re eae ll pe ‘eae i and Interfacing DOUGLAS V HALL For Sale in India, Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Bhutan only|Tata McGraw-Hill Special Indian Edition 2006 Adapted in India by arrangement with The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., New York Sales territories : Indi Pakistan, Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka and Bhutan only MICROPROCESSORS AND INTERFACING: Programming & Hardware, Revised Second Edition Eighth reprint DZXACDDXRVQCY Copyright © 1992 by the Glencoe Division of Macmillan/McGraw-Hill School Publishing Company. Copyright © 1986 by McGraw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. ‘No part of this publication may be repreduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the ‘riot written permission of the publisher. IBM PC, 1BM PC/XT, IBM PC/AT, PS/2, and MicroChannel Architecture are registered trademarks of IBM Comporation. The followingare registered trademarks of Intel Corporation: i486™, i860™, ICE, RMX. Borlané, Sidekick, Turbo Assembler, TASM, Turbo Debugger, and Turbo C+ are registered trademarks of Borland Intemational, inc, Microsoft, MS, MS DOS, Windows 3.0, Codeview, and MASM are registered trademarks of Microsoft ‘Corporation. Other product names are registered trademarks of the companies associated ‘with the product aame reference in the text of figure. ISBN-13: 978-0-07-060167-3 ISBN-10: 0-07-060167-4 Published by Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008, and printed at Pashupati Printers (P) Ltd, 1/429/16, Gali No. 1, Friends Colony, GT Road Shahdara, Delhi 110 095 Cover : SDR Printers eeeContents Prefice xi Acknowledgements xiv 1. Computer Number Systems, Codes, and Digital Devices 1.1-1.20 Computer Number Systems and Codes 1.1 Arithmetic Operations on Binary, [Link] BCD Numbers _/.7 Basic Digital Devices _/./2 Review Questic 2. Computers, Microcomputers, and Microprocessors 2.1-2.21 ‘=An Introduction TypesofComputers 2.7 How Computers and Microcomputers are Used—AnExample__ 2.2 Overview of Microcomputer Structure and Operation 2.6 Execution ofa Three-instructionProgram 2.7 Microprocessor Evolution and Types 2.9 The8086 Microprocessor Family—-Overview _2.1/ 8086 Internal Architecture 212 Intoductionto Programming the 8086 2.76 Review Questions and Problems 2.20 8. 8086 Family Assembly Language Programming—Introduction _3.1-8.32 Program Development Steps _3./ Constructing the Machine Codes for 8086 Instructions 3.2 Writing Programs for Use with an Assembler__3./9 Assembly Language Program Development Tools _ 3.26 Review Questions and Problems 3.29 4. Implementing Standard Program Structures in 8086 4.1-4.36 ‘Assembly Language Simple Sequence Programs 4.) [Link] Multiple If-Then-Else Programs 4.15 While-Do Programs 4.20 Repeat-Until Programs 4.22 Instruction Timing and DelayLoops 4.34 Review Questions and Problems 4.viii Contents 5. Strings, Procedures, and Macros The 8086 String Instructions _ 5.1 ‘Writing and Using Procedures 5.6 and mbler Macro! Review Questions and Problems 5.39 6. 8086 Instruction Descriptions and Assembler Directives InstructionDescriptions 6.1 Agsemblir Directive 430 snd Program 6.32 ENDP—End Procedure 6. EVEN—Alignon Even Memory Address 6.37 EXTRN 633 GLOBAL—-Declare Symbols as Public or Extm 6.33 GROUP—-Group-elated Segments 6.33 LABEL 6.34 LENGTH—Not hnplementedinIBMMASM _ 6.34 NAME 6.34 OFFSET 6.34 ORG-—Originate 6.34 PROC—Procedure 6.35 PTR—Pointer 6.35 Segment 6.35 Shoxt 4.35 Type 6.36 7. 8086 System Connections Timing, and Troubleshooting ‘A Basic 8086 Microcomputer System 7. Usinga Logic Analyzer to Observe Microprocessor Bus Signals 7.7 An Example Minimum-mode System, The SDK-86_ 7/2 Troubleshooting a Simple 8086-based Microcomputer 7.42 Review Questions and Problems 7.47 8. 8086 Interrupts and Interrupt Applications 5.1-5.40 6.1-6.36 7.14.48 8.1-8.44 8086 Interrupts and Interrupt Responses 8.1 ‘Hardware Interrupt Applications 8./2 8254 Software-Programmable Timer/Counter 8.17Contents ix 8259A Priority Intenupt Controller 8.30 Sofiware Interrupt Applications 8.39 Review Questions and Problems 3.41 9. Digital Interfacing 9.1-9.50 Programmable Parallel Portsand Handshake Input/Output 9. interfacing a Microprocessorto Keyboards 9.17 Interfacing to Alphanumeric Displays 25 8279 CircuitComnections and Operation Overview 9.28 Interficing to 18-segment and Dot-matrix Led Displays 9.35 interfacing aMicrocomputerto Nonmultiplexed Led Displays _ 9.36 interfacing Microcomputer Ports to High-powerDevices 9.37 , Optical Motor ShaftEncoders 9.44 Review Questions and Problems 9.47 10. Analog Interfacing and Industrial Control 10.1-10.60 Review of Operational-amplifier Characteristics and Circuits 10.2 Sensorsand Transducers 10.7 D/AConverter Operation, Interfacing, and Applications 10.13 A/D Converter Specifications, Types, and Interfacing /0./77 A Microcomputer-based Seale 10.21 A Microcomputer-based Industrial Process-control System 10.31 An 8086-based Proc: ontrol System 10.35 Developingthe Prototype of Microcomputer-based instrument 10.46 Robotics and Embedded Control 70.47. Digital Signal Processing and Digital Filters 10.52 Review Questions and Problems 10.59 11. Dma, Drams, Cache Memories, Coprocessors, and Eda Tools 11.1-11.49 Introduction 11.2 The 8086 MaximumMode 1/.4 Direct Memory Access (DMA) Data Transfer 11.5 Interfacing and Refreshing DynamicRAMs 17.10 A Coprocessor—The 8087 Math Coprocessor 11.23 Computer-based DesignandDevelopment Tools 11.39 Review Questions and Problems 11.48 12. C, a High-level Language for System Programming 12,1-12.52 Introduction—A SimpleC Program Example 12.2 Program Development Tools forC 12.3 Programming in@ 12.7 Review Questions and Problems 12.50 13. Microcomputer System Peripherals 13. 59 System-level Keyboard Interfacing _/3.1 Microcomputer Displays 13.5 Computer Mice and Trackballs 13.34 .disk Data-storage Systems 13.34 Optical Disk Data Storage 13.49 Printer Mechanisms and Interfacing 13.50 and Recognition with aComputer 13.853 Digital Video Interactive 13.55 Review Questions and Problems 13.57 14. Data Communication and Networks Introduction to Asynchronous Serial Data Communication 14.1 erial-d Transmission MethodsandStandants [44.8 20-and 60-ma Current Loops 14.9 Asynchronous Communication Software on the BM PC_ 14.23 Synchronous Serial-data Communication and Protocols 14.35 ica Area NWO 7] The GPIB. HPIB.IEEE488 Bus _/4.44 Review Questions and Problems 14.50 15. The 80286, 80386 and 80486 Microprocessors Multiuser’Multitasking Operating System Concepts _ 15.2 The Intel 80286 Microprocessor 15.11 The Inte] 80386 32-bitMicroprocessor 15.16 The Intel $0486 Microprocessor 15.41 Review Questions and Problems 15.44 16, An Introduction to the Pentium Processors Epilogue 16.18 Review Questions and Problems 16.19 Appendix A Appendix B Appendix C Bibliography Index 14.1-14.52 15.1-15.45 16.1-16.19 Bib, t-Bib.3 LinkPreface ‘This book is written for a wide variety of introductory microprocessor courses. The only prerequisite for this book is some knowledge of diodes, transistors, and simple digital devices. My experience as an engineer and as a teacher indicates that it is much more productive to first learn one microprocessor family very thoroughly and from that strong base learn others as needed. For this book I chose the Intel 8086/80 186/80286/80386/80486 and Pentiuin family of microprocessors, Deviecs inthis family arc uscd in millions and millions of personel computers, including the IBM PC/AT, the IBM PS/2 models. and many “clones.” The 8086 was the first member of this family, and although it has been superseded by newer processors, the 8086 is still an excellent entry point for leaming about microprocessors. You don’t need to know about the advanced features of the newer processors until you leam about multiuser/multitasking systems, Therefore, the 8086 is used for most of the hardware and programming examples until Chapter 15, which discusses the features of the higher processors and hhow these features are used in multiuser/multitasking systems. Chapter 16 further discusses Pentium Processors and their architecture. CONTENT AND ORGANIZATION All chapters begin with furdamental objectives and conclude with a review of important terms and concepts. Each chapter also concludes with a generous supply of questions and problems that reinforce both the theory and applications presented in the chapters. To help refresh your memory, Chapter | contains a brief review of the digital concepts neoded for the rest of the book. It also includes an overview of basic computer mathematics and arithmetic operations on binary, HEX, and BCD numbers. Chapters 2-10 Chapters 2-10 provide you with a comprehensive introduction to microprocessors, including interrupt applications. digital and analog interfacing, and industrial controls. These chapters include an overview of the 8086 microprocessor family and its architecture, programming language, and systems connections and troublestooting. Because I came into the world of electronics through the route of vacuum tubes, my first tendency in teacking microprocessors was to approach them from a hardware direction. However, the more I designed with microprocessors and taught microprocessor classes, the more I became aware that the real essence of a microprocessor is what you can program it to do. Therefore, Chapters 2-5 introduce you to writing structured assembly language programs for ‘the 8086 microprocessor. The approach taken in this programming section is to solve the problem, write an algorithm for the solution, and then simply transtate the algorithm toassembly language. Experience has shown that this approach is much more likely to produce a working program than just writing down assembly language instructions. The 8086 instruction set is introduced in Chapter 2-5 asneeded to solve simple programming problems, but for reference Chapter 6 contains a dictionary of all 8086 instructions with examples for each. Chapter 7 discusses the signals, timing, and system connections for 2 simple 8086-based microcomputer. Also discussed in Chapter 7 is a systematic method for troubleshooting a malfunctioning 8086-based microcomputer system and the use of a logic analyzer to observe microcomputer bus signals. Chapter 8 discusses how the 8086 responds to interrupts, how interrupt-service procedures are written, and the operation of a peripheral device called a priority- interrupt controller, Chapters 9 and 10 show how a microprocessor is interfaced with a wide variety of low-level input and output devices. Chapter 9 shows how a microprocessor is interfaced with digital devices such as keyboards, displays, and relays, Chapter 10 shows how a microprocessor is interfaced with analog input/output devices such as A/Ds,xi 2 Preface D/As, and a variety of sensors. Italso shows how all the “pieces” are put together to produce a microprocessor-based seale and a simple microprocessor-based process contro} system, Chapter 10 concludes with a discussion of how ‘microprocessors can be used to implement digital filters, Chapters 11-16 Chapters 11-15 are devoted to the hardware, software, and peripheral interfacing for a microcomputer such as those in the IBM PC and the IBM PS/2 families. Chapter 11 discusses motherboard circuitry, including DRAM systems, ‘caches, math coprocessors, and peripheral interface buses. It also shows how to use a schematic capture program to draw the schematic, a simulator program to verify the logic and timing of the desig, and a layout program to design 4 printed-circuit board for the system. Knowledge of these electronic design automation tocls is essential for anyone developing high-speed microprocessor systems. At the request of many advisors from industry, Chapter 12 introduces you to the C programming language, which is used to write a lange number of system-level programs. This chapter takes advantage of the fact that itis very easy to learn if youare already familiar with 8086-type assembly language. A section in this chapter also shows you how to write simple programs which contain both C and assembly language modules Chapter 13 describes the operation and interfacing of common peripherals such as CRT displays, magnetic disks, and printers. Chapter 14 shows how a microcomputer is interfaced with communication systems such as modems and networks. Chapter 15 starts with a discussion of the needs that must be met by a multinser/multitasking operating system and then describes how the protected-mode features of the 80286, 80386, and 80486 processors meet these needs. This section of the book also includes discussions of kow to develop programs for the 386 in a variety of environments. ‘The chapter concludes with introductions to parallel processors, neural networks, and fuzzy logic. [think you will ind these newly developing areas as fascinating as 1 have Finally, Chapter 16 is about the Pentium processors and their architecture. Data transfer between processor and memory or /O is also discussed. The chapter ends with a brief description of the Hyper Thread or HT Technology. SUGGESTIONS FOR ASSIGNMENTS Flexible Organization The text is comprehensive, yet flexible in its organization, Chapter | could be easily omitted if students have a solid background in basic binary mathematics and digital fundamentals, Chapters 2-10 1 suggest following Chapters 2-10 as an instructional block as each chapter builds on the preceding chapter. These nine chapters represent ideal coverage for a “short course” in microprocessors. The remaining chapters represent an ‘opportunity for the instructor to tailor assignments for the students’ needs or perhaps to give an individual student added study in recent developments in the architecture of microprocessors. Chapter 11 Individual topics from Chapter 11 could be selected for study as students gain knowledge of the “tools” available for designing computer-based systems. The DRAM section is very important. Chapter 12 ‘You may wish to assign or leave for outside reading Chapter 12 on programming in C,, a new chapter. At the very least you should take a careful look at the simple programming examples and the development of tools for C. If class time ‘does not permit assigning this chapter, youmnay wish to use selected examples and programs in your lecture presentations. This chapter should be included in any course sequence which does not have a separate class in C programming.Preface: xiit Chapter 13 Portions of the peripherals chapter may be assigned as required, depending upon the course syllabus, The CRT, disk, and printer sections are highly recommended Chapter 14 This is an important chapter, given the ever-expanding use of data communications. It should be assigned, if at all possible, ualess the curriculum includes a separate course in data communications. Of primary importance are the sections on modems and LANS. Chapters 15 and 16 The last two chapters discuss the cutting edge of the development of higher microprocessors up to 8046 and the Pentium Processors, SALIENT FEATURES OF THIS EDITION In response to feedback from a variely of electronics instructors. and fiom the industry, the revised second edition of Microprocessors and Interfacing: Programming and Hardware contains the following salient features. Focused coverage of 8086 microprocessor. Examples of programs with C and assembly language modules. Interfacing illustrated via real life systems. Introduction to Neural Networks and Fuzzy Logic. Inclusion of a new chapter on Pentium Processors. Focused discussion on Software Keyboard Interfacing Multimedia Technologies: MMX, SSE, SSE2 and SSE3 are also discussed. SPECIAL FEATURES AND SUPPLEMENTS This book contains many hardware and software exercises students can do to solidify their knowledge of microprocessors. A dedicated website now supports the book. This website contains the lustructor’s Manual and Experiments Manual for instructors and students, The Experiments Manual contains 40 laboratory exercises that are directly coordinated to the text. Fach experiment includes chapter references. required equipment. objectives. and experimental procedures. An IBM PC or IBM PC- compatible computer can be used to edit, assemble, link/locate, run, and debug many of the 8086 assembly language programs. ‘The Instructor's Manual contains answers to the review questions. It also includes experimental notes and answers to selected questions for the Experiments Manual. ADDITIONAL GOALS One of the main goals of this book isto teach you how to decipher manufacturers” data sheets for microprocessor and peripheral devices, so the book contains relevant parts of mary data sheets. Because of the large number of devices discussed, however, it was not possible to include complete datasheets. I you are doing anin-cepthstudy, itis suggested that you acquire oF gain access to the latest editions of Intel Microprocessors and Peripherals handbooks. These are available free of charge to colleges and universities from the Academic Relations Department of Intel. The bibliography at the end of the book contains a list of other bocks and periodicals you can refer to for further details on the topies discussed in the book. If you have suggestions for improving the book or ideas that might clarify @ point for someone else, please communicate with me through the publisher. Douglas V. KallAcknowledgements 1 wish to express my profound thanks to the people around me who helped make this book a reality. Firsily, 1 would like to thank Dr. K.M. Hebbar, Director, Computer Engineering, NMAM Institue of Technology, NITTE, Kamataka, for the effort put into adapting this edition of the book. His efforts have indeed updated the book to current standards, ‘Thanks to Pat Hunter, whose cheerful encouragement helped me through seemingly endless details. She proofread and coded the manuscript, worked out the answers to the end-of-chapter to verify that they are solvable, and made suggestions and contributions toonumerous to mention, Thanks to Richard Cihkey of New England Technical Institute in New Britain, Connecticut, who meticulously worked his way through the manuscript and made many valuable suggestions. Thanks to Mike Olisewski of Instant Information, Inc,, who helped me “C the light” in Chapter 12 and contributed his industry perspective on the topics that should be included in the book. Thanks to Dr. Michael A. Driscoll of Portland State University, who helped me fine-tune Chapter 15. Thanks to Intel Corporation forletting me use many drawings from their data books so that this book could lead readers into the real world of data books. Finally, thanks to my wife, Rosemary, my children Linda, Brad, Mark, Lee, and Kathryn, and to the rest of my family for their patience and support during the long effort of rewriting this book. Douglas V. HaltComputer Number Systems, Codes, and Digital Devices fore starting our discussion of microprocessors B and microcomputers, we need to make sure that some key concepts of the number ystems, codes, and digital devices used in microcomputers are fresh in your mind. If the short summaries of these concepts in this chapter are not enough to refresh your memory, then you may want to consult some of the chapters in Digital Cirewits and Systems, McGraw-Hill, 1989, before going ‘on in this book. Aithe conclusion of this chapteryou should beable to: 1. Convert numbers between the folowing codes: binary. ‘hexadecimal, and BCD. 2. Define he terms bis, nibble, byte, word, most sgnificane bit, and leas significane bit. 3. Use atableto find the ASCII or EBCDIC code fora given elphanuomerc character 4. Perform addition and subractionofbinarg hecadecimal, and BCDnumbers. 5. Describe theopertionof aes flip-flops aces regen, ROMS, PALs dynamic RAM, static RAMs, and buses 6 Describe bow an arithmetic logic unit can be instructed 0 perform arithmetic ological operations on binary words, COMPUTER NUMBER SYSTEMS AND CODES Review of Decimal System ‘To understand the structure of the binary number system, the first step is to review the familiar decimal or base-10 number system, Here is a decimal number with the value of each place holder or digit expressed as a power of 10. 5 3 4 6 7 2 10 = 10? tok 10 t0"! 10? ‘The digits in the decimal number 5346.72 thus tell you that you have 5 thousands, 3 hundreds, 4 tens, 6 ones, 7 tenths, and 2 hundredths. The number of symbols needed inany number system isequal tothe base number. Inthedecimal number system, then, there are 10 symbols, Othrough 9. When the count in any digit position passes that of the highest-value symbol, the digit rolls back to 0 and the next higher digit is incremented by 1. A car ‘odometer is a good example of this. ‘A number system ean be built using powers of any number as place holders or digits, but some bases are more useful than others. Its difficult to build electronic circuits which can store and manipulate 10 different voltage levels, but relatively easy to build circuits which can handle two levels. Therefore, a binary, or base-2, number system is, used to represent numbers in digital systems.1.2 Microprocessor and Interfacing: Programmntng and Hardware ‘The Binary Number System Figure Ila, shows the value of each digit in a binary number. Each binary digit represents a power of 2, A binary digitis often called a bit. Note that digitsto the right of the binary point represent fractions used for numbers less than 1. The binary system uses only two symbols, zero (0} and one (1), so in binary you count as follows 0,1, 10, 11, 100, 101, 110, 111, 1000, ete. For reference Fig. |.1h shows the powers of 2 from 2! to 2”. Binary numbers are often called binary words or just words. Binary words with certain numbers of bits have also acquired special names. A 4-bit binary word is called a nibble, and an 8-bit binary word is called a byte. A [Link] binary word is often referred to just asa word, and 32-bit binary word is referred to as a doubleword. The rightmost or least significant bit of a binary word i usually referred to as the LSB. The leftmost or most significant bit of a binary word is usually called the MSB. To convert a binary number to its equivalent decimal ‘number, maltiply each cigittimes the decimal value ofthe digit and just add these up. The binary number 101, for example, represents: (1 x 2) + (0 x 2!) + x 2%), ,ortrord PPP Ae Be ae mez iwe 421 t 4 (a) oe g8 % pie aio = s3.808a82 4.004 26144 2% = 67,108,864 208 2% = stan a = 134,217,728 4096 2 = 1008576 2 = 258,435,458 e122 = 2.007.152 2 = 536,870,912 16,386 = 41943042” = 1.073,741,824 32.768 = aaeaeoe 2 = 2.147.403,648 2 = 85596 2 = 16.77.2162 = 4,204,967,298, () Fig. L1 (a) Digit values in binary, (6) Powers of 2. or4+0+1 ‘you have: x 4 OXF) 41x 2741 x29 + Ox 2 4x2) + (1X2) = 16+ 044424 0+ 05 + 0.25 = decimal 22.75 {mal 5. For the binary number 10110. 