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The Study of Microbial Structure: Microscopy and Specimen Preparation
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Scale
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Discovery of Microorganisms
Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723)
first person to observe and describe microorganisms accurately
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Figure 1.1b
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Lenses and the Bending of Light
light is refracted (bent) when passing from one medium to another refractive index
a measure of how greatly a substance slows the velocity of light
direction and magnitude of bending is determined by the refractive indexes of the two media forming the interface
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Lenses
focus light rays at a specific place called the focal point distance between center of lens and focal point is the focal length strength of lens related to focal length
short focal length more magnification
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Figure 2.2
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The Light Microscope
many types
bright-field microscope dark-field microscope phase-contrast microscope fluorescence microscopes
are compound microscopes
image formed by action of 2 lenses
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The Bright-Field Microscope
produces a dark image against a brighter background has several objective lenses
parfocal microscopes remain in focus when objectives are changed
total magnification
product of the magnifications of the ocular lens and the objective lens
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Figure 2.3
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Figure 2.4
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Microscope Resolution
ability of a lens to separate or distinguish small objects that are close together wavelength of light used is major factor in resolution
shorter wavelength greater resolution
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working distance
distance between the front surface of lens and surface of
cover glass or specimen
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Figure 2.5
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Figure 2.6
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The Dark-Field Microscope
produces a bright image of the object against a dark background used to observe living, unstained preparations
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Figure 2.7b
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The Phase-Contrast Microscope
enhances the contrast between intracellular structures having slight differences in refractive index excellent way to observe living cells
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Figure 2.9
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Figure 2.10
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The Differential Interference Contrast Microscope
creates image by detecting differences in refractive indices and thickness of different parts of specimen excellent way to observe living cells
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The Fluorescence Microscope
exposes specimen to ultraviolet, violet, or blue light specimens usually stained with fluorochromes shows a bright image of the object resulting from the fluorescent light emitted by the specimen
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Figure 2.12
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Figure 2.13c and d
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Preparation and Staining of Specimens
increases visibility of specimen accentuates specific morphological features preserves specimens
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Fixation
process by which internal and external structures are preserved and fixed in position process by which organism is killed and firmly attached to microscope slide
heat fixing
preserves overall morphology but not internal structures
chemical fixing
protects fine cellular substructure and morphology of larger, more delicate organisms
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Dyes and Simple Staining
dyes
make internal and external structures of cell more visible by increasing contrast with background have two common features
chromophore groups
chemical groups with conjugated double bonds give dye its color
ability to bind cells
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Dyes and Simple Staining
simple staining
a single staining agent is used basic dyes are frequently used
dyes with positive charges e.g., crystal violet
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Differential Staining
divides microorganisms into groups based on their staining properties
e.g., Gram stain e.g., acid-fast stain
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Gram staining
most widely used differential staining procedure divides Bacteria into two groups based on differences in cell wall structure
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primary stain mordant
decolorization
counterstain
Figure 2.14
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positive negative
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Figure 2.15c
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Escherichia coli a gram-negative rod
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Acid-fast staining
particularly useful for staining members of the genus Mycobacterium
e.g., Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes tuberculosis e.g., Mycobacterium leprae causes leprosy
high lipid content in cell walls is responsible for their staining characteristics
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Staining Specific Structures
Negative staining
often used to visualize capsules surrounding bacteria capsules are colorless against a stained background
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Staining Specific Structures
Spore staining
double staining technique bacterial endospore is one color and vegetative cell is a different color
Flagella staining
mordant applied to increase thickness of flagella
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Electron Microscopy
beams of electrons are used to produce images wavelength of electron beam is much shorter than light, resulting in much higher resolution
Figure 2.20
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The Transmission Electron Microscope
electrons scatter when they pass through thin sections of a specimen transmitted electrons (those that do not scatter) are used to produce image denser regions in specimen, scatter more electrons and appear darker
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EM
Figure 2.23
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Specimen Preparation
analogous to procedures used for light microscopy for transmission electron microscopy, specimens must be cut very thin specimens are chemically fixed and stained with electron dense material
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Other preparation methods
shadowing
coating specimen with a thin film of a heavy metal
freeze-etching
freeze specimen then fracture along lines of greatest weakness (e.g., membranes)
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Figure 2.25
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Ebola
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Fly head
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The Scanning Electron Microscope
uses electrons reflected from the surface of a specimen to create image produces a 3-dimensional image of specimens surface features
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Figure 2.27
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Newer Techniques in Microscopy
confocal microscopy and scanning probe microscopy have extremely high resolution can be used to observe individual atoms
Figure 2.20
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Confocal Microscopy
confocal scanning laser microscope laser beam used to illuminate spots on specimen computer compiles images created from each point to generate a 3dimensional image
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Figure 2.29
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Figure 2.30
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Scanning Probe Microscopy
scanning tunneling microscope
steady current (tunneling current) maintained between microscope probe and specimen up and down movement of probe as it maintains current is detected and used to create image of surface of specimen
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Scanning Probe Microscopy
atomic force microscope
sharp probe moves over surface of specimen at constant distance up and down movement of probe as it maintains constant distance is detected and used to create image
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