Forging – History and Key Developments in the Metals Forging Industry

Topics Covered
Origins of the Forging Process

Forging Through the 19th Century

Steel Making Developments That Aided the Forging Industry

Invention of the Forging Press

Modern Computer Controlled Forging Machines

Origins of the Forging Process
The art of forging dates to at least 4000BC and probably earlier. Metals such as bronze
and wrought iron were forged by early man to produce hand toots and weapons of war.
Forging of wrought iron and crucible steel continued until near the end of the 19th
century for similar purposes and it is unfortunate that weapons of war are still produced
by the forging process using more contemporary metals.

Forging Through the 19th Century

The forgesmiths of the 19th century were particularly skilled at hand and open die
forging of wrought iron. As wrought iron was only produced in heats of 50 kilograms,
the smiths became skillful in hammer welding and many large shaft forgings weighing
10 tonnes and more were gradually built up by a process of forging and hammer
welding. The invention of the Bessemer steel making process in 1856 was a major
breakthrough for the ferrous forging industry. The forgers now had a plentiful supply of
low cost steel for production of volume quantities of forgings. It has been accepted that
the first cavity steel forgings using a closed die process commenced in the United States
in 1862 for production of components for the Colt revolver.

Steel Making Developments That Aided the Forging Industry

The further development of the Bessemer process with the invention of the basic steel
making technique meant that cheaper supplies of iron ore containing high phosphorus
and sulphur levels could be smelted to produce good quality steel.

The simultaneous development of the open hearth steel making process toward the end
of the 19th century meant that the forging industry now had a reliable, low cost, high
volume raw material.

Invention of the Forging Press

With the introduction of motor vehicles and in particular Henry Ford’s T Model a
considerable demand for forgings developed in the early years of the 20th century. Up
until 1930, when National Machinery Company of the USA introduced the first forging
press (Maxipress), all forgings were produced on hammers. The advantage of the
forging press was exemplified by higher production rates and a lesser degree of skill in
producing forgings as compared to hammer forging.

The introduction of the forging press did not obsolete the forging hammer but rather
challenged the manufacturers to improve their product and of course, there are many
forgings which are best made on hammers.

Modern Computer Controlled Forging Machines

Today we have computer controlled hammers and presses capable of making a wide
range of components in a variety of materials for many applications including
aerospace, automobile, mining and agriculture, to mention a few.

What are the types of forging processes?

There are basically three methods (or processes) to make a forged part.

1. Impression Die Forging

2. Cold Forging
3. Open Die Forging
4. Seamless Rolled Ring Forging

Impression Die Forging

Impression die forging pounds or presses metal between two dies (called tooling) that contain a
precut profile of the desired part. Parts from a few ounces to 60,000 lbs. can be made using this
process. Some of the smaller parts are actually forged cold.

PROCESS OPERATIONS
Graphical depiction of process steps

Impression Die Forging Process Operations

In the simplest example of impression die forging, two dies are brought together and the
workpiece undergoes plastic deformation until its enlarged sides touch the side walls of the die.
Then, a small amount of material begins to flow outside the die impression forming flash that is
gradually thinned. The flash cools rapidly and presents increased resistance to deformation and
helps build up pressure increased resistance to deformation and helps build up pressure inside
the bulk of the workpiece that aids material flow into unfilled impressions.

Upsetting
Fundamentally, impression die forgings produced on horizontal forging machines (upsetters) are
similar to those produced by hammers or presses. Each is the result of forcing metal into
cavities in dies which separate at parting lines.

Trastornando

Fundamentalmente, las forjas por impresión producidas sobre máquinas de forja

(prensas) horizontales son similares a aquellos producidos por martillos o prensas. Cada
uno es el resultado de forzar el metal en cavidades en muere que se separan en líneas
que se separan.

The impression in the ram-operated "heading tool" is the equivalent of a hammer or press top
die. The "grip dies" contain the impressions corresponding to the hammer or press bottom die.
Grip dies consist of a stationary die and a moving die which, when closed, act to grip the stock
and hold it in position for forging. After each workstroke of the machine, these dies permit the
transfer of stock from one cavity to another in the multiple-impression dies.

La impresión en el manejado por carnero " el instrumento de título " es el equivalente de

un martillo o la cima de prensa muere. " El apretón muere " contienen las impresiones
correspondiente al martillo o la prensa inferior muere. El apretón muere consisten en un
inmóvil mueren y un movimiento muere que, cuando cerrado, el acto para agarrar la
acción(reserva) y lo sostiene en la posición para la forja(falsificación). Después de cada
workstroke de la máquina, estos mueren el permiso la transferencia de acción(reserva)
de una cavidad al otro en la impresión múltiple muere.

Process Capabilities

Commonly referred to as closed-die forging, impression-die forging of steel, aluminum, titanium

and other alloys can produce an almost limitless variety of 3-D shapes that range in weight from
mere ounces up to more than 25 tons. Impression-die forgings are routinely produced on
hydraulic presses, mechanical presses and hammers, with capacities up to 50,000 tons, 20,000
tons and 50,000 lbs. respectively.