11, To convert a decimal number to binary, there are two ‘common methods. The first (Fig. |.2a) is simply a reverse of the binary-to-decimal method. For example, to convert the decimal number 21 (sometimes written a5 219) to binary, first subtract the largest power of 2 that will fit in the number, For 21 the largest power of 2 that will fitis 16 or 2*. Subtracting 16 from 21 gives a remainder of 5. Puta 1 in the 2 digit position and see if the next lower power of 2 will fit in the remainder, Since 2 is 8 and 8 will not fit in the remainder of 5, put a 0 in the 2° digit position. Then try the next lower power of 2. In this case the next is 2 or 4, which will fit in the remainder of 5. A 1 is therefore put in the 2° digit position. When 2* or 4is, subtracted from the old remainder of 5, anew remainder of | is left. Since 2' or 2 will not fit into this remainder, a Oiisputin that position. A 1 is putin the 2° position because 2" is equal to 1 and this fits exactly into the remainder of 1. The result shows that 21 9 is equal to 10101 in binary. This conversion process is somewhat messy 10 describe but easy todo. Try converting 4649 10 binary. You should get 101110. Another method of converting a decimal number to binary is shown in Fig, 1.26. Divide the decimal number bby 2 and waite the quotient and remainder as shown. Divide this quotient and following quotients by 2 until the quotient reaches 0, The column of remainders will be the binary cequivalentof the given decimal number. Note that the MSD ison the bottom of the column and the LSD is on the top of the column if you perform the divisions in order from the Cop to the bottom of the page, You can demonstrate that the binary number is correct by reconverting from binary to decimal, as shown in the right-hand side of Fig. 1.26. You can convert decimal numbers less than I to binary by successive multiplication by 2, recording carries until the quantity to the right of the decimal point becomes zero, as shown in Fig. 2c. The carries represent the binary equivalentof the decimal number, with the most significant bit at the top of the column, Decimal 0.625 equals 0.101 in binary. For decimal values that do not convert exactly the way this one did (the quantity to the right of the decimal never becomes zero), you can continue the conversion process unl you get the number of binary digits desired.Computer Number Systems, Codes, and Digital Devices 1.3 At this point itis interesting to compare the number of digits required to express numbers in decimal with the ‘number required to express them in binary. In decimal, one digit can represent 10! numbers, 0 through 9; two digits can represent 10° or 100 numbers, 0 through 99; and three digits can represent 10° or 1000 numbers, 0 through 999. Inbinary, asimilar pattem exists. Onebinary digit can represent 2 numbers, Oand 1; two binary digits can represent 2° or 4 numbers, 0 through 11; and three binary digits can represent 2° or 8 numbers, 0 through 111. The pattern, then, is that N decimal digits can represent 10" numbers and N binary digits can represent 2" mumbers. Eight binary digits can represent 2¥ or 256 numbers, 0 through 255 in decimal. BA 222 smo 42 so1o10 @) Least Signtteant Bnary Digit RI x18 = 128 t 227 Chock Most Sgnificant Binary Digit 00011 @ sa. 625 Be Fig. 1.2 Converting decimat to binary. (a) Digit value method, (b) Divide by 2 method, (¢) Decimal fraction conversion. Hexadecimal Binary is not a very compact code. This means that it requires many more digits to express a number than does, for example, decimal, Twelve binary digits can only describe anumber up 104095 , Computers require binary data, but people working with computers have trouble remembering long binary words. One solution to the problem is to use the hexadecimal or base-16 number system. Figure |.3a shows the digit valves for hexadecimal, ‘which is often just called ex. Since hex is base 16, you have to have 16 possible symbols. one for each digit. The table of Fig. 1.3b shows the symbols for hex code. {WW 1610" 16-1167 1697 \ cae acs 266 16 1 Dec Hex | 20 6:8 | te1 929 | 222 A 223 8 4n4 eo | een) | 626 Wee | Te? BsF | re) | 22 y= Ee \ @ Fig.1.3° Hexadecmalnumbers, (q) Value of place holders, (b) Symbols, (c) Decimat-to- hexadecimalconversion. After the decimal symbols 0 through 9 are used up. you use the letters A through F for values 10 through 15. ‘As mentioned above, each hex digit is equal to four binary digits. To convert the binary number 11010110 to hex, mark off the binary bits in groups of 4, moving to the Jeft from the ‘ nary point, Then write the hex symbol for the value of each group of 41a Microprocessor and Interfacing: Programming and Hardware Binary 1101 0110 Hx oD 6 ‘The 0110 group isequal to 6 and the 1101 group isequal Since 13 is D in hex, 11010110 binary is equal to hex. “H” is usually used after a number to indicate that it is a hexadecimal number. For example, D6 hex is usually written DOH. As you can see, 8 bits can be represented with only 2 hex If you want to convert a number from decimal to hexadecimal, Fig. |.3c shows familiartrick fordoing this. ‘The result shows that 227, is equal to E3H. As you can see, hex is an even more compact code than decimal. Two hexadecimal digits can represent a decimal number up to 255. Four hex digits can represent a decimal number up 10 65,535. To illustrate how hexadecimal numbers are used in digital logic, a service manual tells you that the 8-bitwide data bus of an 8088 microprocessor should contain 3FH during acertain operation. Converting 3FHto binary gives the pattern of I's and 0's (QOI1 1111) you would expect to find with your oscilloscope or logic analyzer on the parallel lines. The 3FH is simply a shorthand which iseasier to remember and less prone to errors than the binary equivalent. BCD Codes STANDARD BCD In applications such as frequency counters, digital volt- meiers, or calculators, where the output is a decimal Table 1.1 Cormunon Number Codes display, a binary-coded decimal or BCD code is often used. BCDusesa4-bit binary codeto individually representeach decimal digit in a number. As you can see in Table 1.1, the simplest BCD code uses the first 10 numbers of standard binary code for the BCD numbers 0 through 9. ‘The hex codes A through F are invalid BCD codes. To convert a decimal number to its BCD equivalent, just represent each decimal digitby its 4-bit binary equivalent, as shown here. Decimal 5 2 9 BCD 0101 101001 To convert a BCD number to its decimal equivalent, reverse the process. GRAY CODE Gray code is another important binary code; it is often used for encoding shaft position data from machines such as computer-controlled lathes. This code has the same possible combinations as standard binary, but as you can see in the 4-bit example in Table 1.1, they are arranged in a different order. Notice that only one binary digit changes at a time as you count up in this code, If you need to construct a Gray-code table larger than that in Table 1.1, a handy way to do so is to observe the pattern of I'sand0’sand just extend [Link] least significant digit column starts with one and then has alternating gToups of two I's and two 0's as you go down the column, ‘The second most significant digit column starts with two 0's and then has alternating groups of four |"s and four Binary-Coded Decimal Reflected _7-Segment Display (l= on) Decimal Binary Octal Hex 8421 BCD EXCES: Gry " abedefg Display Code ii 0000=~«~S*=<“<«S~C O11 OO1} 0000 mt oor O11 0100 0001-01 10000 1 0102 OO 0101 = O01 1oroL 2 ool 3 O11 O10 00101111001 3 01004 OO OT O10 “OT EDOAT 4 ol 5 O11 1009 O11 1o1t011 2 oo 6 0011 1001 o101 lori 6 our 7 O11 1019 01001110000 7 8 100010 Co 1001111111 8 9 tor on 9 oti 1100 1101 tito011 9 10 1010 «AL 0100 OO 1111 HLAL1OL A n tol BB (000d 100 1001110 O ETAT B 2 10 ~« | C~«(OOOT 0010-0100 O101~—«1010.~=«~ OT AOF € B Hor 15 D0} ool! = 0100 1101011 orii0t D 4 110 16 E000 Qi 0100 O11 1001 ont E 15 ui ___000t 10! 0100 10001000 ODI LL FEComputer Number Systems, Codes, and Digital Devices 1.5 O's. The third column starts with four 0's, then has alternating groups of eight 1's and eight 0's. By now you should see the pattern. Try to Fig. out the Gray code for the decimal number 16. You should get 11000. 7-Segment Display Code Figure 4a shows the segment identifiers fora 7-segment display such as those commonly used in digital instruments. Table 1.1 shows the logic levels required to display 0 to 9 and A to F on a common-cathode LED display such as that shown in Fig. 4b. For a common- anode LED display such as that in Fig. 14c, simply invert the segment codes shown in Table 1.1 Alphanumeric Codes ‘When communicating with or between computers, you need a binary-based code which can represent letters of the alphabet as well as numbers. Common codes used for this have 7 or 8 bits per word and are referred to as alphanumeric codes. To detect possible errors in these codes, an additional bit, called a parity bit is often added as the most significant bit. Parity is a term used to identify whether a data word has an odd or even number of I's. Ifa data word contains an odd number of ls, the word is said to have odd parity. ‘The binary word 0110111 with fivel’s has odd parity. The binary word 0110000 has an even number of I's (two), so it has even parity. In practice the parity bitis used as follows. The system that is sending a data word checks the parity of the word. If the parity of the data word is odd, the system will set the parity bit toa 1. This makes the parity of the data word plus parity biteven. Ifthe parity of the data word is even, the sending system will reset the parity bit to a 0. This Table 1.2 Common AlphanumericCodes again makes the parity of the data word plus parity even. The receiving system checks the parity of the data word plus parity bit that it receives. If the receiving system detects odd parity in the received data word plus parity, it assumesan error has occurred and tells the sending system to send the data azain, The systems then said to be using even parity. The system could have been set up to use (maintain) odd parity in a similar manner. Fig. 1.4 7-segment LED display, (a) Segment labels, (b) Schematic of common-cathode type, (c) Schematic of common-anode type. ASCIL Table 1.2 shows several alphanumeric codes. The first of these is ASCH, or American Standard Code for Infor- ‘mation Interchange. This is shown in the table as a 7- bit code. With 7 bits you can code up to 128 characters, ‘which isenovgh for the full upper- and lowercase alphabet, ASC HEX EBCDIC HEX ASC) HEX EBG@DIG HEX ASCH HEX EBCDIC HEX Symbol Code Symbol Code Symbol Code ‘Symbol. Code Symbol Code Symbol Code for 7-Bit for for 7-Bit for for 7-Bit for ASCIL EBCDIC ASCIL EBCDIC EBCDIC NUL 00 | NUL * 2A * 5 5 SOH 01 SOH_ ool . 2B + 4E u STX 02 SIX @ 2 8 ES EX 03 FIX : w rs FOT 0: | BOT 37 4B n BENQ 05) ENQ. 2D 1 i ol B ACK 06 ACK 0 0 FO B BA? BL 1 1 Fl AD (Contd)1.6 -Microprocessorand interfacing: Programming and Hardware (Contd.) ASG HEX EBCDIC HEX ASCIN HEX EBCDIG HEX | ASC HEX EBCDIG HEX Symbol Code Symbol Code Symbcl__Code Symbol_ Code Symbol Code Symbol Coe foe 7-Bit for for 7-Bit for for 7-Bit for ASCIL EBCDIC ASCUL EBCDIC ASCIL EBCDIC BOS BS 1G 2 z Fr oe xc NE 5 HT HT OS 3 3 F3 ics 9D ( pp LF OA Th 4 4 Fa “ = 7 e VI (OB week 5 5 5B fa + = © FF OC ee) OC leg 6 F6 : © RES ut Roop ce o ie 7 F7 a 1 a a SO OF SO. 0c | 8 8 FR b @ b 2 Si OF Si OF 9 9 Fo © 6 © 8 DE 0 DE 0 : : 7A a a 4 4 pe ls eee SE © 6 © s oo 2 fee pl xc Re 4c f « f %6 he, 3 fos 2B aD 7E ® a ® a i es \ 3, \ oF b 6 h % INAK 1S NAK 3D? F 1 oF i © i ® SYN 16 SIN 2 @ 4 e 7c iy (6A i 1 EB O70 OB. HA A a k @ k 2 CAN 18 (CAN 18 = B 2 <8 i 1 «© 1 g mM 19 ™ » (|e 3 re G. mo oO m 4 See) 1A Poe oF Tepe 44 D ce o « a 6 rey (BeBe es E 5 oF 0 % sy ee Re eg F co io P 9 cs wD oS wo Men o G 7 4 1 4 8 7 Er Boe © ae « H cs r r » US oF us oF 1) 2 1 9 s s a2 sp sP 0 Ti 4A J DI t t a3 ei 5A ee 48 K D2 u a Ad 1 2 a fey ac L D3 v Vv a3 i 2 * 3 eM) 3 fem D4 w w 6 3. 4 s 5s lay a N Ds x x a7 % 2 * c O| ° bo zi y a8 & % Be) 0 Bae P D7 z x a9 a2 7D Mowe st Q DS ( { B C 2 oe > mee 2 R be 1 1 F ) 2 2 > ao Ss s E2 } } B : é 4A Da DEL o numbers, punctuation marks, and control characters. The EBCDIC code is arranged so that if only uppercase letters, numbers, and a few control characters are needed, the lower 6 bits are all that are required. If parity check is ‘wanted, a parity bit is added to the basic 7-bit code in the MSB position. The binary word 1100 0100, for example, is the ASCII code for uppercase D with odd parity. ‘Table 1.3 gives the meanings of the control character symbols used in the ASCII code table. Another alphanumeric code commonly encountered in IBM equipment is the Extended Binary-Coded Decimal Interchange Code or EBCDIC. This is an 8-bit code without parity. A ninth bitcan be added for parity. To save space in Table 1.2, the eight binary digits of EBCDIC are represented by their 2-digit hex equivalent.Computer Number Systems, Codes, aitd Digital Devices LZ Table 1.3 Definitions of Control Characters ROE) Nat DEI Direct contrat T SOH Star of heading DEZ__ Direct control 2 SUX Start ext DE Direct control 3 ETX End text DE Direct contra 4 OT End of AK Negative transmission acknowledge ENO Enquiry SYN. Synchronous idie ACK Acknowledge ETB End transmission BEL 0S block BS Backspace CAN: Cancel HT > Horizontal tab EM End of medium IF Line feed SUB Substitute ME Vertical tab FSC Escape TF Formfced FS Form separator RH Carrisge ow GS Group separator SO Shift out RS Record separator St Shift in US = Unit separator DLE link escape ARITHMETIC OPERATIONS ON BINARY, HEX. AND BCD NUMBERS Binary Arithmetic ADDITION Figure|.Sashows the wuth table for addition of two binary digits end acarry in (C,) from addition of previous digits Fig. 1.5b shows the result of adding two 8-bit binary S=A@BOCy Cour =A" B+ Gn (ASB) @ s0011010 + nomn00 @ orono cary C) ¥ig.1.5. Binary addition, (a) Truthtable for 2 bits plus carry. (6) Addition of two 8-bit words. ‘numbers together using these rales. Assuming that Cy 1, 1+0+Cyy=asum of Oanda carry into the next digit and 1 +14 Gy =a sum of 1 and a carry into the next digit because the result in any digit position can only be a For 20. 2/S-COMPLEMENT SIGNS-AND-MAGNITUDE BINARY When you handwrite a number that represents some physical quantity suchas temperature, you can simply put a+ sign in front of the number to indicate that the number is positive, or you can write a sign to indicate that the number is negative. However, if you want to store values such as temperatures, which can be positive or negative, in a computer memory, there is a problem. Since the computer memory can store only I's and 0's, some way must be established to represent the sign of the number with a 1 or a0. ‘A common way to represent signed numbers is to reserve the most significant bit of the data word as a sign bit and to use the rest of the bits of the data word to represent the size (magnitude) of the quantity. A computer that works with 8-bit words will use the MSB (bit 7) as the sign bitand the lower 7 bits to represent the magnitude ‘of the numbers, The usual convention is to represent a positive number with a 0 sign bit and anegative number with aT ‘Tomake computations with signed numbers easier, the magnitude of negative numbersis represented in special form called 2's complement. The 2's complement of a binary number is formed by inverting each bit of the data word and adding | to the result. Some examples should help clarify all ofthis. The number +749 is represented in 8-bit sign-an ‘magnitude form as 000001111. The sign bit is 0, which indicates a positive number. The magnitude of positive ‘numbers is represented in straight binary, so 00000 111 in the least significant bits represents 7,0, To represent ~7, in 8-bit 2's-complement sign- and- magnitude form, start with the 8-bit code for + 7, (00000111. Invert each bit, neluding the MSB, toget 1111 1000, Then add 1 to get 11111001. This resultis the correct representation of ~7,9. Fig. 1.6 shows some more ‘examples of positive and negative numbers expressed in 8-bit sign-and-magnitude form. For practice, try generating each ofthese yourself to see if you get the same result. To reverse this procedure and find the magnitude of a number expressed in sign-and-magnitude form, proceed as follows, If the number is positive, as indicated by the1.8 Microprocessor and interfacing: Programming and Hardware 2! oo00114 0} 101110, 0! 1401001, 41 1110100 11 7001010 1 0007014 4} 1010010 ‘Sign and ‘two's complement ‘of magnitude Fig.1.6 Positive and negative numbers repre- sented with a sign bit and 2's comple- ment. sign bit being a0, then the least significant 7 bits represent the magnitude directly ia binary. If the numbers negative, as indicated by the sign bit being a 1, then the magnitude is expressed in 2's complement. To get the magnitude of is negative number expressed in standard binary, invert ach bit of the data word, including the sign bit, and add 1 to the result. For exemple, given the word 11101011, invert each bit to get 00010100. Then add 1 to get (00010101. This equals 21 o.s0 you know that the original numbers represent ~219. Again, try reconverting a few of the numbers in Fig. 1.6 for practice. Figure 1.7 shows some examples of addition of signed binary numbers of this type. Sign bits are added together just as the other bits are. Fig. 7a shows the results of ‘adding two positive numbers. The sign bit ofthe result is, zero, so the result is positive. The second example, in Fig. 1.76, adds a-9 to a+13 or, in effect, subsracts 9 from 13. As indicated by the zero sign bit, the result of 4 is positive and in true binary form. Figure .7c shows the result of adding a—13 to asmaller positive number, +9. The sign bit of the resut is 2 1. This, indicates that the result is negative and the magnitude in 2's-complement form. To reconvert a 2’s complement result to a signed namber in true binary form: 1, Invert each bit to produce the 1’s complement. 2. Addi. 3. Put a minus sign in front to indicate that the result is negative. The final example, in Fig. 1.7d, shows the result of adding two negative numbers. The sign bit of the result is, a, so theresult is negative and in 2's-complement form. ‘Again, inverting each bit, adding 1, und prefisinga minus sign will put the result in a more recognizable farm. ‘Now let's consider the range of numbers that can be represented with 8 bits in sign-and-magnitude form. Eight bits can represent a maximum of 2* or 256 numbers. Since ‘we are representing both positive and negative numbers, half of this range will be positive and half negative ‘Therefore, the range is -128 to +127. Here are the sign- and-magnitude binary representations for these values: OLLLtdat 4127 00000001 41 00000000 zero didiidit 10000001 -127 10000000 -128 413° _0o00t107 +9 90001001 422 soo10T10, ‘son bitis 0 20 recut le positive a) +13 oooott01 = 3, ANT10111_2's complement for ~9 with sign bit ‘90000100 {Sign bitis 0 ‘50 resut is positive Ignore carry » 0001001 {1110011 2's complement for —13 with sign tt 11111100. Sign bitis 1 190000011 0 Invert each bit 1 Add 1 40000400 Prefix with minus sign — eed @ ‘41110111 2's complement for 41110014 Sign-and-magnitude fon 11101010 Signbitis 1 ‘30 invert each Bi ae 4 Add t 90010110 Prefix wit minus sign _ i Fig. 1.7 Addition of signed binary numbers, (lq) +9 and +13. (a) -9 and +13. (d +9 and -13. (d)-9 and -13. Ifyou like number patterns, you might notice that this scheme shifts the normal codes for 128 to 255 downward to represent ~128 to ~1Computer Number Systems, Codes, and Digital Devices If a computer is storing signed numbers as 16-bit words, then a much larger range of numbers can be represented. Since 16 bits gives 2'° or 65,536 possible values, the range for 16-bit sign-and-magnitude numbers is ~32,768 to +32,767. Operations with 16-bit sign-and- magnitude numbers are done the same way as operations. with 8-bitsign-and-magnitude numbers SUBTRACTION There are two common methods for doing binary sub- traction, These are the pencil method and the 2°s- ‘complement add method. Fig. L8a shows the truth table for binary subtraction of two binary digits A and B. Also included in the truth table is the effect of a borrow. from subtracting previous digits. Fig. 1.8 shows an ‘example of the “pencil” method of subtracting two 8-bit numbers. Using the truth table, this method is done the same way that you do decimal subtraction, A second method of performing binary subtraction is bby adding the 2's-complement representation of the bottom umber (Sabtrahend) to the top number (minuend). Fig, 1 8eshowshow thisis done. Firstrepresent the top number in sign-and-magnitude form. Then form the 2’s- complement sign-and-inagnitude representation for the negative of the bottom number. Finally, dd the two parts formed. For the example in Fig. 8c, the sign of the result Bays 19 is @ 0, which indicates that the result is positive and in true form. The final carry produced by the addition can be ignored. Fig. 1.84 shows another example of this ‘method of subtraction. In this ease the bottom number is larger than the top number, Again, represent the top number in sign-and-magnitude form, produce the 2's complement sign-and-magnitude form for the negative of the bottom number, and add the two together. The sign bit of the result isa I for this example. This indicates that the result is negative and its magnitude is represented in 2’s-complement form. To get the result into a form that is more recognizable to you, invert each bit of the result, add 1 to it, and put a minus sign in front of it as shown in Fig. 18d. Problems that may occur when doing signed addition or subtraction are overflow and underflow. If the magnitude of the nomber produced by adding wo signed numbers is larger than the number of bits available to represent the magnitude, the result will “overflow” into _the sign bit position and give an incorrect result. For ‘example if the signed positive number 01001001 is added lo the signed positive number OLO1I01, the result is 10110110. The | in the MSB of this result indicates that it is negative, which is obviously incorrect for the sum of two positive numbers. In asimilar manrer, doing an 8-bit signed subtraction that produces a magnitude greaterthan soror010 INPUTS BUTPUT 03100100 A [B [Bal D] Bou i ofo|o] oo o}ofa]s| 4 ” ois fol a] 4 afal tf Ste orort011 orono11 tfolo}t| o s +11070010 AR =A6y 00101119 avert i|$]ojel 6 Be leach bit | JOOTOHIOT = 45,5 abilstat$ ‘i One'scome \- 1101001 | + + nace DIFFERENCE =A© By, ‘aa ys i) Pees. BORROW =4-B + (A8B)-8yy Jwo'scome ——notoato/ | andintrue @ ‘Cay. ary frm ° Tie 91001101 exo0r01 rors ane ee coplanar 10100811 Be pe one ory Two'scomp 19101000 Bnd in o's carry! Somploment ) a m / Fig.1.8 Binary subtraction, (a) Truth table for 2 bits and borrow, (b) Pencil method, (c} 2's-complement positive result, (d) 2’s-complement negative result.1.10 =128 will cause an “underflow” into the sign bit and produce an incorrect result. For simplicity the examples showa use 8 bits, but the method works for any number of bits. This method may seem awkward, but it is easy to do ina computer or microprocessor because it requires only the simple operations of inverting and adding MULTIPLICATION ‘There are several methods of doing binary multiplication. Fig. 1.9 shows what is called the pencil method because it is the same way you learned to multiply decimal ‘numbers. The top number, or multiplicand, is multiplied by the least significant digit of the bottom number, or multiplier. The partial product is written down, The top numberis then multiplied by the next digit of the mukiplier. ‘The resultant partial product is written down under the last, but shifted one place to the left. Adding all the partial products gives the total product. This method works well ‘when doing mukiplication by hand, but itis not practical fora computer because the type of shifts required makes it awkward to implement. (1 4011 MULTIPLICAND |< 9 x 4001 MULTIPLIER | tor ‘0000 Bago | PARTIAL PRODUCTS son {oooH PRODUCT Fig. 1.9 Binary multiplication. One of the multiplication methods used by computers, is repeated addition. To multiply 7 x 55, for example, the ‘computer can just add up seven $5's. For large numbers, however, this method is slow. To multiply 786 x 253, for example, requires 252 add operations. Most computers use an add-and-shift-right method. This method takes advantage of the fact that for binary multiplication, the partial product can only be either the topnumber exactly if the mukiplier digit isa | ora0 if te multiplier digit isa 0. The method does the same thing as the pencil method, except that the partial products are added as they are produced and the sum of the partial products is shified right rather than each partial product being shifted left. ‘A point to note about multiplying numbers isthe number ‘of bits the product requires. For example, multiplying two 4-bit numbers can give a product with as many as 8-bits, and two 8-bit numbers can give a 16-bit product. Microprocessor and Interfacing: Programming and Hardware DIVISION Binary division can also be performed in several ways Fig. 1.10 shows two examples of the pencil method. is the same process as decimal long division. However, it is much simpler than decimal long division because the digits ofthe result (quotient) canonly be 0or I. A division is attempted on par of the dividend. If this isnot possible because the divisors larger than that part of the dividend, a Qisentered inthe quotient. Anotherattempt is then made to divide using one more digit of the dividend. When a divisien is possible, a 1 isenteredin the quotient. The divisor is then subtracted from the portion of the dividend used. ‘As with standard long division, the process is continued until all the dividerd is used. As shown in Fig. L10b,0°s can be added to the right of the binary point and division continued to convert a remainder to a binary equivalent. 04109 quotient | pimsor 110)7901000 DIVIDEND 12 0. 