .sqproj) will
appear in a seprate window. Select the project [Link] and open it. Alternatively,
double-click on [Link], and it will be opened, as shown in Fig. 2.

Figure 2: Snapshot of a project.

(ii) Click on the circuit editor tab to view the circuit schematic. You may single-click on
any of the components to view its parameters in the right window, by clicking on the
tab property editor there. Fig. 3 shows the properties of the resistor, for example.
You could also view the list of output variables that have been selected for this project,
by clicking on the output variables tab in the right window.
1
2

By click, we would generally mean left-click, unless specified otherwise.

The exact path for this directory will depend on where the SEQUEL GUI has been installed. This comment

also applies to other directories mentioned in this document.

Figure 3: Snapshot showing element properties.

(iii) Click on the solve blocks tab to view the details of the analyses which have been
requested for this circuit (see Fig. 4). In the output blocks of the solve sections, you
will find a list of output variables, a subset of those you would have seen in (ii) above.
On execution, SEQUEL would make these variables available in the file specified in the
output block. The output file is written to the directory
/SequelGUI2_Release/SGUI/Output.
(iv) Click on the circuit file tab and select generate CF. The circuit file corresponding to
the circuit schematic and solve sections seen in (ii) and (iii) will appear in the central
window. The circuit block in the circuit file (between begin_circuit and
end_circuit) corresponds to the circuit schematic, and the solve blocks (between
begin_solve and end_solve) to the solve sections. The circuit file may also be written
to the hard disk by clicking on the save CF button.
(v) Run SEQUEL on the circuit file generated in (iv) by clicking on the run solver button

Figure 4: Snapshot showing solve blocks.

of the menu bar3 . The messages that the solver may generate while executing the circuit
file are displayed in the bottom window and can be seen by clicking on the solver
output tab of the bottom window. The messages include matrix size, iteration number
(for transient analysis), etc., and error messages, if any, from the solver. When
execution is completed, you will see the message, SEQUEL: program completed. In
this particular example ([Link]), which is a small circuit, the execution is very
quick, and you will see the program completion message instantaneously.
When the program is completed, the output data requested by the user are written to
the output files, as described in (iii).
(vi) When the program is successfully completed, the GUI enters the Graphs section. The
central window turns into a three-column format (see Fig. 5). In the left column, you
3

The run solver button generates the circuit file and then invokes the simulation engine. In that sense,

the generate CF step described above is not really required separately.

will see the names of the output files requested in the solve blocks (see (iii) above).
When you select the desired file, the names of the variables contained in that file will
appear in the second and third columns. One of the variables from the second column
can be selected as the x-axis, and one or more from the third column as the y-axis
variable(s). Clicking on the graph it button would plot the requested graph (see
Fig. 6). If another plot is desired, click on the back button, and repeat the above
procedure.

Figure 5: Snapshot showing Graphs section.

Figure 6: Snapshot showing plots requested by the user.

A Tutorial Example

Having seen the basic functioning of the GUI, we will now construct a SEQUEL project from
scratch. In particular, we will simulate the circuit shown in Fig. 7, and plot i, V1 , V2 versus
time.
a

1k

V1
b

R1
Vs

C1

5 F

2k

V2
c

R2

Vs
5V

C2

8 F
0V

(a)

(b)

25

Figure 7: RC circuit for the tutorial example.

t (ms)

2.1

Creating the circuit block

SEQUEL allows the following types of elements:

(i) electrical compound elements (ece)
(ii) digital compound elements (dce)
(iii) general compound elements (gce)
(iv) thermal compound elements (tce)
(v) general mixed elements (gme)
In the circuit of Fig. 7, only elements of type ece are involved, viz., resistors ([Link]),
capacitors ([Link]), and a pulse voltage source ([Link]). Click on the circuit editor tab.
The central window will turn into a canvas for drawing the circuit schematic, and a list of the
available types of elements will be displayed in the left window. Expand the electrical element
list (ece) and click on [Link]. Take the cursor to some location on the canvas and
double-click. A resistor will appear in the canvas (see Fig. 8).
It is often more convenient to search for the component and then select it from a limited list.
For example, if you type [Link] in the search window, only those elements which contain the
search string will be displayed, typically a much shorter list than the list of all elements.
Next, select the property editor option in the right window. Now, go back to the canvas
and single-click on the resistor. The resistor will get highlighted, and a list of properties of
[Link] will appear in the right window. Change its name4 to r1 and its resistance (which
appears as a real parameter in the list) to 1k.
Following the above procedure, create the other required elements, and edit their properties as
desired. For the voltage pulse, we can let the pulse start at t1 = 5 ms and end at t1 = 25 ms.
The relevant parameters are therefore t_1=5m, t_2=25m, v_1=0, and v_2=5. The parameters
delt_1 and delt_2 represent the rise/fall time of the pulse and can be set to a suitable
(small) number, say, 10u.
Rotate the capacitors clockwise through 90o . This can be done by selecting the element and
typing r or by setting rotation to 90o in the property editor window.
Place the elements suitably by either (a) clicking and dragging or (b) clicking, releasing the
mouse button, and moving the selected element with the arrow keys. Note that, if an element
is selected (i.e., highlighted), it can be de-selected by simply left-clicking on an empty area of
the canvas.
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The GUI generates a default name for each element, and that is good enough for running SEQUEL. However,

for easy identification, it may be desirable to assign familiar names to some of the elements.

Figure 8: Snapshot showing how to bring an element into the canvas.

We are now ready to make the required connections. To connect node 1 to node 2, click on
node 1, release the mouse button, take the cursor to node 2 or, if necessary, to a grid point
where a bend in the wire is desirable. Continue this process until you arrive at node 2. The
GUI will automatically exit the wiring mode when you click on node 2. If you are in the
middle of making a connection and would like to abandon the present wire (without
completing the connection), press F4, and the GUI will exit the wiring mode. A completed
wire is shown in Fig. 10.
After completing the connections, we need to inform SEQUEL about the node that needs to
be designated as the reference node. For this purpose, bring the element [Link] on the
canvas and connect it to the desired wire or element node.
As with element names, the GUI generates a default name for each node. The program would
run with the default names. However, for convenience, the user may want to assign node
names which are more meaningful. This can be done in two ways:
(i) Click on the wire (node) and edit its name in the right window (make sure that the
8

Figure 9: Snapshot showing how to edit properties of an element.

property editor tab is selected in the right window).
(ii) Click on an element to which the node is connected and edit the node name for that
element in the right window.
If a node name is changed in the above manner, the node assignments for all elements sharing
that node are updated simultaneously.
For the circuit in Fig. 7, we can assign the node names a, b, c, 0 as shown in the figure. A
convenient way to figure out the name (default or assigned) of a node or an element is to keep
the cursor (without clicking a mouse button) on the concerned node (or element) for two
seconds or so. The name will then appear in a box near the cursor5 . You can check this out
for your circuit in the canvas.
The final step in completing the circuit description is definition of the output variables. In our
example, we want to define the current through R1 , and node voltages at b and c as output
5

If it is an element, the element type will also appear in the box.

Figure 10: Snapshot showing a completed wire.

variables. This can be done as follows6 .
(i) Click on the output variables tab in the right window and select add variable. The
GUI is now in the add output variable mode. Click on the resistor r1. A menu will
appear, showing i1, v1, etc. Select i1. The GUI will automatically exit the add
output variable mode.
(ii) Enter the add output variable mode and click on node (wire) b.
(iii) Enter the add output variable mode and click on node (wire) c.
As you execute the above steps, you will notice that the GUI has generated the following lines
in the right window (see Fig. 11):
6

There is also an expert add variable mode which one can enter by clicking on the Output variables tab

while keeping the cntrl key pressed. In that case, the user can keep adding output variables one after another
and finally, click on the Add variable button once again to exit the expert add variable mode. Exiting the
mode is rather important!

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Figure 11: Snapshot showing output variables.

var1=i1_of_r1
var2=nodev_of_b
var3=nodev_of_c
The names var1, var2, var3 have been generated by the GUI as default names. You could
change these to more meaningful names by double-clicking on the concerned line and typing
the desired name. For example, we could use i1, v_b, v_c, respectively, instead of var1, var2,
var3.