As the name implies, two or more dies containing impressions of the part shape are brought
together as forging stock undergoes plastic deformation. Because metal flow is restricted by the
die contours, this process can yield more complex shapes and closer tolerances than open-die
forging processes. Additional flexibility in forming both symmetrical and non- symmetrical
shapes comes from various preforming operations (sometimes bending) prior to forging in
finisher dies.

Part geometry's range from some of the easiest to forge simple spherical shapes, block-like
rectangular solids, and disc-like configurations to the most intricate components with thin and
long sections that incorporate thin webs and relatively high vertical projections like ribs and
bosses. Although many parts are generally symmetrical, others incorporate all sorts of design
elements (flanges, protrusions, holes, cavities, pockets, etc.) that combine to make the forging
very non-symmetrical. In addition, parts can be bent or curved in one or several planes, whether
they are basically longitudinal, equidimensional or flat.

Most engineering metals and alloys can be forged via conventional impression-die processes,
among them: carbon and alloy steels, tool steels, and stainless, aluminum and copper alloys,
and certain titanium alloys. Strain-rate and temperature-sensitive materials (magnesium, highly
alloyed nickel-based superalloys, refractory alloys and some titanium alloys) may require more
sophisticated forging processes and/or special equipment for forging in impression dies.

Cold Forging

Most forging is done as hot work, at temperatures up to 2300 degrees F, however, a variation of
impression die forging is cold forging. Cold forging encompasses many processes -- bending,
cold drawing, cold heading, coining, extrusions and more, to yield a diverse range of part
shapes. The temperature of metals being cold forged may range from room temperature to
several hundred degrees.

.
Cold Forging
Process Operations

1. Forward extrusion
reduces slug diameter
and increases its length
to produce parts such
as stepped shafts and
cylinders.
 2. In backward
extrusion, the steel
flows back and around
the descending punch
to form cup-shaped
pieces.

3. Upsetting, or
heading, a common
technique for making
fasteners, gathers steel
in the head and other
sections along the
length of the part.
El trastornar, o el dirigir, una técnica común para hacer los
sujetadores, frunces de acero en la cabeza y otras secciones a lo
largo de la longitud de la pieza

Process Capabilities

Cold forging encompasses many processes bending, cold drawing, cold heading, coining,
extrusion, punching, thread rolling and more to yield a diverse range of part shapes. These
include various shaft-like components, cup-shaped geometry's, hollow parts with stems and
shafts, all kinds of upset (headed) and bent configurations, as well as combinations.

Most recently, parts with radial flow like round configurations with center flanges, rectangular
parts, and non-axisymmetric parts with 3- and 6-fold symmetry have been produced by warm
extrusion. With cold forging of steel rod, wire, or bar, shaft-like parts with 3-plane bends and
headed design features are not uncommon.

Mas recientemente, las partes con flujo radial como configuraciones redondas con rebordes de centro,
partes rectangulares, y partes de non-axisymmetric con 3-y la simetría de 6 pliegues han sido producidas
por extrusion en caliente. Con la forja(falsificación) de frío de barra de acero, el cable, o la barra, partes
parecidas a un eje con curvas de 3 planos y rasgos de diseño encabezados no son raras.

Typical parts are most cost-effective in the range of 10 lbs. or less; symmetrical parts up to 7
lbs. readily lend themselves to automated processing. Material options range form lower-alloy
and carbon steels to 300 and 400 series stainless, selected aluminum alloys, brass and bronze.

There are times when warm forging practices are selected over cold forging especially for
higher carbon grades of steel or where in-process anneals can be eliminated.

Often chosen for integral design features such as built-in flanges and bosses, cold forgings are
frequently used in automotive steering and suspension parts, antilock-braking systems,
hardware, defense components, and other applications where high strength, close tolerances
and volume production make them an economical choice.

In the process, a chemically lubricated bar slug is forced into a closed die under extreme
pressure. The unheated metal thus flows into the desired shape. As shown, forward extrusion
involves steel flow in the direction of the ram force. It is used when the diameter of the bar is to
be decreased and the length increased. Backward extrusion, where the metal flows opposite to
the ram force, generates hollow parts. In upsetting, the metal flows at right angles to the ram
force, increasing diameter and reducing length.

Open Die Forging

Open die forging is performed between flat dies with no precut profiles is the dies. Movement of
the work piece is the key to this method. Larger parts over 200,000 lbs. and 80 feet in length
can be hammered or pressed into shape this way.

PROCESS OPERATIONS
Graphical depiction of process steps.
SHAFTS

1. Starting stock, 2. Open-die 3. Progressive forging. 4. Lathe turning to

held by forging. near net-shape.
manipulator.

DISCS

1. Starting stock. 2. Preliminary 3. Progressive 4. Pierced for

upsetting. upsetting/ saddle/mandrel
forging to disc ring hollow
dimensions. "sleeve type"
preform.

SADDLE/MANDREL RINGS

1. Preform 2. Metal 3. Progressive 4. Matching to

mounted on displacement- reduction of wall near net shape.
saddle/mandrel. reduce preform thickness to produce
wall thickness to ring dimensions.
increase
diameter.