2 10 a | 0 | (a) | | ost ez | sof 1005.00 yas cs ©) Fig. 1.10 Binary division. Another method of division that is easier for com- puters and microprocessors to perform uses successive subtractions. The divisor is subtracted from the dividend and from each successive remainder until a borrow is produced. The desired quotient is 1 less than the number of subtractions needed 10 produce a borrow. This method is simple, but lor large numbers it is slow. For faster division of large numbers, computers use @ subtract-and-shift-left method that is essentially the same process you go through with a pencil long di Hexadecimal Addition and Subtraction People working with computers or microprocessors often use hexadecimal as a shorthand way of representing long binary numbers such as memory addresses. ILis therefore useful to be able to add and subtract hexadecimal numbers.Computer Number Systems, Codes, and Digital Devices 1 ADDITION As shown in Fig. I.11a, one way to add two hexadeci- ‘mal numbers is to convert each hexadecimal number to its binary equivalent, add the two binary numbers, and convert the binary result back to its hex equivalent. For converting to binary, remember that each hex digit represents 4 binary digits ‘A second method, shown in Fig. 1.116, works directly with the hex numbers. When adding hex digits, a carry is produced whenever the sum is 16 decimal or greater. Another way of saying this is thet the value of a carry in hex is 16 decimal. For the least significant digits in Fig. 1.116, 4n A inhex is 10 indecimal and an Fis Sin decir. These add to give 25 decimal, This is greater than 16, 50 mentally subtract 16 from the 25 to give a carry and a remainder of 9. The 9 is written down and the carry is added to the next digit column. In this column 7 plus 3 plus a carry gives a decimal 11, or B in bex. cary ‘ 7A ont 1010 1) Ae +3f | Soom ttt sa Fe Be 1011 1007 tthe 25:0 8 8 Be 86 @ @) Wig. 1.11 Hexadecimal addition. You may use whichever method seems easier to you and gives you consistently right answers. If you are doing a great deal of hexadecimal arithmetic, you might buy an electronic calculator specifically designed to do decimal, binary, and hexadecimal arithmetic. SUBTRACTION Hexadecimal subtraction is similar to decimal subtraction except that when a borrow is needed, 16 isborrowed from the next most significantdigit Fig. 1-12 showsan example of this. It may help you to follow the example if you do partial conversions o decimal in yourhead. For example, 7 plus a borrowed 16 is 23. Subtracting B or II leaves 12 oF C inhexadecimal. Then 3 from the 6 left after a borrow leaves 3, so the result is 3CH Wig. 1.12 Hexadecimal subtraction. BCD Addition and Subtraction In systems where the final result of a calculation is to be displayed, such as a calculator, it may be easier to work with numbers in a BCD format. These codes, as shown in Table 1.1, represent each decimal digit, D through 9, by its 4-bit binary equivalent. ADDITION BCD can have no digit-word with a valve greater than 9. ‘Therefore, a carry mustbe generatedif the result ofa BCD addition is greater than 1001 or 9. Fig. 1.13 shows three examples of BCD addition. The first, in Fig. 1.134, is very straightforward because the sum for each BCD digit is less than 9, The result isthe same asit would be for adding standard binary, For the second example, in Fig. 1.13b, adding BCD 7 to BCD 5 produces 1100. This is a correct binary result of 12, butit isan illegal BCD code. To convert the result to BCD format, a correction factor of 6 is added. The result of adding 6 is 0001 0010, which is the legal BCD code for 12. Figure |.13c shows another case where a correction factor must be added. The initial addition of 9 and 8 cD oot! O101 +23 +0010 0071 ‘0107 1000 @ co ont +0101 2 1100 INCORRECT BCD +0110 ADDS | | 0001 0010 CORRECT BCD 12 ® aco ° ior +8 + 4oco 17 0001 0001 INCORRECT BCD. 0000 0119 ADD 6 000 O11 CORRECT BCD 17 © a ) Fig. 1.13 BCD addition, (a) Nocorrection needed. (b) Correction needed because of illegal BCD result, ( Correction needed because of carry-out of BCD digit. produces 0001 0001. Even though the lower four digits are less than 9, tis is an incorrect BCD result because a carry out of bit 3 of the BCD digit-word was produced.112 ‘This carry out of bit 3 is often called an auxiliary carry. Adding the correction factor of 6 gives the correct BCD result of 0001 OL1! of 17. To summarize, a correction factor of 6 must be added ifthe result in the lower 4 bits is greater than 9 or if the jl addition produces a carry out of bit 3 of any BCD i-word. Thiscorrection issometimes called a decimal adjust operation. ‘The reason for the correction factor of 6 is that in BCD. ‘we want a carry into the next digit after 1001 or 9, but in binary a cary out of the lower 4 bits does not occur until after 1111 or 15. The difference between the two carry points is 6, s0 you have to add 6 to produce the desired carry ifthe result of an addition in any BCD digit is more than 1001. SUBTRACTION Figure 1.14 shows a subtraction, BCD 17 (0001 0111) minus BCD 9 (0000 1001). The initial result, 0000 1110, is nota legal BCD number. Whenever this occurs in BCD subtraction, 6 must be subtracted trom the inital resultto produce the correct BCD result. For the example shown in Fig. 1.14, subtracting 6 gives a correct BCD result of (0000 1000 or 8, 17 ooor ont ) 9 0000 1001 9000 1110 ILLEGAL BCD =0110 SUBTRACTS 000 160 CORRECT BCO Fig. 1.14 BCD subtraction. The correction factor of 6 must be subtracted from any BCD digit-wordit that digit-wordis greaterthan 1001, or if'a borrow from the next higher digit was required to do the subtraction. BASIC DIGITAL DEVICES Microcomputers such as those we discuss throughout this book often contain basic logic gates as “glue” between LSI (large-scale integration) devices. For troublshooting these systems, itis important to be able to predict logic levels at any point directly from the schematic rather than having to work your way through a truth table for each gate. This section should help refresh your memory of basic logic functions and help you remember how to quickly analyze logic gate circuits Microprocessor and interfacing: Programming and Hardware Inverting and Noninverting Buffers Figure 1.15 shows the schematic symbols and truth tables for simple buffers and logic gates. The first thing to remember about these symbols is that the shape of the symbol indicates the logic function performed by the device. The second thing to remember about these symbols is that a bubble or no bubble indicates the assertion level for an input or output signal. Let's review how modern logic designers use these symbols. 1.154 has no bubbles on the input or output. Therefore, the input is active high and the output is active high. We read thi symbol as follows: Ifthe input A is asserted high, then the output Y will be asserted high. The rest of the truth table is covered by the assumption that if the A input is, not asserted high, then the Y output will not be asserted high, The next two symbols for a buffer each contain a bubble. The bubble on the output of the first of these indicates that the output is active low. The input has no eal! ls wal | SaSee] loso-l-<| Kb [)- @ Saaen] noo-< Y=AB HRB si’ } @ J Fig. 1.18 Buffers and logie gates. (a) Buffers. (b) AND-NAND, (c) OR-NOR, (d) Exclusive OR.Computer Number Systems, Codes, and Digital Devices bubble, so it is active high. You can read the function of the device directly from the schematic symbol as follows. If the A input is asserted high, then the Y ontput will be asserted low. This device simply changes the assertion level of a signal. The output Y will always have a logic state which is the complement or inverse of that on the input, so the device is usually referred to as an inverter. The second schematic symbo! for an inverter in Fig. 1.15a has the bubble on the input. We draw the symbol this way when we want to indicate that we are using the device to change an asserted-low signal to an asserted-high signal, For example, if we pass the signal GS through this device, itbecomes CS. The symbol tells you directly that ifthe inputis asserted low. then the output will be asserted high. Now let's review how you express the functions of logic gates using this approach, Logic Gates Figure 1.15b showsthe symbols and truth tables for simple logic gates. A symbol with a flat back and a round front indicates that the device performs the logical AND function, ‘This means that the output will be asserted if the A input is asserted ad the B inputis asserted. Again, bubbles or ‘no bubbles are used to indicate the assertion level of each input and output. The first AND symbol in Fig. 1.15b has ‘no bubbles, so the inputs and the output are active high. ‘The output then will be asserted high if the A input is asserted high and the B input is asserted high. The bubble ‘on the output of the second AND symbol in Fig, 1.155 indicates that this device, commonly called 2 NAND gate, has an active low output. If the A input is asserted high and the B input is asserted high, then the ¥ output will be asserted low. Look at the truth table in Fig. 1.15b to see if you agree with this. Figure 1.1Se shows the other two possible cases for the AND symbol. The first of these has bubbles on the inputs and on the output. [f you see this symbol in a schematic, ‘you should immediately see that the output will be asserted low ifthe input is asserted low and the B input is asserted ow. The second AND symbol in Fig. 1.15c has no bubble ‘on the output. so the output will be asserted high if the A and B inputs are both asserted low. ‘A logic symbo! with a curved back indicates that the ‘output of the device will be asserted if the A input is asserted or the B input of the device is asserted. Again, bubbles or no bubbles are used to indicate the assertion level for inputs and outputs. Note in Fig. 1.15 and cthat each of the AND symbol forms has an equivalent OR symbol form. An AND symbol withactive high inputs and an active high output, for example, represents the same 1.13 device (a 74LS08 perhaps) as an OR symbol with active Tow inputs and an active low output. Use the truth table in Fig. 1.15b to convince yourself of this. The bubbled-OR representation tells you that if one input is asserted low, the output will be low, regardless of the state of the other input. As we will show later in this chapter, this is often a usefull way to think of the operation of an AND gate. Figure 1.15d shows the symbol and truth table for an exclusive OR gate and for an exclusive NOR gate. The output of an exclusive OR gete will be high if the logic levels on the two inputs are different. The output of an exclusive NOR gate will be high if the logic levels on the two inputs are the same. ‘You need o be familiar with all these symbols, because most logic designers will use the symbol that best describes the function they want a device to perform in a particular circuit. Programmable Logic Devices Instead of using discrete gates. modem microcomputer systems usually use programmable logic devices such 2s PLAs, PROMS, or PALS to implement the “glue” logic between LSI devices. To refresh your memory. Figure 1.16 shows the internal structure of each of these devices. As you can see, they all consist ofa programmable AND- OR matrix, so they can asily implement any sum- of products logic expression. Each AND gate in these figures has up to four inputs, but to simplify the drawing only a single input line is shown, Likewise, the OR gates have several inputs, but are shown with a single input line to simplify the drawing. These devices are programmed by blowing out fuses, which are represented in the figure by Xs. An X im the figure indicates that the fuse is intact and makes a connection between, for example, the output of an AND gate and one of the inputs of an OR gate. A ‘dot atthe intersection of two wires indicates a hard-wired connection implemented during manufacture. Inaprogrammable logic array (PLA) or field program ‘mable logic array (FPLA), both the AND matrix and the OR matrix are progammable by leaving in fuses or blowing them out. The two programmable matrixes make FPLAs very flexible, but difficult to program. In a programmable read-only memory or PROM, the AND matrix is fixed and just the OR matrix is programmable by leaving in fuses or blowing them out. PROMS implement all the possible product terms for the input variables, so they are useful as code converters In a programmable array logic device or PAL, the ‘connections in the OR matrix are fixed and the AND matrix connections are programmable. PALs are often used to14 implement combinational logic and address decoders in microcomputer systems. Heer rusiaeavo J AB PAL HARDWIRED OR A oe AB = a PROGRAMMABLE, "AND Fig.1.16 FPLA, PROM, and PAL programmed to implement some simple logie functions, (a) FPLA, (a) PROM, (c) PAL A computer program is usually used to develop the fuse map for an FPLA, PROM, or PAL. Once developed, the fise-map file is downloaded toe programmer which blows fuses or stores charges to actually program the device. ‘Microprocessorand Interfacing: Programming and Hardware Latches, Flip-Flops, Registers, and Counters THE D LATCH A latchisadigital device tat stores.a | ora onits output. Fig. 1.17 shows the schematic symbol and truth table for a D latch. The device functions as follows. If the enable input CK is low, the logic level present on the D input will have no effect on the Q and Q outputs. Fig. 1.17 Latches and flip-flops, (a) D latch. (b) D Slipflop. This is indicated in the truth table by an X in the D column. If the enable input is high, a high or alow on the D input will be passed to the Q output. In other words, the Q output will follow the D inpat as long as the enable input is high. The Q output will contain the complement of the logic state on Q. When the enable input is made low again, the state on Q at that time will be latched there. Any changes on D will have no effect on Quntilthe enable input is made high again, When the enable input goes low, then, the state present on D just before the enable goes Tow will be stored onthe Q output. Keep this operation in ‘mind as you read about the D flip-flop in the next section, THE D FLIP-FLOP Figure 1.170 shows the schematic symbol and the truth table for atypical D flip-flop. The small triangle next to the CK input of this device tells you that the Q and Q ‘outputs are updated when a rising signal edge is applied to the CK input. The up arrows in the clock column of the truth table also indicate that a 1 or 0 on the D input will be copied to the Q output when the clock input goes from low tohigh. In other words, the D flip-flop takes aComputer Number Systems, Codes, and Digttal Devices 1.15 snapshot of whatever state is on the D input when the clock goes high, and displays the “photo” on the Q output. If the clock inputis low, achange on D willhave noeffect ‘onthe output. Likewise, ifthe clock input ishigh, a change on D will have no effect on the Q output. Contrast this ‘operation with that of the D latch to make sure you understand the difference between the two devices. ‘The D flip-flop in Fig. 1.17b also has direct set (S) and reset(R) inputs. A flip-flop is considered setif ts Q output isa 1. Itis reset if its Q output is a0. The bubbles on the set and reset inputs tell you that these inputs are active low. The truth table for the D flip-flop in Fig. 1.17b indicates that the set and reset inputs are asynchronous. This means that ifthe set input is asserted tow, the output will be set, regardless of the states on the D and the clock inputs. Likewise, if the reset input is asserted low, the Q output will be reset, regardless of the state of the D and clock inputs. The Xs in the D and CK ‘columns of the truth table remind you that these inputs are “don't cares” if set or reset is asserted. The condition indicated by the asterisks (*) isa nonstable condition; that . it will not persist when reset or clear inputs return t0 their inactive (high) level. REGISTERS Flip-flops can be used individually or in groups to store binary data. A registeris a group of D flip-flopsconnected in parallel, as shownin Fig. 1.18a, A binary word applied to the data inputs of this register will be transferred to the ‘Q outputs when the clock input is made high. The binary ‘word will remainstored on theQ outputs until anew binary ‘word is applied to the D inputs and a low-te-high signal is applied to the clock input. Other circuitry can read the stored binary word from the Q outputsat any time without changing its value. If the Q output of each flip-flop in the register is connected to the D input of the next as shown in Fig. 1.185, then the register will function asa shift register ‘A 1 applied to the first D input will be shifted to the first Qoutput bya clock pulse, The next clock pulse will shift this I tothe outpat of the second flip-flop. Each additional clock pulse will shift the I to the next flip-flop in the register. Some shift registers allow you to load a binary ‘word into the register and shift the loaded word left or right when the register is clocked, As we will show later, the ability to shift binary numbers is very useful. COUNTERS Flip-flops can also be connected to make devices whose outputs step through a binary or other count sequence ‘when they are clocked. Fig. 1.19a shows a schematic symbol and count sequence for a presettable 4-bit binary Counter. The main point we want to review here is how a presettable counter functions, so there is no need to go into the internal circuitry of the device. Ifthe reset input is asserted, the Q outputs will al be made O's. After the reset signal is unasserted, each clock pulse will cause the Fig. 1.18 Registers, (a) Simple data storage, (b) Shiftregister. i 3 aoassaasessesseap| | Fig. 1.19 Four-bit. presettable binary counter, (a) ‘Schematic symbol, (fa) Count sequence. binary count on the outputs to be incremented by 1. As shownin Fig. 1.198, the count sequence will go from 0000 to 1111, Hf the outputs are at 1111, then the next clock1.16 pulse will cause the outputs to “roll over” to 0000 and a carry pulse to be sent out the carry output. This carry pulse can be used as the elock input for another counter. Counters can be cascaded to produce as large a count sequence asi needed fora parila appliaion, The ‘maximum count for a binary counter is 2° — 1, where is the number of flip-flops. Now, suppose that we want the counter to start counting from some number other than 0000. We can do this by applying the desired number to the four data inputs and asserting the load input. For example, if we apply a binary 6, 0110, to the data inputs and assert the load input, this value will be transferred to the Q outputs. After the load signal is unasserted, the next clock signal will increment the Q outputs to 0111 or 7. ROMs, RAMs, and Buses The next topics we need to review are the devices that store large numbers of binary words and how several of these devices can be connected on common data lines. ROMS ‘The term ROM stands for read-only memory. There are several types of ROM that can be written to, read, erased, and written to with new data, but the main feature of ROMS is that they are nonvolatile. This means that the information stored in them is not lost when the power is removed from them. Microprocessor and Interfacing: Programming and Hardware Figure 1.20a shows the schematic symbol of a com- mon ROM. As indicated by the eight dara outputs, DO to D7, this ROM stores bit data words. The data outputs are three-state outputs. This means that each output can be at a logic low state, a logic high state, or a high- impedance floating state. In the high-impedance state an ‘ontputis essentially disconnected from anything connected toit. If the CE input of the ROM is not asserted, then all the outputs will be in the high-impedance state. Most ROMs also switch to a lowerpower consumption standby mode if CE is not asserted. If the CE input is asserted, the device will be powered up, and the output buffers will beenabled. Therefore, the outputs will beat a normal logic ow or logic high state. If you don’t happen to remember. you will soon see why this is important You can think of the binary words stored in the ROM asbeing ina long, numberedlist. The number that identifies the location of each stored word in the list is called its ‘address. You can tell the nuniber of binary words stored inthe ROM by the aumber of address inputs. The aumber of words is equal to 28, where N is the number of address. lines. The device in Fig. 1.20a has 15 address lines, AO to A14, so the number of words is 2'* or 32,768, Ina data sheet this device would be referred to as a 32K x 8ROM. This means it has 32K addresses with 8 bits per address. In order to get a particular word onto the outputs of the ROM, you have to do two things. You have to apply ‘ADDRESS: DATA INPUTS ouTeuTs ar) s 8 ADDRESS ze BUS A303 Ad AS OS Ate Aste ayo — {a8 fe ROM , — ato an 5 = ce —ais ae DATA ce BUS oe ® D706 D§ D4 D3 D2D100 0 ce 97.065 D403 02 D1 0 () Fig. 1.20 ROMs, (a) Schematic symbol. (b) Connection in paraitel.Computer Number Systems, Codes, and Digital Devices 1.17 the address of that word to the address inputs, AO to A14, ‘and you have to assert the CE input to power up the device and to enable the three-state outputs. Now, le’s see why we want three-state outputs on this, ROM. Suppose that we want to store more than 32K data ‘words. We can do this by connecting two or more ROMs in parallel, as shown in Fig. 1.20b. The address lines connect to each device in parallel so we can address one of the 32.768 words ineach. A set of parallel lines used to send addresses or data to several devices in this way is called a bus. The data outputs of the ROMS are likewise connected in parallel so that any one of the ROMs can ‘output data on the common data bus. If these ROMs had standard two-state outputs, a serious problem would ‘occur when both ROMS wied (0 output data words on the bus. The resulting argument between data outputs would probably destroy some of the outputs and give meaningless information on the data bus. Since the ROMS have three-state outputs, however, we ean use external circuitry to make sure that only ore ROM at a time has its outputs enabled. The very important principle here is that whenever several outputs are connecied on a bus, the outputs should all be three- state, and only one set of outputs should be enabled at a time. ithe beginning ofthis section we mentioned that some ROMs can beerased and rewritten or reprogrammed with new data, Here’s a summary of the different types of ROMs. Mask-programmed ROM—Programmed during manufacture; cannot be altered PROM User programs by blowing fuses; cannot be altered except to blow additional fuses. EPROM Electrically programmableby user: erased by shining ultraviolet light on quartz. window in package. EEPROM—Electrically programmable by user; erased with electrical signals, so it can be reprogrammed in circuit. Flash EPROM—Electrically programmable by user, erased electrically, so it can be reprogrammed in circuit, STATIC AND DYNAMIC RAMS. ‘The name RAM stands for random-access memory, but ce ROMS are also random access, the name probably should be read-write memory. RAMS are also used to store binary words. A static RAM is essentially a matrix of flip: flops. Therefore, we can write a new data word in a RAM locatior at any time by applying the word to the flip-flop data inputs and clocking the flip-flops. The stored date ‘wont will remain on the flip-flop outputs as long as the power is Ieft on. This type of memory is volatile because data is lost when the power is tumed off. Figure 1.21 shows the schematic symbol for a common RAM. This RAM has 12 address lines, AOto AU1, so it stores 2'? (4096) binary words. The eight data lines tell you that the RAM stores 8-bit words. When we are reading a word from the RAM, these lines function as ‘outputs. When we are writing a word to the RAM, these lines function as inpats. The chip enable input, CE,, is used to enable the device for a read or for a write. The R/W input will be asserted high if we want toread from the RAM or asserted low if we want to write a word fo the RAM. Here’show all these lines work for reading from and writing to the device To write to the RAM, we apply the desired address 10 the address inputs, assert the CE input low to turn on the device, and assertthe R/W input low to tell the RAM ‘we want (o write to it. We then apply the dats word we want to store to the data lines of the RAM for a specified time. To read a word from the RAM, we address the desired word, assert GE low to tum on the device, and assert R/W high to tell the RAM we want to read from it. For aread operation the output buffers on the data fines willbe enabled and the addressed data word willbe present oon the cutputs. ‘The static RAMs we have just reviewed store binary words in a matrix of flip-flops. In dynamic RAMs (DRAMS), binary I's and 0's are stored as an electric charge or no charge on a tiny capacitor. Since these tiny capacitors take up less space on a chip than a flip-flop ADDRESS INPUTS Fig. 1.21 RAM schematie symbol.1.18 would, a dynamic RAM chip can store many more bits than the same size static RAM chip. The disadvantage of dynamic RAMS is that the charge leaks off the tiny capacitors. The logic state stored in each capacitor must be refreshed evesy 2 milliseconds (ms) ot so. A device called a dynamic RAM refresh controller can be used to refresh a large number of dynamic RAMS in a system, Some newer dynamic RAM devices contain built-in refresh circuitry, so they appear static to external circuitry. Arithmetic Logic Units An arithmetic logic unit, ot ALU, is a device that can AND, OR, add, subtract, and perform a variety of other operations on binary words. Fig. 1.22a shows a block diagram for the 7418181, which is a 4-bit ALU. This device can perform any one of 16 logic functions er any ne of 16 arithmetic functions on two 4-bitbinary words. The function performed on the two words is determined by the logic level applied to the mode input M and by the bit binary code applied to the select inputs $0 to $3. Figure 1.22b shows the truth table for the 74LS181. In this truth table, A represents the 4-bit binary word applied to the AOto A3 inputs, and B represents the 4-bit Microprocessor and Interfacing: Progranuning and Hardware binary word applied to the BO to B3 inputs. F represents the 4-bit binary word that will be produced on the FO to F3 outputs. If the mode input M is high, the device will perform one of 16 logic functions on the two words applied to the A and B inputs. For example, if M is high and we make $3 high, S? low, SI high, and SO high, the 4-bit word on the A inputs will be ANDed with the 4-bit word on the B inputs, The result of this ANDing will appear on the F outputs. Each bit of the A word is ANDed with the corresponding bit of the B word to produce the result on F. Fig. 1.22c showsan example of ANDing two ‘words with this device. As you can see in this example, aan output bit is high only if the corresponding bit is high in both the A word and the B word. For another example of the operation of the 74LS181, suppose that the M input is high, S3 is high, S2 is high, Slis high, end $0 istow. According to the truth table, the device will now OR each bit in the A word with the corresponding bit in the B word and give the result on the corresponding F output. Fig. 1.22c shows the result that will be produced by ORing two 4-bit words. Fig. 1.22c also shows for your reference the result that would be produced by exclusive ORing these two 4-bit words together. 