2.2

Creating the solve blocks

We have now completed the circuit to be simulated. Next, we must inform the simulator
about the analyses that should be performed on the circuit. That is the purpose served by the
solve sections.
For the circuit of Fig. 7, there are two analyses that we would like to perform:

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(a) Start-up analysis to obtain the solution at t = 0 .

(b) Transient analysis to obtain the solution for t > 0.
Click on the solve blocks button. The central window can now be used for creating and
editing solve blocks, as follows:
(a) Click on the add solve block button. This will display a solve block. Make sure that
the property editor tab is selected in the right window. Click on the title bar of the
solve block. In the right window, you can now select the type of the solve block
(Start Up) in the drop-down menu that appears after clicking on the bar showing
DC. Next, we need to select an option for the initial solution to be used for this block.
Do this by dragging initial_sol from the left window into the solve block. The default
value for initial_sol is initialize, and it is appropriate for this solve block. (If
initial_sol is not specified by the user, the program will assign the initialize
option to it anyway.)
(b) Add another solve block and change its type to transient. Drag initial_sol from the
left to the current solve block in the central window, click on it, and select previous in
the right window7 . This will add the assignment initial_sol=previous in the solve
block. Drag back_euler and set it to yes, by clicking on it in the right window and
then toggling the square box there. Drag t_start and set it to 0 in the right window.
Using the same procedure, make the following assignments:
t_end=100m
delt_const=10u
The above choices will instruct SEQUEL to perform transient analysis from tstart = 0 to
tend = 100 ms, with a constant t = 10 s, using the backward Euler method. We now
need to specify the names of the output files and the output variables to be written to
each of the output files. Say, we decide to write the node voltages v_b and v_c to a file
called rc_1.dat and the current i1 to another file called rc_2.dat. This can be
specified as follows.
Drag output block from the left window to the central window, and click on it. The
right window will show the various options that may be set for the output block. Set
filename to rc_1.dat. Click on the output variables field. This will display a list of
the output variables (which we defined while creating the circuit block). Select v_b and
7

Many of the options for solve blocks are specified in this manner, viz., by dragging a keyword from the left

window to the central window, clicking on it, and then selecting an appropriate option in the right window.

12

v_c. Similarly, create another output block with filename=rc_2.dat and select the
output variable i1 for that block. A snapshot of the solve blocks is shown in Fig. 12.

Figure 12: Snapshot showing solve blocks.

2.3

Executing the program and viewing plots

The circuit file can now be created by clicking on the circuit file tab and then on the
generate CF button in the central window. The circuit file corresponding to the circuit
schematic and solve blocks you have created will appear in the central window. While it is
instructive to look at the circuit file, it is not necessary for the user to generate it since the
GUI will automatically generate it when the run solver option is used.
Run SEQUEL on the circuit file thus generated, by clicking on the run solver button. Click
on the solver output tab in the bottom window and make sure that the message,
SEQUEL: program completed appears there. Click on the graphs tab, and view the plots
of v_b and v_c with respect to time, following the procedure explained in Sec. 1.
The Graph interface allows quantities to be plotted with respect to different y-axes. This
feature is useful when two quantities of different orders of magnitude are to be plotted
together, e.g., a voltage varying from 0 V to 5 V , and a current varying from 1 103 A to
2 103 A. The user can choose the left y-axis for the voltage and the right y-axis for the
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current in that case by simply selecting the appropriate box for the y-axis. An example is
shown in Fig. 13.

Figure 13: Snapshot showing the use of left and right y-axes for plotting.
Exercise: Add the node voltage v_a to the output file rc_1.dat (i.e., the first output block),
generate the circuit file, run SEQUEL, and plot v_a, v_b, v_c with respect to time on the
same plot.
This completes the tutorial on how to use the GUI. Needless to say, this tutorial is meant only
for getting started with the GUI. In order to become an effective user of the program, the user
should read the on-line SEQUEL manual which describes various options related to numerical
methods, time step, convergence, etc.

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