7418181 TETVE-AIGADATA ‘SELECTION alg MEL;ARITHMETICOPERATIONS jay so sz st so GEHINOGARRY) [Gy =LQWTHOARRYD ey ie ib be & Fea Pus Loud =(A+@)pLUs 1 bo aera | Estate yptusi Bt tou HH F=MINUS 1(2's COMPL) Ex LHe FEAPLUSAB [Link] PLUS BS CoH LOH ES(AsB)PLUSAB | F=(A+B) PLUSABPLUS 1 ee Chae MNUSE MINUS MNSe he tL oH HOH ‘AB MINUS 1 FeAB esveat fied Hee F=APUUSAB =APLUSABPLUS 1 Huu d -APLUS* PLUSBPLUS 1 Tl) lace eae [Ep mmuns HLH A AB INOS FAB 6 hate ‘APLUS PLUS APLUS 1 HHL H F=(A+B)PLUSA F=(A+B)PLUSAPLUS1 HoH HL (A+B )PLUSA —«E=(A+ B)LUSAPLUS HAA OA Aig Fra ® “EAGHBITISSHIFTEDTO THENEXT MORE SIGNIFICANT BIT POSTION A= AS AZ AI AO A=1010 A B= 83 B2 61 BO B=o110 B=o110 8 Fam RF PO sesiit6 F=axe-0070 F=Aee © Fig. 1.22 Arithmetic logic unit (ALU). (a) Schematic XOR operations. ‘symbol, (b) Truth table, (c) Sample AND, OR, andComputer Number Systems, Codes, and Digital Devices If the M input of the 74LS181 is low, then the device will perform one of 16 arithmetic functions on the A and B words. Again, the result of the operation will be put on the F outputs. Several 74LS 181s can be cascaded to operate on words longer than 4 bits. The ripple-carry input, Cy allows a carry from an operation on previous words to be included in the current operation. If the Cyy input is asserted low, then a carry will be added to the results of the operation on A and B. For example, if the M input is ow, $3 is high, S2 is low, $1 is low, SO ishigh, and Cy is Jow, the F outputs will have the sum of A plus B plus a carry. The real importance of an ALU such as the 74LS181 is that it can be programmed with a binary instruction applied to its mode and select inputs to perform many different functions on two binary words applied to its data inputs. In other words, instead of having to build different circuit to perform each of these functions, we have one programmable device. We can perform any of the operations that we want in a computer witha sequence of simple operations such as those of the 74LS181 Therefore, an ALU is a very important part of the microprocessors and microcomputers that we discuss in the next chapter. 1.19 CHECKLIST OF IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS IN THIS CHAPTER {you do notremamberanyof the terms or conceps in his lit, use the indo find chen the captor Binary bit, nibble by, word, doubleword ISB, MSB, LSD, MSD Hexadecimal, sendard BCD, Gray cede regent diplaycode Alphanumeric codes: ASCU,EBCDIC Parity bit, odd perity even parity Canuerting beeen binary. decinal, hexadecimal, BCD Arichmeve wich binary hexadecimal, BCD BCD decimal adst operation Signed numbers ign bit 2icomplementsign-ard-magnitudeform Signataserion level Inverting and noninverting bufers ‘Symbols and trash cables for AND, NAND, OB, NOR, XORogic ‘PLA, PROM, PAL Ditch, D fip-fep Register shiftrgiter, binary counter ROM addres ine, daa lines, bu ines hreesate outputs andenable input PROM EPROM, EEPROM, lah EPROM RAM: static dynamic ALU. —___________ Review Questions AND PROBLEMS = 1, Write the decimal equivalent foreach integral power of 2 from 2° to 2” 2. Convert the following decimal numbers to binary: a2 6.16 ©. 500 3. Convert the following binary numbers to decimal: a. 10H &. 11010001 ¢. 110111001011001 4, Convert to hexadecimal: a, 53 decimal b. 756 decimal ¢. 01101100010 binary 4. 11000010111 binary 5. Convert to decimal: a, D3H 6. 3FEH 4H 6. Convert the following decimal numbers to BCD: a. 86 b. 62 3 7. The L key is depressed on an ASCII-encoded key- board. What pattern of 1’sand 0's would you expect to find on the seven parallel data lines coming from the keyboard? What pattern would a carriage return, CR. give? 8. Define parity and describe how it is used to detect an error in transmitted data. 9. Show addition of: 4. 10011, and 10113 in binary b. 37 and 25,yin BCD cc. 4AHand 7H 10. Express the following decimal nurnbersin 8-bit sign- and-magnitude form: a. #26 b-7 c. 26 d, 125 1, Show the subtraction, in binary, of the following. decimal numbers using both the pencil method and the 2’s-complement addition method: a 7-4 b. 37-26 c. 125-931.20 12, 13. 14. 16. 1. Show the multiplicationof 1001 and 01 by thepencil method. Do the same for 11010 and 101 Show the division of 1100100 by 1010 using the pencil method. Perform the indicated operations on the following numbers: a, 3AH+94H b, YTAH-4CH 01011001 BCD + 91000010 BCD 4. 01111001 BCD + 0100.1001 BCD e. 0101 1001 BCD ~ 90100110 BCD Jf. - 91100111 BCD — 0011 1001 BCD For the circuit in Fig. 1.23: a. Isthe Y output active high or active low? . Isthe C signal active high or active low? <¢. What input conditions oa A.B, and C will eause the Y output tobe asserted? Describe how a D latch responds to a postive pulse ‘on its CK input and how a D flip-flop responds to a positive pulse on its CK input. ‘The Nawonal Semiconductor INS8298 is a 65,536- bit ROM organized as 8192 words orbytes of 8 bits. How many address lines are required to address one of the 8192 bytes? . Why do most ROMs and RAMs have three-state output. Mlcroprocessor and Interfacing: Programming and Hardware Fig. 9. oe 1.23 Circuit for problem 15 Using Fig. 1.22h, show the programming of the select and mode inputs the 74181 requires to perform the following arithmetic functions AGB A-B-1 ABLA Show the output word produced when the following binary words are ANDed with each other and when they are ORed with each other: a. 1010and 0111 >. 1011 and 1100 ¢. 1010111 and 111000 4. ANDing an 8-bit binary number with 1111 0000 is sometimes referred to as “masking” the lower 4 bits. Why?Computers, Microcomputers, and Microprocessors—An Introduction live in a compater-oriented society, and we ‘are constantly bombarded with a multitude of terms relating to computers, Before getting started with the main flow of the book, we will try to clarify some of these terms and to give an overview of computers and computer systems. ‘OBJECTIVES Aithe conclesion ofthis chapter, you should be able to: 1. Define the terms microcomputer. microprocesar, hardieare nftware, firmare timeharing, multitasking, disributed procesing,and multiprocesing. Describe how a microcemputer fetches and executes an instruction. 3. List the registers and other part inthe BO8G/ 8088 execution nit and busincerfave unit 4. Describe the function ofthe 808618088, queve. 5. Demonstrate how the 808618088 cakulates memory address TYPES OF COMPUTERS Mainframes Computers come ina wide variety of sizes and capabilities. ‘The largest and the most powerful ones are ofien called ‘mainframes. Mainframe computers may fill an entire room, They are designed to work at very high speeds with large data words. typically 64 bits or greater. and they have massive amounts of memory. Computers of this type are used for military defence control, for business data processing (in an insurance company, for example), and for creating computer graphics displays for science fiction movies. Examples of this type of computer are the [BM 438.1, the Honeywell DPS8, and the Cray Y-MP/832, The fastest and the most powerful mainframes are called supercomputers. Fig. 2.1a, shows a photograph of a Cray ‘Y-MP/832 supercomputer, which comtains eight central processors and 32 million 64-bit words of memory. Minicomputers Scaled-down versions of mainframe computers are often called minicomputers. The main unit of a minicomputer usually fits ina single rack or box. A minicomputer runs more slowly, works directly with smaller data words2.2 Microprocessor and Interfacing: Programming and Hardware (ofien 32-bit words), and does not have as much memory as a mainframe. Computers of this type are used for business data processing, industrial control (for an oil refinery, for example), and scientific research. Examples of this type of computer are the Digital Equipment ‘Corporation VAX 6360 and the Data General MV/S0001I. Fig. 2.1 shows a photograph of a Digital Equipment Corporation's VAX 6360 minicomputer. Microcomputers Asthe nameimplies, microcomputers are small computers, ‘They range from small controllers that work directly with 4-bit words and can address a few thousand bytes of memory to larger units that work directly with 32-bit ‘words and can address billions of bytes of memory. Some of the more powerful microcomputers have all or most of the features of earlier minicomputers. Therefore it has become very hard to draw a sharp line between these two types. One distinguishing feature of a microcomputer is that the CPU is usually a single integrated circuit called a microprocessor. Older books often used the terms microprocessor and microcomputer interchangeably, but actually the microprocessor is the CPU to which you add ROM, RAM, and ports to make a microcomputer. A later section in this chapter discusses the evolution of different types of microprocessors. Microcomputers are used in everything from smart sewing machines to computer- aided design systems. Examples of microcomputers are theIntel 8051 single-chipcontroller, the SDK-86, asingle- ‘board computer design kit; the [BM Personal Computer (PC); and the Apple Macintosh compater. The Intel 8051 microcontroller is contained in a single 40-pin chip. Fig. 2.2a, shows the SDK-86 board, and Fig. 2.2b shows the Compag 386/25 system. HOW COMPUTERS AND MICROCOMPUTERS ARE USED—AN EXAMPLE ‘The following sections are intended to give you an overview of how computers are interfaced with users to do useful work, These sections should help you understand many of the features designed into current ‘microprocessors and where this book is heading. Computerizing an Electronics Factory—Problem ‘Now, suppose that we wnt to “computerize” an electron- ies company. By this we mean that we want to make computer-use available to as many people in the company Fig. 2.1 (a) Photograph of Cray Y-MP/832 ‘computer. (Courtesy Cray Research, Inc., ‘and photographer, Paul Shambroom.) (b) Photograph of VAX 6360 minicomputer. (Courtesy Digital Equipment Corp.) as cheaply as possible, We want the engineers to have accesso acomputer which can help them design circuits. People in the drafting department should have access to a computer which can be used for computer-aided drafting. The accounting department should have access to a computer for doing all the financial book-keeping. The ‘warehouse should have access to a computer to help with inventory control. The manufacturing department should have access to a computer for controlling machines and testing finished products. The president, vice-presidents, and supervisors should have access to a computer to helpComputers, Microcomputers, and Microporcessors—An Introduction agai Fig. 2.2 (a) Photograph oj Intel SDK-86 board. Gntel Corp.) (b) Photograph of Compaq 386/25. (Compag Corp.) them with long-range planning. Secretaries should have access to a computer for word processing. Salespeople should have access 10 a computer to help them keep track ofcurrent pricing, product availability, and commissions. There are several ways to provide all the needed computer power. One solution is to simply give everyone an individual personal computer. The problem with this approach is that it makes it difficult for different people to access commonly needed data. In the next sections, we show you two ways to provide computer power and ‘common data to many users. TIMESHARING AND MULTITASKING SYSTEMS One common method of providing computer access is a timesharing system such as shown in Fig. 2.3. Several video terminals are connected to the compater through direct wires or through telephone lines. The terminal can be on the user’s desk or even in the user’s home. The rate at which a user usually enters data is very slow compared with the rate at which a computer can process the data. Therefore, the computer can serve many users by dividing its time among them in small increments. In other words, the computer works on user I's program for perhaps 20 milliseconds (ms), then works on user 2°s program for 20 ms, then works on user 3’s program for 20 ms, and soon, until all the users have had a turn. In a ‘few milliseconds the computer will get back to user | again and repeat the eycle. To each user it will appear as if he or she has exclusive use of the computer because the ‘computer processes data as fast as the user enters it. A timesharing system such as this allows several users to interact with the computer at the same time. Each user ‘can get information from or store information in the large memory attached to the computer. Each user can have ‘an inexpensive printer attached tothe terminal or can direct program or data output to a high-speed printer attached directly to the computer.BASS + computer pata | (MAINERAME | { STORAGE orn | VIDEO TERMINAL PRINTER VIDEO TERMINAL ds tteroprocessor and Interfacing: Programming andl Hardware ./ High-sPEED / PRINTER / vIDEO TERMINAL Low cost PRINTER VIDEO TERMINAL Fig. 2.3. Block diagramofacomputer timesharing system. An airline ticket reservation computer might use a timesharing system such as this to allow users from all over the country to access flight information and make reservations. A time-multiplexed or time-sliced system such as this can also allow a computer to control many machines or processes in a factory. A computer is much faster than the machines or processes. Therefore. it can check and adjust many pressures, temperatures, motor speeds. etc. before ii needs to get back and recheck the first one. A system such as this is often called a ‘multitasking system because it appears to be doing many tasks at the same time. Now let's take another look at our problem of computerizing the electronics company. We could put a powerful computer in some central location and run wires from it 10 video display terminals on users’ desks. Each user could then sun the program needed todo a particular task. The accountant could run a ledger program, the secretary could tun a word processing program, etc. Each user could access the computer's large data memory. Incidentally, a large collection of data stored ina computer's memory 1s atten referred to as a database. For a smail company. a system such as this might be adequate. However, there are at least nwo potential problems, ‘The first potential problem is, “What happens if the computer is not working?” The answer to this question is that everything grinds to a halt. In a situation where people have become dependent onthe computer, not much gets done until the computer is upand running again, The ‘ld saying about puttingall your eggsin one basketcomes to mind here ‘The second potential problem of the simple timeshar- ing system ation. AS the number of users in- ‘creases, the time it takes the computer to do each user's task increases also. Eventually, the computer's response time to each user becomes unreasonably Tong. People get very upset about the time they have to w: DISTRIBUTED PROCESSING OR MULTIPROCESSING. A partial solution for the two potential problems of a simple timesharing system is to use a disiributed processing system, Fig, 2.4 shows a block diagram for such a system, The system has a powerful central computer with large memory and a high-speed printer a does the simple timesharing system described previously. However. in this system each user has a microcomputer instead of simply a Video display terminal, In other words, each user station is an independently functioning microcomputer with a CPU, ROM, RAM, and probably magnetic or optical disk ‘memory. This means that a petson can do many tasks locally on the microcomputer without having to use the large computer at all. Since the microcomputers are connected to the large computer through a network, a user can access the computing power, memory, or other resources of the large computer when needed. Distributing the processing to multiple computers or processors in a system has several advantages. First if the large computer goes down. the local microcomputersComputers, Microcomputers, and Microporcessors—an Introduction 2.5 f 1 mass / MAINFRAME SOMPUTER | 7 DATA (STORAGE CONNECTION To PHONE LINE RY \Y MICROCOMPUTER MINICOMPUTER, /wicH-sPeeD/ PRINTER / MICROCOMPUTER FLOPPY DISK DRIVE HARD. DISK DRIVE | AK \ | MN \ = MICROCOMPUTER PRINTER VIDEO TERMINAL VIDEO TERMINAL VIDEO TERMINAL Wig. 2.4 Block diagram ofa distributed processing computer system. can continue working until they need to access the large ‘compater for something. Second, the burden on the large computer is reduced greatly, because much of the ‘computing is done by the local microcomputers. Finally, the distributed processing approach allows the system designer to use a local microcomputer that is best suited to the task it has to do. COMPUTERIZED ELECTRONICS COMPANY OVERVIEW Distributed processing seems to be the best way to go aboutcomputerizing our electronics factory. Engincerscan have personal computers or engineering works-stations ‘ontheir desks. With these they can use available programs to design and test circuits. They can access the large ‘computer if they need data from its memory. Through the telephone lines, the engineer with a personal computer can access data in the memory of other computers all over the world. The drafting people can have personal computers for simple work, or large computer-aided design systems formore complex work. Completed work ccan be stored in the memory of the large computer. The production department can have networked computers to keep track of product flow and to contol the machines which actually mount components on cireuit boards, etc ‘The accounting department can use personal computers with spreadsheet programs to work with financial data kept in the memory of the large computer. The warehouse supervisor can likewise, use a personal computer with an inventory program to keep personal records and the records the large computer's memory updated. Corporate officers can have personal computers tied into the network. They then can interact with any of the other systems on the network, Salespeople can have portable personal computers that they can carry with them in the field. They can communicate with the main computerover the telephone lines using a modem. Secretaries doing word processing can use individual word processing units or personal computers. Users can also send messages to one another over the network, The specifics of a computer system such as this will obviously depend on the needs of the individual company for which the system is designed. SUMMARY AND DIRECTION FROM HERE The main concepts that you should take with you from this section are timesharing or multitasking and distributed processing or multiprocessing. As yon work your way through the rest of this book, keep an overview of the‘computerized electronics company in the back of your mind. The gool of this book is to teach you how the microcomputers and other parts of a system such as this work, how the parts are connected together, and how the system is programmed at different levels. OVERVIEW OF MICROCOMPUTER STRUCTURE AND OPERATION Figure 2.5 shows a block diagram for a simple microcomuter. The major parts are the central processing unit or CPU, memory, and the input and output circuitry or 1/0, Connecting these parts are three sets of parallel lines called buses. The three buses are the address bus, the daia bus, and the control bus. Let’s take a brief took at each of these parts Memory ‘The memory section usually consists of a mixture of RAM and ROM, It may also have magnetic floppy disks, ‘magnetic hard disks, or optical disks. Memory has two purposes. The first purpose is to store the binary codes for the sequences of instructions you want the computer to carry out. When you write a computer program, what yon are really doing is writing a sequential list of instructions for the computer. The second purpose of the ‘memory isto store the binary-coded data with which the computer is going to be working. This data might be, for example, the inventory records of a supermarket. Input/Output The input/output or VO section allows the computer to take in data from the outside world or send data to the outside world. Peripherals such as keyboards, video display terminals, printers, and modems are connected to the /O section, These allow the user and the computer Microprocessar and Interfacing: Programming and Hardware to communicate with each other. The actual physical devices used to interface the computer buses to external, systems are often called ports. Ports in a computer, function just as shipping ports do for a country. An input port allows data from a keyboard, an A/D converter, or some other source to be read into the computer under control of the CPU. An ouput port is used to send data from the computer to some peripheral, such as a video display terminal, aprinter, or a D/A converter. Physically, the simplest type of input or output port is just a set of parallel D flip-flops. they are being used as an input port, the D inputs are connected to the external device, and the Q outputs are connected to the data bus which runs to the CPU, Data will then be transferred through the latches when they are enabled by a control signal from the CPU. In a system where they are being used 2s an output port, the D inputs of the latches are connected to the data bus, and the Q outputs are connected to some external device. Data sent out on the data bus by the CPU will be transferred to the external device when the latches are enabled by a control signal from the CPU. Central Processing Unit ‘The central processing unit or CPU controls the operation of the computer. Ina microcomputer the CPU is a ‘microprocessor, as we discussed in an earlier section of the chapter. The CPU fetches binary-coded instructions from memory, decodes the instructions into a series of simple actions, and carries out these actions ina sequence of steps. The CPU also contains an address counter or instruction pointer register, which holds the address of the next instruction or data item to be fetched from memory; general-purpose registers, which are used for temporary storage of binary data; and circuitry, which generates the control bus signals. — Fig.2.5. Block dtagram ofa simple microcomputer. paragus [side }—§_ DEVICE CONTROL [ CENTRAL | CONTROL vo BUS | processmie | “ous | MEMORY Ports NT A A fourrur]|___—4 (cru) | DEVICE ‘ADDRESS BUSComputers, Microcomputers, and Mlcroparcessors—An Introduction 2.7 Address Bus ‘Theaddress bus consists of 16, 20.24, or 32 parallel signal lines. On these lines the CPU sends out the address of the ‘memory location that is to be written to orread from. The number of memory locations that the CPU can address is determined by the number of address lines. If the CPU has Naddress lines, then itcandirectly address 2" memory locations. For example, a CPU with 16 address lines can address 2'® or 65,536 memory locations, a CPU with 20 address lines can address 2” or 1,048,576 locations, and. aCPU with 24 address lines can address 2* or 16,777,216 locations. When the CPU reads data from or writes data to pon, it sends the port address out on the address bus. Data Bus ‘The data bus consists of 8, 16, or 32 parallel signal lines. As indicated by the double-ended arrows on the data bus line in Fig. 2.5, the data bus lines are bidirectional. This means that the CPU can read data in from memory or from a port on these lines, or it can send data out to memory or to a port on these lines. Many devices in a system will have their outputs connected to the data bus. butonly onedevice ata time will have its outputs enabled. Any device connected on the data bus must have three- “Sate outputs so that its outputs can be disabled when itis not being used to put data on the bus, Control Bus The control bus cor The CPU sends out signals on the control bus to enable the outputs of addressed memory devices or port devices. ‘Typical control bus signals are Memory Read, Memory Write, WO Read, and 1/0 Write. To read a byte of data from a memory location, for example, the CPU sends out the memory address of the desired byte on the address bus and then sends out a Memory Read signal on the control bus. The Memory Read signal enables the addressed memory device to output a data word onto the data bus. The data word from memory travels along the data bus to the CPU. Hardware, Software, and Firmware ‘When working around computers, you hear the terms hardware, software, and firmware almost constantly. Hardware is the name given to the physical devices and circuitry of the computer. Sofiware refers to the programs written for the computer, Firmware is the term given to programs stored in ROMS or in other devices which permanently keep their stored information. Summary of Important Points So Far ‘+ [Link] or microcomputer consists of memory. a CPU, and some input/output circuitry. ‘© These three parts are connected by the address bus, the data bus, and the control bus. ‘ The sequence of instructions or program for a computer is stored as binary numbers in successive memory locations «The CPU fetches an instruction from memory. decodes the instruction to determine what actions, must be done for the instruction, and carries out these actions EXECUTION OF A THREE-INSTRUCTION PROGRAM To give you a better idea of how the parts of a microcom- puter function together, we will now describe the actions a simple microcomputer might go through to carry out (execute) a simple program. The three instructions of the rogram are 1. Inputa value froma keyboard connected to the port at address 05H. 2. Add 7 to the value. 3. Output the result to a display connected to the port at address 02H. Figure 2.6 shows in diagram form and sequential list form the actions that the computer will perform to execute these three instruetions. Forthis example, assume that the CPU fetches instruc- tions and data from memory 1 byte at a time, as is done in the original IBM PC and its clones. Also assume that the binary codes for the instructions are in sequential memory locations starting at address OOIOOH. Fig. 2.65 shows the actual binary codes that would be required in successive memory locations to execute this program on an IBM PC-type microcomputer. ‘The CPU needs an instruction before itcan do anything, so its first action is to fetch an instruction byte from memory. To do this, the CPU sends out the address of the first instruction byte, in this case 00100H, to memory on the address bus, This action is represented by line 1A in Fig. 2.62, The CPU then sends out ¢ Memory Read signal on the control bus (line 1B in the figure). The Memory Read signal enables the memory to output the addressed byte on the data bas, This action is represented by line 1C in the figure. The CPU reads in this first instruction byte (E4H) from the data bus and decodes it. By decode we mean that the CPU determines from the2.8 ‘Microprocessor and interfacing: Programming and Hardware PROGRAM 1. INPUT AVALUE FROM PORT 05 2. A007 70 THI VALUE. 3. OUTPUTTHERESULT TOPORT 02 i ‘SEQUENCE ‘W CRU SENDS OUT ADDRESS OF FIRST INSTRUCTION TO MEMORY. 18 CAU SENOS OUT NEMORY READ CONTROL SIGNAL TOENABLE MEMORY. {C INSTRUCTION BYTE SENT FROM NEMCRY TO GPU ON OATABUS. {2 ADDRESS NEXT MEMORY LOCATION TO GETREST OF INSTRUCTION. B SEND MEMORY READ CONTROL SIGNAL TO ENABLE MEMORY. 2& PORT ADDRESS BYTE SENT FRON MENORY TO CPU ON DATA BUS. {2D CPU SENOS OUT PORT ADDRESS ON ADDRESS BUS, CPU SENDS OUT NPUTREAD CONTROL SIGNAL TO ENABLE PORT. DATAF ROM PORTSENT TO CPU ON OATA BUS. {A CAU SENDS ADDRESS OF NEXT INSTRUCTION TO MEMORY. Maamnin beet citer SONTROLBUS. }— coi 3 Sr seuss evo reabeaninor owt TOBUAS tenors SG LL Siemtorevesmmuaion serocy axaunacs potty i Suse tsraonee vowshens roatinda OP eStascron, “4 CPU SENDS MEMORY READ CONTROL SIGNAL TO ENABLE MEMORY, Hw 4G NUMBER O7H SENT FROM MEMORY TO CPU ON DATA BUS. 58 CPU SENDS ADDRESS OF NEXT INSTRUCTION TOMENORY. 53 CAL SENDS MEMORY READ CONTROL SIGNAL TO ENABLE MEMORY. EC INSTRUCTION BYTE FROM MEMORY SENT TO CPU ON DATABUS, aoe ae. {®\ CBU SENDS OUT NEXT ADDRESS TO GET REST OF INSTRUCTION, { CRU SENDS OUT NEMORY READ CONTROL SIGNAL TOENABLE WEMORY. TO TOO {© PORT ADDRESS BYTE SENT FRON MENORY TO CPU ON DATA BUS, OEE {6D CRU SENDS OUT PORT ADDRESS ON ADDRESS BUS, a[5| 67 ag {CRU SENDS OUT CATA 10 PORT ONDATA BUS, alsteir {F CPU SENDS OUT OUTPUT WRITE SIGNAL TOENABLE PORT. KEYBOARD DISPLAY ® MEMORY CONTENTS CONTENTS OPERATION ADDRESS (BINARY) (HEX, ox00H | ‘widow = _INPUT FROM. coon expe @ —— PoRTosn ovat co00%00 o& = A00 ooo ‘10010 &% — ouPuTtO coos coo PTR o Fig.2.6 (a) Execution of three-step computer program. (b) Memory addresses and memory contents for three-step program. binary code read in, what actions it is supposed to take. _Readsignal on the control bus (line 2B). The memory then Ifthe CPU is a microprocessor, it selects the sequence of microinstructions needed to carry out the instruction read from memory. For the example instruction here, the CPU determines that the code read in represents an Input instruction, From decoding this instruction byte, the CPU also determines that it needs more information before it ‘can carry out the instruction, The additional information the CPU needsis the address of the port that the data is to be input from. This port address part of the instruction is stored in the next memory location after the code for the Input instruction. To fetch this second byte of the instruction, the CPU sends out the next sequential address (00101H) to memory, asshown by line 2A in the figure. Toenable the addressed memory device, the CPU also sends out enother Memory outputs the addressed byte on the data bus (line 2C). When the CPU has read in this second byte, OSH in this ease, it has all the information it needs to execute the instruction, ‘To execute the Input instruction, the CPU sends out the port address (OSH) on the address bus (line 2D) and sends outan 1/0 Read signal on the control bus (line 2B). ‘The VO Read signal enables the addressed port device to puta byte of data on the data bus (line 2F). The CPU reads in the byte of data and stores it in an internal register. This completes the fetching and execution of the first instruction. Having completed the first instruction, the CPU must now fetch its next instruction from memory. To do this, it sends out the next sequential address (00102H) on the address bus (line 3A) and sends out a Memory Read signalComputers, Mecrocomputers, and Microporcessors—An Introduction 2.9 on the control bus (line 3B). The Memory Read signal enables the memory device to putthe addressed byte (O4H) onthe data bus (line 3C). The CPU reads inthis instruction byte from the data bus and decodes it. From this instruction byte the CPU determines that its supposed to add some number to the number stored in the internal register. The CPU also determines from decoding this instruction byte that it must go to memory again to get the next byte of the instruction, which contains the number that it is supposed to add. To get the required byte, the CPU will send out the next sequential address (00103H) on the address bus (line 4) and another Memory Read signal onthe control bus (line 4B). The memory will then output the contents of the addressed byte (the number 07H) on the data bus (line 4C). When the CPU receives this number, it will add it to the contents of the internal register. The result of the addition will be left in the internal register. This completes the fetching and executing of the second instruction. ‘The CPU must now fetch the third instruction, To do this, itsends out the next sequential address (00104H) on the address bus (line 5A) and sends out a Memory Read signal on the control bus (line SB). The memory then outputs the addressed byte (EGH) on the data bus (line ‘5C). From decoding this byte, the CPU determines that it is now supposed todo an Output operation to a port. The CPU also determines from decoding this byte thatit must {go to memory again to get the address of the output port. To do this, it sends out the next sequential address (0010SH) on the address bus (line 6A), sends out a Memory Read signal onthe control bus (line 6B), and reads the byte (02H) put on the data bus by the memory (line ‘6C). The CPU now has all the information that it needs to execute the Output instruction. To outpat a data byte to a por, the CPU first sends out the address of the desired port on the address bus (line 6D). Next it ouputs the data byte from the internal register on the data bus (line GE). The CPU then sends out an VO Write signal on the control bus (line 6F). This signal enables the addressed cutput port device so that the data from the data bus lines can pass through it to the LED displays. When the CPU removes the /0 Write signal to proceed with the next instuetion, the data will remain latched on the output pins of the port device. The data will remain latched on the port until the power is turned off or until a new data word is output to the port. This is important because it means that the computer does not have to keep outputting a value over and overin order for itto remain on the output. Allthesteps described abovemay seem like a great deal of work just to input a value from a keyboard, add 7 to, and output the result to a display. Even a simple ‘microcomputer, however, can run through all these steps in a few microseconds. Summary of Simple Microcomputer Bus Operation 1. A microcomputer fetches each program instruction sequence, decodes the instruction, and executes it 2. The CPU ina microcomputer fetches instructions reads data rom memory by sending out an address on the address bus and a Memory Read signal on the control bus. The memory outputs the addressed instruction or data word to the CPU onthe data bus. 3. The CPU writes a data word to memory by sending out an address on the address bus, sending out the data word on the data bus, and sending a Memory Write signal to memory on the control bus. To read data from a port, the CPU sends out the port, address on the address bus and sends an VO Read signal to the port device on the control bus. Data from the port comes into the CPU on the data bus. 5. To write data to a port, the CPU sends out the port address on the address bus, sends out the data to be written to the port on the data bus, and send an /O Write signal to the port device on the control bus. MICROPROCESSOR EVOLUTION: AND TYPES [Link] told you in the preceding section, microprocessor is used as the CPU in a microcomputer. There are now many different microprocessors available, so before we dig into the details of « specific device, we will give you a short microprocessor history lesson [Link] overview of the different types. Microprocessor Evolution ‘Acommon way of categorizing microprocessorsis by the ‘number of bits that their ALU can work with at a time. In ‘other words, a microprocessor with a d-bit ALU will he referred to as a 4-bit microprocessor, regardless of the number of address lines or the number of data bus lines that it has. The first commercially available microprocessor was the Intel 4004, produced in 1971. It contained 2300 PMOS transistors. The 4004 was a 4-bit2.10 Microprocessor and Interjacing: Programming and Hardware device intended to be used with some other devices in making a calculator. Some logic designers, however, saw that this device could be used to replace PC boards full of combinational and sequential logic devices. Also, the ability to change the function of a system by just changing the programming, rather than redesigning the hardware, is very appealing. It was these factors that pushed the evolution of microprocessors. In 1972 Intel came out with the 8008, which was capable of working with 8-bit words. The 8008, however, required 20 or more, additional devices to form a functional CPU. in 1974, Intel announcedthe 8080, which had a much larger instruction set than the 8008 and required only two additional devices to form a functional CPU. Also,the 8080 used NMOS transistors, soit operated much faster than the 8008. The 8080 is referred to as a second-generation microprocessor. Soon after Intel produced the 8080, Motorola came out ‘with the MC6800, another 8-bit general-purpose CPU. The ‘6800 had the advantage that it required only a + 5- V supply rather than the -5-V, +5 ~ V, and +12-V supplies required by the 8080, For several years, the 8080 and the 6800 were the top-selling 8-bit microprocessors. Some oftheir competitors were the MOS Technology 6502, used asthe CPU in the Apple II microcomputer, and the Zilog Z80, used as the CPU in the Radio Shack TRS-80 microcomputer As designers found more and more applications for microprocessors, they pressured microprocessor manufacturers to develop devices with architectures and features optimized for doing certain types of tasks. In response to the expressed needs, microprocessors have evolved in three major directions during the last 15 years. Dedicated or Embedded Controllers One direction in the dedicated or embedded controllers. These devices are used to control “smart” machines, such as microwave ovens, clothes washers, sewing machines, auto ignition systems, and metal lathes. Texas Instruments has produced millions of their TMS-1000 family of 4-bit microprocessors for this type of application. In 1976 Intel introduced the 8048, which contains an 8-bit CPU, RAM, ROM, and some VO portsallinone 40-pin package, Other ‘manufacturers have followed with similar products. These devices are often referred to as microcontrollers, Some currently available devices inthiscatezory—the Intel 8051 and the Motorola MC6801. for example—contain programmable counters and a serial port (UART) as well as a CPU, ROM, RAM, and parallel /O ports. A more recently introduced single-chip microcontroller, the Intel 8096, contains a 16-bit CPU, ROM, RAM, a UART, ports, timers, and a 10-bit analog-to-digital converter. Bit-Slice Processors A second direction of microprocessor evolution has been bit-slice processors, For some applications, general- purpose CPUs such as the 8080 and 6800 are not fast ‘enough ordo not have suitable instruction sets. For these applications, several manufacturers produce devices which can be used to build a custom CPU. An example is the Advanced Micro Devices 2900 family of devices. This family includes 4-bit ALUs, multiplexers, sequencers,and ‘other parts needed for custom-building a CPU. The term slice comes from the fact that these parts can be connected in parallel o work with 8-bit words, 16-bit words, or 32- bit words, In other words, a designer can add as many slices as needed for a particular application, The designer not only custom-designs the hardware of the CPU, but also custom-makes the instruction set for it, using “microcode.” General-Purpose CPUs ‘The third major direction of microprocessor evolutionhas been towards general-purpose CPUs which give a microcomputer most or all of the computing power of earlier minicomputers. After Motorola came out with the MC6800, Intel produced the 8085, an upgrade of the 8080 that required only a +5-V supply. Motorola then produced the MC6809, which has a few 16-bit instructions, but is still basically an 8-bit processor. In 1978 Intel came out with the 8086, which is a full 16-bit processor. Some 16- bit microprocessors, such as the National PACE and the ‘Texas Instruments 9900 family of devices, had been available previously, but the market apparently wasn’t ready, Soon after Intel came out with the 8086, Motorola ‘came out with the 16-bit MC68000, and the 16-bit race was off and running. The 8086 and the 68000 work directly with 16-bit words instead of with 8-bit words. they can address.a million or mote bytes of memory instead of the 64 Kbytes addressable by the 8-bit processors, and they execute instructions much faster than the &-bi processors. Also, these 16-bit processors have single instructions for functions such as mudtiply and divide, which required a lengthy sequence of instructions on the B-bit processors. The evolution along this last path has continued on to 32-bit processors that work with gigabytes (10? bytes) or terabytes (10" bytes) of memory. Examples of these devices are the Intel 80386, the Motorola MC68020, and the National 32032. Since we could not possibly deseribe in this book the ‘operation and programming of evena few of the available processors, we confine our discussions primarily to oneComputers. Microcomputers, andl Microporcessors—An Introduction group of related microprocessors. The family we have chosen is the Intel 8086, 8088, 80186, 80188, 80286, 80386, 80486 family. Members of this family are very widely used in personal computers, business computer systems, and industrial control systems. Our experience has shown that learning the programming and operation fone family of microcomputers very thoroughly is much more useful than looking at many processors superficially Ifyou learn one processor family well, you will most likely find it quite easy to lear another when you have to. THE 8086 MICROPROCESSOR FAMILY—OVERVIEW ‘The Intel 8086iis « 16-bit microprocessor tha is intended tobe used as the CPU in a microcomputer. The term 76- ‘bit means that its arithmetic logicunit, its internal registers, ‘and most of its instructions are designed to work with 16-bit binary words. The 8086 has a 16-bit data bus, so it can read data from or write data to memory and ports cither 16 bits or 8 bits at a time, The 8086 has a 20-bit address bus, so it can address any one of 2”°, or 1,048,576, memory locations. Each of the 1,048,576 memory aildresses of the 8086 represents a by‘e-wide location. Sixteen-bit words will be stored in two consecutive memory locations. Ifthe first byte of a word is at an even address, the 8086 can read the entire word in one operation. Ifthe first byte of the ‘word is at an odd address, the 8086 will read the first byte with one bus operation and the second byte with another ‘bus operation. Later we will discuss this indeteil. The main point here is that if the first byte of a 16-bit word is at an even address, the 8086 can read the entire word in one operation. ‘The Intel 8088 has the same ALU, the same registers, land the same instruction set as the 8086, The 8088 also hhas a 20-bit address bus. so it can address any one of 1,048,576 bytes in memory. The 8088, however, has an 8-bit data bus, so itcan only read data from or write data to memory and ports, 8 bits at a time. The 8086. remember, can read or write either § or 16 bits at a time To read a 16-bit Word from two successive memory locations. the 8088 will always have to do two read operations. Since the 8086 and the 8088 are almost identical, any reference we make to the 8086 in the rest of the book will also pertain to the 8088 unless we specifically indicate otherwise. This is done to make reading easier. The Intel 8088, incidentally, s used as the CPU in theoriginal IBM Personal Computer, the IBM PC/ XT, and several compatible personal computers, DAL The Intel 80186 is an improved version of the 8086, and the $0188 is an improved version of the 8088. In addition to a 16-bit CPU, the 80186 and 80188 each have programmable peripheral devices integrated in the same package. In a laterchapter we will discuss these integrated peripherals. The instruction set of the 80186 and 80188 is a superset of the instruction set of the 8086. The term superset means that allthe 8086and 8088 instructions will execute properly on an 80186 or an 80188, but the 80186 and the 80188 have a few additional instructions. In other Words, a program written for an 8086 or an 8088 is upward-compatible to an 80186 or an 80188, but 2 program written for an 80186 or an 80188 may not execute correctly on an 8086 oran 8088. Inthe instruction cet descriptions in Chapter 6, we specifically indicate which instructions work only with the 80186 or 80188. ‘The Intel 80286 isa 16 bit, advanced version of the 8086 which was specifically designed for use asthe CPU in a multiuser or multitasking microcomputer. When ‘operating in its real address mode, the 80286 functions mostly ava fast 8086, Most programs written for an 8086 can be run on an 80286 operating inits real address mode. ‘When operating in its virtual address mode, an 80286 has features which make it easy to keep users’ programs separate from one another and to protect the system program from destruction by users’ programs. In ‘Chapter 15, we discuss the operation and use of the 80286. The 80286 is the CPU used in the IBM PC/AT personal computer. With the 80386 processor, Intel started the 32-bit processor architecture, known as the I-32 architecture. This architecture extended all the address and general purpose registers to 32-bits, which gave the processor ‘he capability to handle 32-bit address (4 GB of memory addressing), with 32-bit data, and yet accommodating ail the software designed for the earlier 16-bit processors, 80¥6,8088, 80186, 80188 and 80286. It contains more sophisticated features for use in multiuserand mukitasking environments, Intel 80486 is the next member of the IA architecture. This processor has the floating poi processor (80387) integrated into the CPU chip itself. These processors are then followed by different versions of the Pentium Processors, with different additional capabilities such as multimedia (MMX, SSE, SSE2 etc. system power saving modes, hyper thread technology etc. InChapter 15, we will discuss the 80286, 386..and 486 processors, and in Chapter 16, we shall take up some rnajor versions of the Pentiun processors for discussion.2.12 Microprocessor and Interfacing: Programming and Hardware 8086 INTERNAL ARCHITECTURE Before we can talk about how to write programs for the 8086, we need todiscuss its specific internal features, such as its ALU, flags, registers, instruction byte queue, and segment registers ‘As shown by the block diagram in Fig. 2.7, the 8086 CPU is divided into two independent functional parts, the bus interface unit or BIU, and the execution unit or EU. Dividing the work between these two units speeds up processing, ‘The BIU sends outaddresses, fetches instructions from memory, reads data from ports and memory. and writes data to ports and memory. In other words, the BIU handles all transfers of data and addresses on the buses for the execution uri The execution unit of the 8086 tells the BIU where to fetch instructions or data from, decodes instructions, and executes instructions, Let's take a lookat some ofthe parts The Execution Unit CONTROL CIRCUITRY, INSTRUCTION DECODER, AND ALU As shown in Fig. 2.7, the EU contains control circuitry which directs internal operations. A decoder in the EU translates instructions fetched from memory into a series of actions which the EU carries out. The EU has & 16-bit arithmetic iogic unit which can add, subtract, AND, OR, XOR, increment, decrement, complement, or shiftbinary numbers. FLAG RECISTER A flag isa flip-flop that indicates some condition produced by the execution cf an instruction or controls certain operations of the EU. A 16-bit flag register in the EU contains nine active flags. Fig. 28 shows the location of the nine flags in the flag register. Six ofthe nine flags are used to indicate some condition produced by an instruction, Forexample, a flip-flop ealled the carry flag will be set to a 1 if the addition of two 16-bit STREAM agirumanc toa unit Fig. 2.7 8086 internal block diagram. (Intel Corp.)Computers, Microcomputers. and Micropercossors—An Introduction 2.13 er sw 2 on 10 pasaaa —) oF [or sF]ze| u [ar] u [Pr Blo v | ‘CARRY FLAG - SET BY CARRY OUT OF MSE PARITY FLAG — SET IF RESULT HAS EVEN PARITY [AUXILIARY CARRY FLAG FOR BCD ZERO FLAG™ SET IF RESULT =0 ‘SGN FLAG = MSH OF RESULT SINGLE STEP TRAP FLAG INTERRUPT ENABLE RAG. STRING DIRECTION FLAG. OVERFLOWFLAG Fig. 2.8 8086 flag register format. (Intel Corp.) numbers produces a carry out of the most significant bit position. If no carry out of the MSB is produced by the addition, then the carry flag will be a 0. The EU, thus effectively runs up 2 “flag” to tell you that a carry was produced. ‘The six conditional flags inthisgroup are the carry flag (CB), the parity flag (PF), the auziliary carry flag (AP), the zero flag (ZF), the sign flag (SF), and the overflow ‘flag (OF). The names of these flags should give you hints, ‘as to what conditions affect them. Certuin 8086 instructions check these flags to determine which of two alternative actions should be done in executing the instruction. ‘The three remaining flags in the flag register are used to control certain operations of the processor. These flags are different from thesix conditional flags described above in the way they are set or reset. The six conditional flags are set or reset by the EU on the basis of the results of some arithmetic or logic operation. The control flags are deliberately set or reset with specific instructions you put in your program. The three control flags are the trap flag (TR), whichis used for single stepping through a program; the interrupi flag (IF), which is used to allow ot prohibit the interruption of a program; and the direction flag (DF), which is used with string instructions. Later we will discuss in detail the operation and use of the nine flags. GENERAL-PURPOSE REGISTERS, Observe in Fig. 2.7 thatthe EU haseight general- purpose registers, labeled AH. AL, BH, BL, CH, CL, DH, and DL. These registers can be used individually for temporary storage of 8-bit data. The AL register is also called the accumulator. It has some features that the other general- purpose registers do not have. Certain pairs of these general-purpose registers can be used together to store 16-bit data words. The acceptable register pairs are AH and AL, BHandBL,CH and CL, and DH and DL. The AH-AL pair is referred to as the AX register, the BH-BL pair is referred to as the BX register, the CH-CL pair is referred to as the CX register, and the DH-DL pair is referred to as the DX register. The 8086 general-purpose register set is very similar to those of the earlier generation 8080 and 8085 ‘microprocessors. It was designed this way so that the ‘many programs written for the 8080 and 8085 could easily betranslated to run on the 8086 or the 8088. The advantage of using internal registers for the temporary storage of data is that, since the deta is already in the EU, itcan be accessed much more quickly than it could be accessed in external memory. Now let’s look at the features of the BIU. The BIU THE QUEUE ‘While the EU is decoding an instruction or executing an instruction which does not require use of the buses, the BIU fetches up to six instruction bytes for the following instructions. The BIU stores these prefeiched bytes in a first-in-first-out register set called a quewe. When the EU is ready for its next instruction, it simply reads the instruction byte(s) for the instruction from the queue in the BIU. This is much faster than sending out an address to the system memory and waiting for memory to send back the next instruction byte or bytes. The process is analogous to the way a bricklayer’s assistant fetches bricks ahead of time and keeps a queue of bricks lined up so that the bricklayer can just reach out and grab a brick when necessary. Except in the cases of JMP and CALL2.14 Microprocessor and Interfacing: Programmning and Hardware instructions, where the queue must be dumped and then reloaded starting from a new address, this prefetch-and- queue scheme greatly speeds up processing. Fetching the next instruction while the current instruction executes is called pipelining. SEGMENT REGISTERS ‘The 8086 BIU sends out 20-bit addresses, so itcan address any of 2*° or 1,048,576 bytes in memory. However, at any given time the 8086 works with only foar 65,536- byte (64-Kbyte) seaments within this 1,048,576-byte (-Mbyte) range. Four segment registers in the BIU are used tohold the upper 16 bits of the starting addresses of four memory segments that the 8086 is working with at 4 particular time. The four segment registers are the code segment (CS) register, the stack segment (SS) register, the extra segment (ES) register, and the data segment (DS) register. Figure 2.9 shows how these four segments might be positioned in memory at given time. The four segments can be separated as shown, or, for small programs which do not need all 64 Kbytes in each segment, they can overlap. To repeat, then, a segment register is used to hold the upper 16 bits of the starting address for each of the segments. The code segment register, for example, holds the upper 16 bits of the starting address for the segment from which the BIUis currently fetching instruction code bytes. The BIU always inserts zeros for the lowest 4 bits (nibble) of the 20-bit starting address for a segment. If the code segment register contains 348AH, for example, then the code segment will start at address 348A0H. In other words, a 64-Kbyte segment can be located anywhere within the I-Mbyte address space, but the segment will always star at an address with zeros in the lowest 4 bits. This constraint was put on the location of segments so that it is only necessary to store and manipulate 16-bit numbers when working with the starting address of a segment. The part of a segment starting address stored in a segment register is often called the segment base. A stack is a section of memory set aside to store adresses and data while a subprogramexecutes. The stack segmer* register is used to hold the upper 16 bits of the starting address for the program stack. We will discuss the use and operation of a stack in detail later The extra segment register and the data segment register are used to hold the upper 16 bits of the starting addresses of two memory segments that are used for data. INSTRUCTION POINTER ‘The next feature to look at in the BIU is the instruction pointer (IP) register. As discussed previously, the code PHYSICAL ‘ADDRESS: FEFFFH HIGHEST ADDRESS. TOP OF EXTRA SEGMENT EXTRASEGMENT BASE ES 70008) Serres TOP OF STACK SEGMENT STACK SEGMENT BASE SS= s000r ‘TOP OF CODE SEGMENT ‘348A0H (CODE SEGMENT BASE FFF ‘TOP OF DATA SEGMENT BOTTOM OF DATA SEGMENT Wig. 2.9 One way four 64-Kbyte segments might be positioned within the I- Mbyte address space of an 8086. segment register holds the upper 16 bits of the starting address of the segment from which the BIU is currently fetching instruction code bytes. The instruction pointer register holds the 16-bitaddress,or offset, of the next code byte within this code segment, The value contained in the IP is referred to as an offset because this value must be offset from (added to) the segment base address in CS to produce the required 20-bit physical address sent out by the BIU. Fig. 2.10a shows in diagram form how this ‘works. The CS register points to the base or start of the current code segment. The IP contains the distance or offset from this base address to the next instruction byte to be fetched. Fig. 2.10b shows how the 16-bit offset in IP is added to the 16-bit segment base address in CS to produce the 20-bit physical address, Notice that the twoComputers, Microcomputers, and Mlcroporeessors—An Intreduction 2.15 ADDRESS = MEMORY ABH —coveevie peau sean “+ START OF CODE SEGMENT Cs =348aH @ es [3] 4]@]A] o--naromnen 26R0 we [alatifa prvsicacaconess [3[e]alels Fig. 2.10 Addition of IP to CS to produce the physical address of the code byte, (a) Diagram, (b) Computation. 16-bit numbers are not added directly in line, because the €S register contains only the upper 16 bits of the base address for the code segment. As we said before, the BIU automatically inserts zeros for the lowest 4 bits of the segment base address. Ifthe CS register, for example, contains 348AH, you know that the starting address for the code segment is 348A0H. When the BIU adds the offset of 4214H in the IP to this segment base address, the result is a 20-bit physical eddress of 38AB4H. ‘An alternative way of representing 20-bit physical address is the segment base:offsetform. For the address ‘ofa code byte, the format for this alternative form will be CS:IP. As an example of this, the address constructed in the preceding paragraph, 38AB4H, can also be represented a5 348A:4214, ‘Tosummarize, then, the CS register contains the upper 16 bits of the starting address of the code segment in the I-Mbyte address range of the 8086. The instruction pointer register contains a 16-bit offset which tells, where in that 64-Kbyte code segment the next instruction byte is to be fetched from. The actual physical address sent tomemory is produced by adding the offset contained in the IP register to the segment base represented by the upper 16 bits in the CS register. ‘Any time the 8086accesses memory, the BIU produces the required 20-bit physical address by adding an offset to a segment base value represented by the contents of cone of the segment registers. As another example of this, let’s look at how the 8086 uses the contents of the stack segment register and the contents of the stack pointer register to produce a physical address. STACK SEGMENT REGISTER AND STACK POINTER REGISTER A stack, remember, is a section of memory set aside to store addresses and data whilea subprogram is executing. The 8086 allows you to set aside an entire 64-Kbyte segment as a stack. The upper 16 bits of the starting address for this segment are kept in the stack segment register. The stack pointer (SP) register in the execution unit holds the 16-bit offset from the start of the segment to the memory location where a word was most recently stored on the stack. The memory location where a word ‘was most revently stored is called the top of stack. Fig. 2.1]a shows this in diagram form. ‘The physical address for a stack read or a stack write is produced by adding the contents of the stack pointer register to the segment hase address represented by the upper 16 bits of the base address in SS. Fig. 2.116 shows PHYSICAL ADDRESS, ‘perry SFFEDH <— Tor oF stack “+— START OF STACK SEGMENT SS = 500tH ss spt PHYSICAL s00RESS (TOP OF STACK). Fig, 2.11 Addition of SS and SP to produce the physical address of the top of the stack, (a) Diagram, (b) Computation.2.16 Microprocessor and Interfaciag: Programming and Hardware an example. The 5000H in SS represents a segment base address of SOO00H. When the FFEQH in the SP is added to this, the resultant physical address for the top of the stack will be SPFEOH. The physical address can be represented either as a singlenumber, SFFEOH, or in SS:SP form 28 5000:FFEOH. ‘The operation and use ofthe stack will be discussed in detail later as need arises. POINTER AND INDEX REGISTERS IN THE EXECUTION UNIT In addition to the stack pointer register (SP), the EU contains a 16-bit base pointer (BP) cegister. It also contains a 16-bit source index (SI) register and a 16-bit destination index (DV) register. These three registers can be used for temporary storage of data just as the general- purpose registers described above. However, their main use is to hold the 16-bit offset of a data word in one of the segments. SI, for example, can be used to hold the offset of a data word in the data segment. The physical address of the data in memory will be generated in this ‘case by adding the contents of SI to the segment base address represented by the 16-bit number in the DS register. After we give you an overview of the different levelsof languages used to program a microcomputer, we ‘will show you some examples of how we tell the 8086 to read data from or write data to a desired memory location, INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING THE 8086 Programming Languages ‘Now that you have an overview of the 8085 CPU, it is time to start thinking about how itis programmed. Torun a program, a microcomputer must have the program stored in binary form in successive memory locations, as shown in Fig. 2.12. There are three language levels that can be used to write a program for a microcomputer. MACHINE LANGUAGE ‘You can write programsas simply a sequence of the binary codes for the instructions you want the microcomputer to execute. The three-instruction program in Fig. 2.6b is an example. This binary form of the program is referred to as machine language because itis the form required by the machine. However, itis difficalt, if not impossible, for a programmer to memorize the thousands of binary instruction codes for a CPU such as the 8086. Also, itis very easy for an error to occur when working with long series of I's and 0's, Using hexadecimal representation for the binary codes might help some, but there are still thousands of instruction codes to cope with. TABEL | OPCODE FRED | FELD NEXT: | ADD CPERAND) COMMENT FELD FED ‘AL, O7H_| |ADD CORRECTION FACTOR] Fig. 2.12 Assembly language program statement format. ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE To make programming easier, many programmers write programs in assembly language. They then translate the assembly language program to machine language so that itcan be loaded into memory and run. Assembly language uses two-, three-, or four-letter mnemonics to represent each instruction type. A mnemonicis just a device tohelp you remember something. The letters in an assembly janguage mnemonic arc usvallyinitials ora shortened form of the English word(s) for the operation performed by the instruction. For example, the mnemonic for subtract is SUB, the mnemonic for Exclusive OR is XOR, and the mnemonic for the instruction to copy data from one location to another is MOV. Assembly language statements are usually written in standard form that has four fields, as shown in Fig. 2.12, ‘The first field in an assembly language statement is the label field. A label is a symbol or group of symbols used to represent an address which is not specifically known at the time the statement is written, Labels are usually followed by acolon. Labels arenot required in a statement, they are jast inserted where they are needed. We will show later many uses of labels. ‘The opcode field of the instruction contains the mnemonic for the instruction to be performed. Instruction mnemonics are sometimes called operation codes, of ‘epcodes, The ADD mnemonic in the example statement in Fig, 2.12 indicates that we want the instruction to do anaddition. The operand field of the statement contains the data, the memory address, the port address, of the name of the register on which the instruction is to be performed. Operand is just another name for the data item(s) acted on by an instruction. In the example instruction in Fig. 2.12, there are two operands, AL and 07H, specified inthe operand field. AL represents the AL register, and 07H represents the number 07H. This assembly language statement thus says, “Add the number 07H to the contentsComputers, Microcomputers, and Microporcessors—~An Introduction of the AL register.” By Intel convention, the result of the addition will be put in the register othe memory location specified before the comma in the operand field. For the example statementin Fig. 2.12, then, the result will be left in the AL register. As another example, the assembly longuage statement ADD BH, AL, when converted (0 machine language and run, will add the conients of the AL register to the contents of the BH register. The results will be left in the BH register. ‘The final field in an assembly language statement such as that in Fig, 2.12is the commentfield, which starts with a semicolon. Comments do not become part of the ‘machine language program, but they are very important. You write comments in a program to remind you of the function that an instruction er group of instructions performs in the program. ‘To summarize why assembly language is easier to use than machine language, let's look a little more closely at the assembly language ADD statement. The general format of the 8086 ADD instruction is ADD Destination, Source ‘The source can be a number written in the instruction, the contents of a specified register, or the contents of memory location. The destination can be a specified register or a specified memory location. However, the source and the destination in aa instruction cannot both bbe memory locations. A later section on 8086 addressing modes will show all the ways in which the source of an operand and the destination of the result can be specified. The point here isthatthe single mnemonic ADD. together witha specified source and a specified destination, can represent a great many 8086 instructions in an easily understandable form The question that may occurto you at this point is, “If I write a program in assembly language, how do I get it translated into machine language which can be load into the microcomputerandexecuted?” There aretwoanswers to this question, The first method of doing the translation is to work out the binary code for each instruction, 2 bit ata time using the templates given in the manufacturer's data books. We will show you how to do this in the next chapter, but it isa tedious and error-prone task. The second method of doing the translation is with an assembler. An assembler is a program which can be run on a personal computer or microcomputer development system. It reads the file of assembly language instructions you write and generates the correct binary code foreach. For developing all but the simplest assembly language programs, an assembler and other program development tools are essential. We will introduce you to these program development tools in the next chapter and describe their use throughout the rest of this book 247 HIGH-LEVEL LANGUAGES Another way of writing a program for a microcomputer is with a high-level language, such as BASIC, Pascal, ot C. These languages use program statements which are even more English-like than those of assembly language. Each high-level statement may represent many machine code instructions. An interpreter program or a compiler program is used to translate higher- level language statements to machine codes which can be loaded into memory and executed. Programs can usually be written faster in high-level languages than in assembly language because a high-level language works with bigger building blocks. However, programs written in a high-level language and interpreted or compiled almost always execute more slowly and require more memory than the same programs ‘written in assembly language. Programs that involve a lot of hardware control, such as robots and factory control systems, or programs that must runas quickly as possible are usually best written in assembly language. Complex data processing programs that manipulate massive amounts of data, such as insurance company records, are asually best written ina high-level language. The decision concerning which language to ase has recently been made more difficult by the fact that current assemblers allow the use of many high-level language fectures, and the fact that some current high-level languages provide assembly language features. OUR CHOICE For most of this book we work very closely with hardware, so assembly language isthe best choice, Inlater chapters, however, we do show you how to write programs which contain modules written in assembly Janguage and modules written in the high-level language C. In the next chapter we inwoduce you to assembly language programming techniques. Before we go on to that, however, we will usea few simple 8086 instructions to show you more about accessing data in registers and memory locations, How the 8086 Accesses Immediate and Register Data Ina previous discussion of the 8086 BIU, we described how the BOS6 accesses code bytes using the contents oF the CS and TP registers. We also described how the 8OR6 accesses the stack using the contents of the SS and SP registers. Before we can teach you assembly language programming techniques, we need to discuss some of the different ways in which an 8086 can access the data that it operates on. The different ways in which a processor can access data are referred to as its addressing modes2.18 ‘Microprocessor and Interfacing: Programming and Hardware In assembly language statements, the addressing mode is indicated in the instruction, We will use the 8086 MOV instruction to illustrate some of the 8086 addressing modes. ‘The MOV instruction has the format MOV Destination, Source When executed, this instruction copies a word or a byte from the specified source location to the specified destination location, The source can bea number written directly in theinstruction. aspecified register, or amemory location specified in 1 of 24 different ways. The destination can be a specified register or a memory location specified in any 1 of 24 different ways. The source and the destination cannot both be memory locations in an instruction. IMMEDIATE ADDRESSING MODE Suppose that in a program you need to put the number 437BH in the CX register. The MOV CX, 437BH instruction can be used to do this. When it executes, this instruction will put the immediate hexadecimal number 437BH in the 16-bit CX register. This is referred to as immediate addressing mode because the number 10 be Toaded into the CX register will be put in thetwomemory locations immediately following the code for the MOV instruction. This is similar to the way the port address was put in memory immediately after the code for the input instruction in the three-instruction program in Fig. 2.66. similar instruction, MOV CL, 48H, could be used to load the 8-bit immediate number 48H into the 8-bit CL register. You can also write instructions to load an 8-bit immediate number into an 8-bit memory location or toload 2 16-bit number into two consecutive memory locations, but we are not yet ready to show you how to specify these. REGISTER ADDRESSING MODE Register addressing mode means that a register is the source of an operand for an instruction. The instruction MOV CX, AX, for example, copies the contents of the 16- bit AX register into the 16-bit CX register. Remember that the destination location is specified in the instruction before the comma, and the source is specified after the comma. Also note that the contents of AX are just copied to CX, not actually moved. In other words, the previous contents of CX are written over, but the contents of AX are not changed. For example, if‘ CX contains 2A84H and AX contains 4971H before the MOV CX, AX instruction executes, then afier the instruction executes. CX will contain 4971H and AX will still contain 49711. You can MOV any 16-bit register to any 16-bit register, or you can MOV any 8-bit registerto any &-bit register. However, you ‘cannot use an instruction such as MOV CX. AL because this is an attempt to copy a byte-fype operand (AL) intoa word-type destination (CX). The byte in AL would fit in CX, but the 8086 would not know which half of CX to put it in. If you try to write an instruction like this and youare using a good assembler, theassembler will tell you that the instruction contains a type error: To copy the byte from AL to the high byte of CX, you can use the instruction MOV CH, AL. To copy the byte from AL to the low byte of CX, you can use the instruction MOV CL, AL. Accessing Data in Memory OVERVIEW OF MEMORY ADDRESSING MODES ‘Theaddressing modes described in the following sections are used to specify the location of an operand in memory. To access data in memory, the 8086 must also produce a 20-bit paysical address. It does this by adding a 16-bit value called the effective address to a segment base address represented by the 16-bit number in one of the four segment registers. The effective address (EA) represents the displacement or offset of the desired operand from the segment base. In most cases, any of the segment bases can be specified, but the data segment ADDRESS MEMORY OFF + END OF DATA SEGMENT axpeaisrer paren J Baran OV 8x, [87 AH se 20004 « os [2]o] [0] 0 mA PHYSICAL ADORESS Fig. 2.13 Addition of data segment register and effective address toproduce the phystcal address of the data byte. (a) Diagram, () Computation.Computers, Microcomputers, and Microporcessors—An introduction is the one most often used. Fig. 2.134 shows in graphic form how the EA is added to the data segment base to point to an operand in memory. Fig. 2.136 shows how the 20-bit physical address is generated by the BIU. The starting address for the data segment in Fig. 2.13b is 20000H, so the data segment register will contain 2000H. ‘The BIU adds the effective address, 437AH, to the data segment base address of 20000H to produce the physical address sent out to memory. The 20-bit physical address sent out to memory by the BIU will then be 2437 AK. The physical address can be represented either as a single number 2437AH or in the segment base:offset form as 2000:437AH. The execution unit calculates the effective address for an operand using information you specify in the instruction. You can tell the EU to use a number in the instruction as the effective address, to use the contents of a specified regisler as the effective address, or to compute the effective address by adding a number in the instruction to the contents of one or two specified registers. The following section describes one way you caniell the execution unit to calculate an effective address In Iter chapters we show other ways of specifying the effective adress. Later we also show how the addressing modes this provides, are used to solve some common programming problems. DIRECT ADDRESSING MODE For the simplest memory addressing mode, the effective address is just a 16-bit number written directly in the instruction. The instruction MOV BL, [437AH] is an example, The square brackets around the 437AH are shorthand for “the contents of the memory locs a displacement from the segment base of. executed, this instruction will copy “the contents of the ‘memory location at adisplacement from the data segment base of” 437AH into the BL register, as shown by the rightmost arrow in Fig. 2.134. The BIU calculates the 20- bit physical memory address by adding the effective address 437AH to the date segment base, as shown in Fig. 2.136. This addressing mode is called direct because the displacement of the operand from the segment base is specified directly in the instruction. The displacement in the instruction will be added to the data segment base in DS unless you tell the BIU to add itto some other segment base. Later we will show you how to do this. Another example of the direct addressing mode is the instruction MOV BX, [437AH]. When executed, this instruction copies a 16-bit word from memory into the 2.19 BX register. Since each memory address of the 8086 represents a byle of storage, the word must come from two memory locations. The byte at a displacement of 437AH from the data segment base will be copied into BL, as shown by the right arrow in Fig, 2.13a, The contents of the next higher address, displacement 437BH, will be copied into the BH register, as shown by the left arrow in Fig. 2.13a. From the instruction coding, the 8086 will automatically determine the number of bytes that it must access in memory. ‘An important point here is that an 8086 always stores, the low byte of a word in the lower of the two addresses and stores the high byte of a word in the higher address. To stick this in your mind, remember: Low byte—Low address, High byte—High address The previous two examples showed how the direct addressing mode can be used to specify the source of an operand, Direct addressing can also be used to specify the destination of an operand in memory. The instruction MOV (437AH], BX, for example, will copy the contents of the BX register to two memory locations in the data segment. The contents of BL will be copied to the memory location ata displacement of 437AH. The contents of BH will be copied to the memory location at a displacement of 437BH. This operationis represented by simply reversing the direction of the arrows in Fig. 2.13a. NOTE: When you are hand-coding prograns using direct addressing of the form shown above, make sure to put in the square brackets to remind you how to code the instruction. If you leave the brackets out of an instruction such as MOV BX, [437AH], you will code it as if it were the instruction MOV BX, 437AH. This second instruction will load the immediate umber 437AH into BX, rather than loading a word frommemory atadisplacement of 437AH into BX. Also note that if you are writingan instruction using direct addressing such asthis or an assembler, you must write n the form MOV BL, DS:BYTE PTR [437AH] to give the assembler all the information it needs. As we will show you in the next chapter, when you are using an assembler, you usually use aname 10 represent the direct address rather than the actual numerical value. ‘A FEW WORDS ABOUT SEGMENTATION Atthis point you may be wondering why Intel designed the 8086 family devices to access memory using the segment:offset approach rather than accessing memory directly with 20-bit addresses. The segment:offset scheme requires only a 16-bit numberto represent the base address the instruction2.20 for a segment, and only a 16-bit offset to access any location in a segment, This means that the 8086 has to manipulate and store only 16-bit quantities instead of 20-bit quantities. This makes for an easier interface with 8- and 16-bit-wide memory boards and with the 16-bit registers in the 8086. "The second reason for segmentation hasto do with the type of microcomputer in which an 8086-family CPU is likely to be used. A previous section of this chapter described briefly the operation of a timesharing microcomputer system. In a timesharing system, several users share a CPU, The CPU workson one user's program for perhaps 20 ms, then workson the next user's program for 20 ms. After working 20 ms for each of the other users, the CPU comes back to the first user’s program again, Each time the CPU switches from one user's program to the next, it must access a new section of code and new sections of data. Segmentation makes this switching quite easy. Eachuser's program can be assigned aa separate set of logical segments for its code and data. The user's program will contain offsets or displacements from these segment bases. To change from one user's program to asecond user's program, all that the CPU has to do is to reload the four segment registers with the segment base addresses assigned to the second user's program. In other words, segmentation makes it easy to keep users’ programsand data separate from one another, and segmentation makes it easy to switch from one user's program to another user's program. In Chapter 15 we tell Microprocessor and Interfacing: Programming and Hardware ‘you much more about the use of segmentation in multiuser systems. CHECKLIST OF IMPORTANT TERMS AND CONCEPTS IN THIS CHAPTER Uf yeu donot remember any ofthe termsor conceps in she following is, use the index find them inthe chapter. Miceacompuser micoprecesor Hardware, oftware, firmware Timesharing eompusersstem Maliitasing computer stem Dinribueed procesingsatem Mulliprocesing cpu ‘Memory RAM, ROM WOpors Adéres, data,and control buses Control bus signals ALU Segmentation Businterface unit (BIU) Insracton bye queue, pipelining, ES, CS, SS, DSregsts, [Preiser Execution unie (EU) AX. BX. CX. DX reste, flag register, ALU, SP. BRSI Diregisters Machine language, assembly language, high-evellan- guage Mnemonic, [Link], label comment Auembler compiler Immediate address mode register addressmede direct addressmode Effesive address Review Questions ND PROBLEMS 1. Deseribe the main advantages of a processing computer system over a timesharing system 2, Deseribe the sequence of signals that occurs on the address bus, the control bus, and the data bus when a simple microcomputer fetches an instruction. 3. What determines whether a microprocessor is considered an §-bit, a 16-bit, or a 32-bit device? 4, a. How many address lines does an 8086 have? b, How many memory addresses does this number of address lines allow the 8086 to access Girectly? ¢. Atany given time, the 8086 works with four segments inthis address space. How many bytes are contained in each segment? 5. What is the main difference between the 8086 and the 8088? 6. a. Describe the function of the 8086 queue. b, How does the queue speed up processing? 7. a. Ifthe code segment for an 8086 program stars at address 70400H, what number will be in the CS register? b, Assuming this same code segment base, what physical address will a code byte be fetched from if the instrection pointer contains 539CH? 8, What physical address is represented by: @. 4370:561EH . 7A32:0028H 9, What is the advantage of using a CPU register for temporary data storege over using a memory location? 10, If the stack segment register contains 3000H and the stack poinicr register contains 8434H1, what is the physical address of the top of the stack?(Computers, Microcomputers, and Microporcessors—An introduction 2.21 11. a. What is the advantage of using assembly language instead of writing a program directly in machine language? b, Describe the operation an 8086 will perform when it executes ADD AX, BX. 12, What types of programs are usually written in assembly language? 13. Describe the operation that an 8086 will perform when itexecutes each of the following instructions: a. MOV BX, 03FFH b. MOV [Link] ce. MOV DH, CL d. MOVBX,AX 14, Write the 8086 assembly language statement which will perform the following operations: 15, 16, 1. 18, 1. Load the number 7986H into the BP register. . Copy the BP register contents to the SP register. Copy the contents of the AX register to the DS register d, Load the number F3H into the AL register. If the 8086 execution unit calculates an effective address of 1443H and DS contains 7000H, what physical address will the BIU produce? If the data segment register (DS) contains 4000H, what physical address will the instruction MOV AL, (234BH] read? If the 8086 data segment register contains 7000H, write the instruction that will copy the contents of DL toaddress 74B2CH. Describe the difference between the instructions MOV AX, 2437H and MOV AX, (2437H]. >8086 Family Assembly Language Programming— Introduction he last chapter showed you the format for I assembly language instructions and introduced you toa few 8086 instructions. Developinga program, however, requires more than just writing down a series of instructions. When you want to build a house, itis a good idea to first develop a complete set of plans for the house. From the plans you can see whether the house has the rooms you need, whether the rooms are efficiently placed, and whether the house is structured so that you ‘can easily add on to it if you have more kids. You have probably seen examples of what happens when someone attempis to build a house by just putting pieces together without a plan. Likewise, when you write a computer program, it is a ‘g00d idea to start by developing a detailed plan or outline forthe entire program. A good outline helps you to break down alarge and seemingly overwhelming programming {jobinto small modules whichcan easily be written, tested, ‘and debugged. The more time you spend organizing your programs, the less time it will take you to write and debug them. You should never start writing an assembly language program by just writing down instructions! In this chapter we show you how to develop assembly language pro- grams in a systematic way. OBJECTIVES Atte conclusion of thischapter, you sheuld be able to: 1. Write a tak lis, flaochart, or pseudocode for a simple programming problem. 2. White codeorasemble and rama ver simple asembl language program, 3. Describe the useofprogram derelopment oolssuchaseditors, asiemblers linkers locators debuggers and emulator 4. Properlydecument asembly language programs. Defining the Problem ‘The first step in writing a program is to think very carefully about the problem that you want the program to solve. In other words, ask yourself many times, “What do I really want this program to do?” If you don’ tdo this, you may write a program that works great but does not {do what you need itto do. As you think about the problem, it is a good idea to write down exactly what you want the program to do and the order in which you want the program to do it. At this point you do not write down program statements, you just write the operations you want in general terms. An example for a simple programming problem might be 1, Read temperature from sensor. 2. Add correction factor of + 7 Save result in a memory location For a program as simple as this, the three actions desired are very close to the eventual assembly language3.2 statements. For more complex problems, however, we develop a more extensive outline before writing the assembly language statements. The next section shows you some of the common ways of representing program ‘operations in a program outline. Representing Program Operations ‘The formula or sequence of operations used to solve a programming problem is often called the atgorittm of the program. The following sections show you two common ‘ways of representing the algorithm for a program or rogram segment. FLOWCHARTS If you have done any previous programming in BASIC or inFORTRAN, you are probably familiar with flowchars Flowcharts use graphic shapes to represent different types of program operations. The specific operation desired is written in the graphic symbol. Fig. 3.1 shows some of the common flowchart symbols. Plastic templates areavailable to help you draw these symbols if you decide to use them for your programs. Figure 3.2, shows a flowchart for a program wo read in 24 data samples from a temperature sensor at |-hour intervals, add 7 to each, and store each result ina memory location. A racetrack- or circular-shaped symbol labeled START is used to indicate the beginning of the program. A parallelogram is used to represent an input or an output operation. In the example, we use it to indicate reading data from the temperature sensor. A rectangular box symbol is used to represent simple operations other than inpat and output operations. The box containing “add 7” in Fig. 3.2 is an example. mrocess| Se] Gon) OFF-PAGE CONNECTOR| OMNESTOR — | sua ROUTINE Fig. 3.1. Flowchart symbols. A rectangular box with double lines at each end is often used to represent a subroutine or procedure that will be ‘written seperately from the main program. When a set of operations must be done several times during a program, itisusually more efficient to write the series of operations Microprocessor and Interfacing: Programming and Hardware once as a separate subprogram, then just “call” this subprogram each time itis needed. For example, suppose that there are several places in a program where you need tocompute the square root of a number. Instead of writing the series of instructions for computing a square root each time you need it in the program, you can write the instruction sequence once as a separate procedure and put itin memory after the main program. A special instruction allows you to call this procedure each time you need to ‘compute a square root. Another special instruction at the end of the procedure program returns execution to the main program. In the flowchart in Fig. 3.2, we use the double-ended box to indicate that the “wait 1 hour” operation will be programmed as a procedure. Inciden- tally, the tems subprogram, subroutine, and procedure all have the same meaning. Chapter 5 showshow procedures are written and used. {Cea fevo vue [RRB [STORE RESULT] INMENORY WAST 4 HOUR 28 LNO_—“SantpLes 2 ves \ Csr) J Flowchart for program to read in 24 data samples from a port, correct each value, and store each ina memory location. Fig. 3.2 A diamond-shaped box is used in flowcharts to repre- sent a decision point or crossroad. Usually it indicates that some condition is to be checked at this point in the8086 Famty Assembly Language Prograruning—Introduction 3.3 program. If the condition is found to be true, one set of actions is to be done; if the condition is found to be fase, another set of actions is to be done. In the example flowchart in Fig. 3.2, the condition to be checked is whether 24 samples have been read in and processed. If 24 samples have not been read in and processed, the arrow labeled NO in the flowchart indicates that we want the computer to jump back and execute the read, add, store, and wait steps again, If 24 samples have been read in, the arrow labeled YES in the flowchart of Fig. 3.2 indicates that all the desired operations have been done. The racetrack-shaped symbol at the bottom of the flowchart indicates the end of the program. The two additional flowchart symbols in Fig. 3.1 are connectors. If a flowchart column gets to the bottom of the paper, but not all the program has been represented, you can puta small circle with g letter in it at the bottom of the column. You then start the next column at the top of the samme paper with a sinall circle containing the same letter. If you need to continue a flowchartto another page, you can end the flowchart on the first page with the five- sided off-page connector symbol containing a letter or ‘number. You then start the flowchart on the next page with an off-page connector symbol containing the same letter or number. Forsimple programs and program sections, flowcharts are a graphic way of showing the operational flow of the program. We will show flowcharts for many of the program examples throughout this book. Flowcharts, however, have several disadvantages. First, you can’t write ‘mach information in the little boxes. Second, flowcharts do not present information in a very compact form. For more complex problems, flowcharts tend to spread out over many pages. They are very hard to follow back and forth between pages. Third, and most important, with flowcharts the overall structure of the program tends to get lost in the details. The following section describes a more clearly structured and compact method of representing the algorithm of a program or program segment. STRUCTURED PROGRAMMING AND PSEUDOCODE OVERVIEW In the early days of computers, a single brilliant person might write even a large program single-handedly. The main concerns in this case were, “Does the program work?” and “What do we do if this person leaves the company?” As the number of computers increased and the complexity of the programs being written increased, large programming jobs were usually turned over to & team of programmers. In this case the compatibility of parts written by different programmers became an important concern. During the 1970s it became obvious to many professional programmers that in order for team programming to work, a systematic approach and standardized tools were absolutely necessary. ‘One suggested systematic approzch is called top-down design. Inthis approach, a large programming problem is first divided into major modules. Thetop levelof the outline shows therelationship and function of these modules. This top level then presents a one-page overview of the entire program. Bach of the major modules is broken down into still smaller modules on following pages. The division is continued until the steps in each module are clearly understandable, Each programmer can then be assigned a module or set of modules to write for the program. Another advantage of this approach is that people who later want to learn about the program can start with the overview and work their way down to the level of detail they need. This approach is the same as drawing the complete plans for a house before starting to build it. ‘The opposite of top-down design is dosrom-up design. In this approach. each programmer starts writing low- level modulesand hopes that all the pieces will eventually fit together. When completed, the result should be similar to that produced by the top-down design. Most modern programming teams use a combination of the two techniques. They do the top-down design first, then build, test, and link modules starting from the smallest and working upward, The development of standard programming methods was helped by the discovery that any desired program operation could be represented by three basic types of operation. The first type of operation is sequence, which means simply doing a series of actions. The second basic type of operation is decision, or selection, which means ‘choosing between two altemative actions. The third basic lype of operation is repetition, or iteration, which means repeating a series of actions until some condition is or is not present, On the basis of this observation, the suggestion was made thet programmers use a set of three to seven standard structures to represent all the operations in their programs, Actually, only three structures, SEQUENCE, IF-THEN-ELSE, and WHILE-DO, are required to represent any desired program action, but three or four more structures derived from these often make programs clearer. If you have previously written programs in a structured language such as Pascal, then these structures are probably already familiar to you. Fig. 3.3, uses34 Microprocessor and Interfacing: Programming and Hardware flowchart symbols to represent the commonly used structures so that you can more easily visualize their operation. In actual program documentation, however, English-like statements called pseudocode are used rather than the space-consuming flowchart symbols. Fig. 3.3 also shows the pseudocode format and an example for each structure. Each structure has only one entry point and one exit point. As you will see later, this feature makes debugging the final program much easier. The output of one structure is connected to the input of the next structure, Program execution then proceeds through a series of these structures, Any structure can be used within another. An IF- THEN-ELSE structure, for example, can contain a se- quence of statements. Any place that the term state- ‘ment(s) appears in Fig. 3.3, one of the other structures could be substituted for it. The term starement{s) can also represent a subprogram or procedure that is called to do a series of actions. Now, let’s look more closely at these structures. STANDARD PROGRAMMING STRUCTURES The structure shown in Fig. 3.34 isan example of a simple sequence. In this structure, the actions are simply written down in the desired order. An example is. Read temperature from sensor. ‘Add correction factor of + 7. Store corrected value in memory. Figure 3.2b shows an IF-THEN-ELSE example of the decision operation. This structure is used to direct operation to one of two different actions based on some condition. An example is IF temperature less than 70 degrees THEN Turn on heater ELSE ‘Tur off heater The example says that if the temperature is below the thermostat setting, we want to tum the heater on. If the temperature is equal to or above the thermostat setting, ‘we want to turn the heater off. ‘The IF-THEN structure shown in Fig. 3.3c is the same as the IF-THEN-ELSE except that one of the paths contains no action. An example of this is IF hungry THEN Get food The assumption for this example is that if you are not hungry, you will just continue on with your next task. To represent a situation in which you want to select Cone of several actions based on some condition, you can use a nested [F-THEN.-EL SE structure such as that shown in Fig. 3.34. This everyday example describes the thinking 4 soup cook might go through. Note that in this example the last IF-THEN has no ELSE after it because all the possible days have been checked. You can, if you want, add the final ELSE to the IF-THEN- ELSE chain to send an error message if the data does not match any of the choices. ‘The CASE structure shown in Fig. 3.3¢ is really just a compact way to represent a complex IF-THEN- ELSE structure. The choice of action is determined by testing some quantity. The cook or the computer checks the value of the variable called “day” and selects the appropriate actions for that day. Each of the indicated actions, such as “Make celery soup,” is itself a sequence of actions which could be represented by the structures we have described. Note that the CASE structure does not contain the final ELSE for an error. The CASE form is more compact for documentation purposes, and some high-level languages such as Pascal allow you to implement it directly. However, the nested IF-THEN-ELSE structure gives you a much better idea of how you write an assembly language program section to choose between several alternative actions. The WHILE-DO structure in Fig. 3.3 is one form of repetition. Itis used to indicate that you want to do some action or sequence of actions as long as some condition is present. This structure represents a program loop. The example in Fig. 3.3fis WHILE money lasts DO Eat supper out. Go to movie. Take a texi home, This example shows a sequence of actions you might do ‘each evening until you ran out of money. Note that in this structure, the condition ischecked before the action is done the first time. You certainly want to check how much money you have before eating out. Another useful repetition structure is the REPEAT- UNTIL structure shown in Fig. 3.3g. You use this structure to indicate that you want the program to repeat some action or series of actions until some condition is preseat. ‘A good example of the use of this structure is the programming problem we used in the discussion of flowcharts. The example is5086 Family Assembly Language Programming—intreduction / \ IF-THEN-ELSE FLOWCHART 3.5 / SIMPLE SEQUENCE RLOWCHART [STATEMENT(S)1 he IF-THEN FLONCHART \ ‘CASE EXPRESSED AS MULTIPLE IF-THEN ELSE FLOWCHART frarewenrsd [pareve] rarenewiod renew seupocone rseyngcone Pseunocone en PES ERfon men if en SIAEMENTISE Saar STENENTO 5‘ Earenewrse ge BEA NES: IF ROOM TEMPERATURE LESS THAN SET POINTTHEN ——'F HUNGRY THEN Seer 3 SBF mnenorrvocanon —_ gygum ONFUIACE sere un or FuRgce (a) oy to CASE FLOWCHART 1 SELECTING EXPRESSION | es Kea fect s Fmaena [armend.-fraeuenie "ee £8. Ginom) —_—| “ E eee or SESS) Ps EXAMPLE en IRECILEY oop acct SE LIRRE LED cour TUE esto cst ONESDAY THER wellQhEMINESTRONE soUP GION MAKE ONION SOUP see shown! aug SEEN cour eee fs es \wive.00 Loe owesanr FPEATUNTLOWENART Gones> YO 'STATENENT SZ } es wo | [STATENENT(S) se EXAMPLE | fase) Else | ves Bomnswune Beeneaurnncsors | oye rsrypocene ae TRE onoyso Me none aereo0 wntaE eines ween SIN mest \ TAKE TARIHOME o REPSTATEMENT(S unt CONSIGN @ Ke Fig.3.3. Standard program structures. (a) Sequence, (b)IF THEN ELSE, (¢) IF THEN, (d) CASE expressed as nested IF- THEN-ELSE, (e) CASE, (f) WHILE-DO, (q) REPEAT-UNTIL.3.6 ‘Microprocessor and Interfacing: Programming and Hardware REPEAT Get data sample from sensor. ‘Add correction of +7. Store result in a memory location. Wait 1 hour. UNTIL 24 samples taken. Notethatin aREPEAT-UNTIL structure, the action(s) is done once before the condition is checked. If you want thecondition to be checked before any action isdone, then ‘you can write the algorithm with a WHILE-DO structure as follows: WHILE NOT 24 samples DO Read data sample from temperature sensor. Add correction factor of + 7. Store result in memory location. Wait 1 hour. Remember, aREPEAT-UNTIL structure indicates that the condition is first checked after the statement(s) is performed, so the action or series of actions will always be done at least once. If you don’t want this to happen, then use the WHILE-DO, which indicates that the condi- tion is checked before any action is taken. As we will show later, the structure you use makes a difference in theactwal assembly language program you write to implement it. ‘The WHILE-DO and REPEAT-UNTIL structures con- tain a simple IF-THEN-ELSE decision operation. How- ever, since this decision is an implied part of these two structures, we don’t indicate the decision separately in them. ‘Another form of the repetition operation that you might seein high-level language programs is the FOR- DO loop. This structure has the form FOR count = 1 TOn DO statement statement This FOR DO loop. as it is often called, simply repeats the sequence of actions n times, so for assembly language algorithms we usually implement this type of operation with a REPEAT-UNTIL structure. Incidentally, if you compare the space required by the pseudocode representation for a program structure with the space required by the flowchart representation for the same structure, the spaceadvantage of pseudocode should be obvious. ‘Throughout the rest of this book, we show you how to use these structures to represent program actions and how to implement these structures in assembly language. SUMMARY OF PROGRAM STRUCTURE REPRESENTATION FORMS Writing a successful program does not consist of just writing down a series of instructions. You must first think carefully about what you want the program to do and how you want the program to do it. Then you must represent the structure of the program in some way thatis very clear both to you and to anyone else who might have to work on the program, ‘One way of representing program operations is with flowcharts. Flowcharts are a very graphic representation, and they are useful for short program segments, espe- cially those that deal directly with hardware. However, flowcharts use a great deal of space. Consequently, the flowchart for even a moderately complex program may take up several pages. It often becomes difficult to follow program flow back and forth between pages. Also, since there are no agreed-upon structures, a poor programmer can write a flowchart which jumps all over the place and is even more difficult to follow. The term “logical spaghetti” comes to mind here. A second way of representing the operations you want in a program is with a top-down cesign approach and standard program structures, The overall program problem is first broken down into major functional modules. Each ofthese modules is broken down into smaller and smaller ‘modules until the steps in each module are obvious. The algorithms for the whole program and for each module are expressed with a standard structure, Only three basic structures. SEQUENCE, IF-THEN-ELSE, and WHILE- DO, are needed to represent any needed program action or series of actions. However, other useful structures such asIF-THEN, REPEAT- UNTIL, FOR-DO, and CASEcan bbe derived from these basic three. A structure can contain another structure of the same type or one of the other types. Each structure has only one entry point and one exit point. These programming structures may seem restrictive, but using them usually results in algorithms which are easy to follow. Also, as we will show you soon, if you write the algorithm for a program carefully with these standard structures, it is relatively easy to translate the algorithm to the equivalent assembly language instructions. Finding the Right Instruction After you get the structure of a program worked out and ‘written down, the next step is todetermine the instruction statements required to do each part of the program. Since the examples in this book are based on the 8086 family of8036 Family Assembly Language Programming—introduction 3.7 microprocessors, row is a good time to give you an overview of the instructions the 8086 has for you to use. First, however, is « hint about how to approach these instructions. You do not usually learn a new language by memoriz~ ing an entire dictionary of the language. A better way isto lear afew useful words and practice putting these words together in simple sentences, You can then learn more words as you need them to express more complex thoughts. Likewise, you should not try to memorize all the instructions for a microprocessor at once. For future reference, Chapter 6 contains a dictionary of all the 8086 instructions with detailed descriptions and ‘examples of cach. As an introduction, however, the few pages here contain a list of all the 8086 instructions with ‘a short explanation of each. Skimthrough the list and pick ‘out a dozen or so instructions that seem useful and understandable. AS a start, look for move, input, output, logical, andarithmetic instructions. Then look through the list again to see if you can find the instructions that you might use to do the “read temperature sensor value from a port, add + 7, and store resuit in memory” example program. You can use Chapter 6 as a reference as you write programs. Here we simply list the 8086 instructions in functional groups with single-sentence descriptions so that, ‘you can see the types of instructions that are evailable to You. As you read through this section, do not expect to understand all the instructions, When you start writing programs, you will probably use this section to determine the type of instruction and Chapter 6 to get the instruction details as you need them. After you have written a few programs, you will remember most ofthe basic instruction types and will be able to simply lock up an instruction in Chapter 6 to get any additional details you need, Chapter 4 shows you in detail how to use the move, arithmetic, logical, jump, and string instructions. Chapter 5 shows how to use the call instructions and the stack, DATA TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS General-purpose byte or word transfer instructions: MNEMONIC DESCRIPTION Mov Copy byte or word from specified source to specified destination. PUSH Copy specified word to top of stack POP Copy word from top of stack to specified location. PUSHA (801 86/801 88 only) Copy all registers to stack. POPA (60186/80188 only) Copy words from stack to all registers. XCHG Exchange bytes or exchange words. XLAT Translate a byte in AL using a table in memory. Simple input end output port transfer instructions: IN Copy a byte or word from specified port to accumulator. ouT Copy a byte or ward from accumulator to specified port. Special address transier instructions: Lea Load effective address of operand into specified regisier. Los Load DS register and other specified register from memory. LES Load ES register and other specified register irom memory. Flag twanster instructions: LAHF Load (copy to) AH with the low byte of the flag register. SAHF Store (copy) AH register to low byte of flag register. PUSHF Copy flag register to top of stack. POPF Copy word at top of stack to flag register. ARITHMETIC INSTRUCTIONS Addition instructions: ADD Add specified byte to byte or specified word to word. Apc Add byte+ byte + carry flag or word + word + carry flag INC Increment specified byte or specified word by 1. AMA ASCH adjust after addition DAA Decimal (BCD) adjust after addition. Subtraction instructions: sua Subtract byte from byte of word from word. sBB Subtract byte and cary flag from byte or word and carry flag irom word. DEC Decrement specified byteor specified word by 1 NEG Negate — invert each bit of a specified byte or word and add 1 (orm 2's complement op Compare two specified bytes or two specified words. AAS ASCII agjust after subtraction. DAS Decimal (BCD) adjust ater subtraction, Multiplication instructions: MUL Multiply unsigned byte by byte or unsigned word by word.IMUL Multiply signed byte by byte or signed word by word. ‘AM ASCII adjust after multiplication. Division instructions: Div Divide unsigned word by byte or unsigned double word by word ID Divide signed word by byte or signed double word by word. AAD, ASCII adjust before division cBw Fill upper byte of word with copies of sign bit of lower byte. cwo Fill upper word of double word with sign bit of lower word. BIT MANIPULATION INSTRUCTIONS Logical instructions NOT Invert each AND AND each bitin a byte or word with the corresponding bitin another byte orword OR OR each bit ina byte or word with the corresponding bit in another byte or word. XOR Exclusive OR each bit ina byte or word with the corresponding bit in another byte or word. TEST AND operands to update flags, but dor't change operands. Shit instructions: SHUSAL Shift bits oi word orbyte left, put zero(s) in LSB). SHR Shift bits of word or byte right, put zero\s) in MSB(S). SAR Shift bits of word or byte right, copy old MSB into new MSB. Rotate instructions: ROL Rotate bits of byte or word left, MSB to LSB and 10 CF, ROR Rotate bits of byte or word right, LSB to MSB and to CF. ReL Rotate bits of byte or word lefi, MSB to CF and CF to LSB. RCR Rotate bits of byte or word right, LSB to CF and CF to MSB. STRING INSTRUCTIONS. A string is a series of bytes ot a series of words in sequential memory locations. A string often consists of ASCII charsctercodes. Inthelist,a“/” is asedto separate ferent mnemonics for the same instruction, Use the ‘mnemonic which most clearly describes the function of theinstruction ina specific application. A“B” in amnemonic Microprocessor and Interfacing: Programming and Hardware is used to specifically indicate that a string of bytes is to beacted upon. A “W" in the mnemonic is used to indicate that a string of words is to be acted upon. REP An instruction prefix. Repeat following instruction until x=0. An instruction prefix. Repeat instruction until €X = 0 or zero flag ZF 1. An instruction prefix. Repeat until CX = Cor ZF=1. Move byte or word from one string to another. Comparetwo string bytes ortwo string words. (80186/80188) Input string byte or word from port, (0186/8018) Output string byte or word to port. Scana string, Compare a sting byte with a byte in AL or a string word with a word in AX. Load string byte into AL orstring word into AX. Store byte irom AL or word from AX into string REPE/REPZ REPNE/REPNZ MOVSIMOVSB/MOVSW COMPS/COMPSB/COMPSW INS/INSB/INSW OUTS/OUTSBIOUTSW SCAS/SCASB/SCASW LODSLODSBLODSW STOS/STOSB/STOSW PROGRAM EXECUTION TRANSFER INSTRUCTIONS: ‘These instructions are used to tell the 8086 to start fetching instructions from some new address, rather than continuing in sequence. Unconditional transfer instructions: CALL Call a procedure (subprogram), save return address on stack. RET Return from procedure to calling program, IMP Go to specified address to get next instruction. Conditional transfer instructions: A“7”’is used to separate two mnemonics which represent the same instruction. Use the mnemonic whichmost clearly describes the decision condition in a specific program. These instructions are often used after a compare instruction. The terms below and above refer to unsigned8086 Family Assembly Language Programming—Introduction| 3.9 binary aumbers. Above means larger in magnitude. The terms greater than or less than refer to signed binary numbers. Greater than means more positive. JAINBE Jump if above/lumpif not below or equal. JABIIN Jump if above or equal/ump if not below. JB/INAE Jump iibelow/Jumpiifnot above or equal. JBE/INA lump if below or equal/iump if not above, 1c jump if carry flag CF =1 JEN. Jump if equal/fump if zero flag 2 JG/INLE Jump if greater/lump if not less than or equal JGEJNL Jump if greater thanor equal! jump if not less than. JLINGE Jump if less than/lump if not greater than or equal JLEJING Jump if less than or equal/Jump if not greater than. INC Jump if no carry (CF = 0). JNEJNZ Jump if not equal/Jump if not 2et0 (ZF = 0) JNO Jump if no overflow (overflow flag OF = 0} INFAPO Jump if not parity/jump if parity odd (PF = 0). JNS Jump if not sign (sign flag SF = 0). Jo Jump if overflow flag OF = 1 IPAPE Jump if parity/Jump if parity even (PF = 1). Js Jump if sign «SF = 1) eration control instructions These instructions can be used to execute @ series of instructions some number of times. Here mnemonics separated by a “Y" represent the same instruction. Use the ‘one that best fits the specific application, Loop Loop through a sequence of instructions until CX = 0. LOOPELOOPZ Loop through a sequence of instructions while ZF = 1 and Cx #0. LOOPNE/LOOPNZ Loop through a sequence of instructions while ZF = 0 and cx #0, Jump to specified address if Cx =0. If you aren't tired of instructions, continue skimming through the rest ofthe list. Don’t worry if the explanation JOXZ is not clear to you because we will explain these instruc~ tions in detail in later chapters. Interrupt instructions: INT Interrupt program execution, call service procedure INTO Interrupt program execution if OF=1 RET Return from interrupt service procedure to main program. High-level language imerface instructions: ENTER (80186/80188 only) Enter pro- cedure. LEAVE (80186/80188 only) Leave pro- cedure, BOUND (80186/80188 only} Check if ffective address within spec- ified array bounds PROCESSOR CONTROL INSTRUCTIONS Flag set/elear instructions ste Set carry flag CF t0 1 cic Clear carry flag CF to 0. cmc Complement the state of the carry flag CF sto Set direction tlag DF to 1 (decre- ment string pointers! co Clear direction flag DF to 0. stl Set interrupt enable flag to 1 (enable INTR input cu Clear interrupt enable flag to 0 (disable INTR input) External hardware synchronization instructions: HUT Halt (do nothing) until intesrupi or reset. ‘Wait (do nothing) until signal on the TEST pin is low. Esc Escape to external coprocessor such as 8087 oF 8089. ‘An instruction prefix. Prevents another processor from taking the bus while the adjacent instruction executes. No operation instruction NoP. No action except fetch and decode. WAIT Lock Now that you have skimmed through an overview of the 8086 instruction set, let's see whether you found the instructions needed to implement the "read sensor, add +7, and store result in memory” example program. The IN instruction can be used to read the temperature value3.10 Microprocessor and Interfacing: Programming andl Hardware from an A/D converter connected to a port. The ADD instruction can be used to add the correction factor of £7 to the value read in, Finally, the MOV instruction can be used to copy the result of the addition to a memory location, A major point here is that breaking down the programming problem into a sequence of steps makes it easy to fiid the instruction or small group of instructions that will perform each step. The next section shows you how to write the actual program using the 8086 instructions. Writing a Program INITIALIZATION INSTRUCTIONS, After finding the instructions you need to do the main part of your program, there ere a few additional instructions that you need to determine before you actually write your program. The purpose of these additional instructions is 10 initialize various parts of the system, such as segment registers. flags, and programmable port devices. Seement registers, for example, must be loaded with the upper 16 bitsof the address in memory where you want the segment to begin. For our “read temperature sensor, add +7, and store result in memory” example program, the only part ‘we need to initialize is the data segment register. The data seginent register must be initialized so that we can copy the result of the addition to a location in memory. If, for example, we want to store data in memory starting at address 00100H, then we want the data segment register to contain the upper 16 bits of this address, ODLOH. The 8086 does not have an instruction to movea number directly into a segment register. Therefore, we move the desired ‘number into one of the 16-bit general-puspose registers, then copy it to the desired segment register. Two MOV instructions will do this. If you are using the stack in your program, then you ‘must include instructionsto load the stack segment register and an instruction to load the stack pointer register with the offset of the top of the stack. Most microcomputer systems contain several programmable peripheral devices, such as ports, timers, and controiters. You must include instructions which send control words to these devices to tell them the function you want them to perform. Also, you usually want to include instructions which set or clear the control flags, such as the interrupt enable flag and the direction flag. ‘The best way to approach the initialization task is to ‘make achecklistof all theregisters, programmable devices. and flags in the system you are working on. Then you can mark the ones you need fer a specific program and determine the instructions needed to initialize each part. ‘An initialization listfor an 8086-based system, such as the SDK-86 prototyping board, might lock like the following. INITIALIZATION LIST Data segment register DS Stack segment register SS Entra segment register ES Stack pointer register SP 8255 programmable parallel por 8259A priority interrupt controller £8254 programmable counter 8251 A programmable serial port Initialize data variables ‘Sct interrupt enable flag ‘As you can sce, the list can become quite lengthy even though we havenot included all the devices a system might coinmonly have, Note that initializing the code segment register CS is absent from this list. The code segment register is loaded with the correct starting value by the system command you use to run the program, Now let’s see how you putall these parts together to makea program. STANDARD PROGRAM FORMAT Inthis section we show you howto format your programs if you are going to construct the machine codes for each instruction by hand, A later section of this chapier will show you the additional parts you need to add to the program if you are goingto use a computer program called fan assembler to produce the binary codes for the instructions. ‘Totelp you write your programs in the correct format, assembly language coding sheets such as that shown in Fig. 3.4 areavailable. The ADDRESS column is used for the address or the offset of a code byte or data byte. The actual code bytes ordatabytes are putin the DATA/CODE column. A label is a name which represents an address referred to in jump or cal instruction; labels are put in the LABELS column. A label is followed by a colon (:) if it is used by a jump or cal instruction in the same code segment. The MNEM column contains the opcode mnemonics for the instructions, The OPERAND(S) column contains the registers, memory locations, or data acted upon by the instructions. A COMMENTS column gives you space to describe the function of the instruction for future reference. Figure 3.4, shows how instructions for the “read temperature, add +7, store result in memory” program can be written in sequence on a coding sheet. We will discuss8086 Family Assembly Language Programming —Introduction, 3.11 PROGRAMMER 3.0 JAAP SHEET 7 FT PROGRAM TITLE 10> TucCinTiA AND CORECT Bae ak AESRACT "Bis pas a Ia oles os UIST ies fk CAA oe a cod fader of #7 a ad anton Hanes th etal i ota saan heaton enoccanies ‘we colle ALQLSTRS HSE re FUAGSAGHCED, — All cditnal ARTs. to 08a pel pant ecuony 201008 Wa 02200..002001, CES ADDRESS | DATA | LABELS MNEM. | OPERANDS) COMMENTS cope O10 ca Mast may heal To ooror overtake ston 0102 tl eld wth a data bie 0103 at sadn E cova by th pga 0108 TH means Hatch” boat 00/08 cnlansoflcolon 00106 oor07 00108 00109 oor | ooree | _ wore | 20103 t 007 t Cees os 010% t Tie ah naa 200 te Wet Ak cored ‘iil DS to paintl ant 27 a | iy a ie aig da a 0 i a z WD asf oe Be T 05 o w Al On Bad omc fm 06 © pond Ot oF o BD Ab oH Ald esr flr 107 os or oe az Wow [e000 Sos sal wed af @ arp of wo 26. az W7, z Sip, wad promod oD famuter a oF Fig. 3.4 Assembly language programon standard coding form.12 Microprocessor and Interfacing: Programming and Hareware here the operation of these instructions to the extent needed. If you want more information, detailed descriptions of the syrttax (assembly language grammar) and operation of each of these instructions can be found Chapter 6. ‘The first line at the top of the coding form in Fig. 34 does not represent an instruction. It simply indicates that ‘we want to set aside memory location to store the result This location must be in available RAM so that we can write to it. Address OOL00H isan available RAM location on an SDK-86 prototyping board, so we chose it for this example. Next, we decide where in memory we want 10 start puiting the code bytes for the instructions of the program. Again, on an SDK-86 prototyping board, address (00200H and aboye isavailable RAM, so we chose to start the program at address. 00200H. ‘The first operation we want to do in the program is to initialize the data segment register. As discussed previously, two MOV instructions are used todo this. The MOV AX, OOIDH instruction, when executed, will load the upper 16 bits of the address we chose for data storage into the AX register. The MOV DS, AX instruction will copy this ‘number from the AX register fo the data segment register Now we get to the instructions that dothe input, add, and store operations. The IN AL, 05H instruetion will copy a data byte from the port OSH to the AL register. The ADD AL, 07 instruction will add O7H tothe AL register and leave the result in the AL register. The MOV [0000], AL instruction will copy the byte in AL toa memory location at a displacement of 0000H from the data segment base In other words, AL will be copied to a physical address computed by adding 0000 to the segment base address represented by the 0010H in the DS register. The result of thisadditionis a physical address of OC/100H, so theresult in AL will becopied to physical address 0100H in memory Thisis an example of the direct addressing mode described near the end of the previous chapter. The INT 3 instruction at the end of the program Functions as breakpoint. When the 8086 on an SDK- 86 board executes this instruction, it will cause the 8086 to stop executing the instructions of your programand return control to the monitor or system program. You can then use system commands to look at the contents of registers and memory locations, or you can run another program, Without an instruction such as this at the end of the program, the 8086 would fetch and execute the code bytes for your program, then go on fetching meaningless bytes from memory and trying to execute them as if they were code bytes ‘The next major section of this chapter will show you how to constructthe binary codes for these and other 8086 instructionsso that you can assemble and ran the programs on a development board such as the SDK-86. First, however, we want to use Fig. 3.4 to make an important point about writing assembly language program DOCUMENTATION Ina previous section of this chapter, we stressed the point that you should do a lot of thinking and carefully write down the algorithm for aprogram before you start writing instruction statements. You should also document the program itself so that its operation is clear to you and to anyone else who needs to understand it Each page of the program should contain the name of the program, the page number, the name of the programmer, and perhaps a version number. Each program Or procedure should have a heading block containing an abstract describing what the program is supposed to do, which procedures it calls, which registers it uses, which ports ituses, which flags it affects, the memory used, and any other information which will make it easier for another programmer to interface with the program. Comments should be used generously to describe the specific function of an instruction or group of instructions in this particular program, Comments should not be just aan expansion of the instruction mnemonic. A comment of ‘ald 7 to AL" after the instruction ADD AL, 07H, for example, would not tell you much about the function of theinstruction ina particular program, A more enlightening comment might be “Add altitude correction factor to temperature.” Incidentally, not every statement needs an individual comment. It is often more useful to write a comment which explains the function of a group of instructions. We cannot overemphasize the importance of clear, concise documentation in your programs. Experience has shown that even a short program you wrote without comments a month ago may not be at all understandable to you now. CONSTRUCTING: THE MACHINE CODES FOR 8086 INSTRUCTIONS This section shows you how to construct the binary codes for 8086 instructions. Most of the time you will probably uusean assembler program to do this for you, but itis useful to understand how the codes are constructed. If you have ‘an 8086-based prototyping board such as the Intel SDK- 86 available. knowing how to hand code instructions will enable you to code, enter, and run simple programs.8086 Family Assembly Language Programming — Introduction Instruction Templates To code the instructions for 8-bit processors such as the 8085, all you have to do is look up the hexadecimal code for each instruction on a one-page chart, For the 8086, the process is not quite as simple. Here’s why. There are 32 ways to specify the source of the operand in an instruction such as MOV CX, source. The source of the ‘operand can be any one of eight 16-bit registers, or a memory location specified by any one of 24 memory addressing modes. Each of the 32 possible instructions requires a different binary cove. IF CX is made the source rather than the destination, then there are 32 ways of specifying the destination. Each of these 32 possible instructions requires a different binary code. There are thus 64 different codes for MOV insiructions using CX as asource or asa destination, Likewise, another 64codes are required to specify all the possible MOVs using CL as a source or a destination, and 64 more are required to specify all the possible MOVs using CH as a source or a destination, The point here is that, because there is such alarge number of possible codes for the 8086 instructions, it is impractical to list them all ina simple table. Instead, ‘we use a template for each basic instruction type and fill in bits within this template to indicate the desired addressing mode, data type, etc. In other words, we build up the instruction codes on a bit- by-bit basi Different Intel literature sows two slightly differeat formats for coding 8086 instructions. One format is shown at the end of the 8086 data sheet in Appendix A. ‘The second format is shown along with the 8086 instruction timings in Appendix B. We will start by showing you how touse the templates shown in the 8086 data sheet. BYTE 1 I oleae \G aa o1e]e] oToloys els es e008 FoR WT t pont sn INPUTABYTE o ADDRESS CONTENTS oaz05H eH cuz oon \ © Fig. 3.5. Coding template for 8086 IN (fixed port) instruction. (a) Template. (b) Example] (o) Hex codes in sequential memory locations. As a first example of how to use these templates, we will build the code for the IN AL, 05H instruction from our example program. To start, look at the template for this instruction in Fig. 3.5a. Note that two bytes are required for the instruction, The upper 7 bits of the first byte tell the 8086 that this is an “input from a fixed port” instruction. The bit labeled “W" inthe template is used to tell the 8086 whether it should input abyteto AL ora word to AX. If you want the 8086 0 inputa byte from an 8-bit port to AL, then make the W bit a0. If you want the 8086 to input a word from a 16-bit port to the AX register, then make the W bit a 1. The 8-bit port address, OSH or =n ON ——- REGISTER SELECT (SEE FIGURE 3.7) On ‘OP CODE [ NOD] REG | RA + | L | Le DIRECTADORESS | LOW BYTE, (6 BITS) ADDRESSING NODE (SEE FIGURE 3.8) BYTEMWORD DATA 0 = BYTE 1= WORD DIRECTION TO/FROM REG 0=FROM 1 =TO OPERATION CODE DIREST ADDRESS HIGH BYTE 2 Fg.3.6 Coding template for 8086 instructions which MOV data between registers or between a register and a memory tocation.