HOLLOW "SLEEVE TYPE" FORGING

1. Punched or trepanned disc on 2. Progressive reduction of outside

tapered draw bar. diameter (inside diameter remains
constant) increases overall length of
sleeve.

Process Capabilities

Open-die forging can produce forgings from a few pounds up to more than 150 tons. Called
open-die because the metal is not confined laterally by impression dies during forging, this
process progressively works the starting stock into the desired shape, most commonly between
flat-faced dies. In practice, open-die forging comprises many process variations, permitting an
extremely broad range of shapes and sizes to be produced. In fact, when design criteria dictate
optimum structural integrity for a huge metal component, the sheer size capability of open-die
forging makes it the clear process choice over non-forging alternatives. At the high end of the
size range, open-die forgings are limited only by the size of the starting stock, namely, the
largest ingot that can be cast.

Practically all forgeable ferrous and non-ferrous alloys can be open-die forged, including some
exotic materials like age-hardening superalloys and corrosion-resistant refractory alloys.

Open-die shape capability is indeed wide in latitude. In addition to round, square, rectangular,
hexagonal bars and other basic shapes, open-die processes can produce:

• Step shafts solid shafts (spindles or rotors) whose diameter increases or decreases
(steps down) at multiple locations along the longitudinal axis.
• Hollows cylindrical in shape, usually with length much greater than the diameter of the
part. Length, wall thickness, ID and OD can be varied as needed.
• Ring-like parts can resemble washers or approach hollow cylinders in shape, depending
on the height/wall thickness ratio.
• Contour-formed metal shells like pressure vessels, which may incorporate extruded
nozzles and other design features.

Not unlike successive forging operations in a sequence of dies, multiple open-die forging
operations can be combined to produce the required shape. At the same time, these forging
methods can be tailored to attain the proper amount of total deformation and optimum grain-flow
structure, thereby maximizing property enhancement and ultimate performance for a particular
application. Forging an integral gear blank and hub, for example, may entail multiple drawing or
solid forging operations, then upsetting. Similarly, blanks for rings may be prepared by upsetting
an ingot, then piercing the center, prior to forging the ring.

Seamless Rolled Ring Forging

Seamless rolled ring forging is typically performed by punching a hole in a thick, round piece of
metal (creating a donut shape), and then rolling and squeezing (or in some cases, pounding)
the donut into a thin ring. Ring diameters can be anywhere from a few inches to 30 feet.

PROCESS OPERATIONS
Graphical depiction of process steps.

Seamless Rolled Ring Forging Process Operations

1. The ring rolling process typically 2. Piercing involves forcing a punch

begins with upsetting of the starting into the hot upset stock causing
stock on flat dies at its plastic metal to be displaced radially, as
deformation temperature - in the case shown by the illustration.
of grade 1020 steel, approximately
2200 degrees Fahrenheit.
 3. A subsequent operation, shearing, 4. ...producing a completed hole
serves to remove the small punchout through the stock, which is now ready
... for the ring rolling operation itself. At
this point the stock is called a
preform.

5. The doughnut-shaped preform is 6. A side view of the ring mill and

slipped over the ID roll shown here preform workpiece, which squeezes it
from an "above" view. against the OD roll which imparts
rotary action...

7. ...resulting in a thinning of the section and correspondence increase in the

diameter of the ring. Once off the ring mill, the ring is then ready for
secondary operations such as close tolerance sizing, parting, heat treatment
and test/inspection

Process Capabilities

Rings forged by the seamless ring rolling process can weigh < 1 lb up to 350,000 lbs., while
O.D.’s range from just a few inches up to 30-ft. in diameter. Performance-wise, there is no equal
for forged, circular-cross-section rings used in energy generation, mining, aerospace, off-
highway equipment and other critical applications.

Seamless ring configurations can be flat (like a washer), or feature higher vertical walls
(approximating a hollow cylindrical section). Heights of rolled rings range from less than an inch
up to more than 9 ft. Depending on the equipment utilized, wall-thickness/height ratios of rings
typically range from 1:16 up to 16:1, although greater proportions have been achieved with
special processing. In fact, seamless tubes up to 48-in. diameter and over 20-ft long are
extruded on 20 to 30,000-ton forging presses.

Even though basic shapes with rectangular cross-sections are the norm, rings featuring
complex, functional cross- sections can be forged to meet virtually any design requirements.
Aptly named, these contoured rolled rings can be produced in thousands of different shapes
with contours on the inside and/or outside diameters. A key advantage to contoured rings is a
significant reduction in machining operations. Not surprisingly, custom-contoured rings can
result in cost-saving part consolidations. Compared to flat-faced seamless rolled rings,
maximum dimensions (face heights and O.D.’s) of contoured rolled rings are somewhat lower,
but are still very impressive in size.

High tangential strength and ductility make forged rings well-suited for torque- and pressure-
resistant components, such as gears, engine bearings for aircraft, wheel bearings, couplings,
rotor spacers, sealed discs and cases, flanges, pressure vessels and valve bodies. Materials
include not only carbon and alloy steels, but also non-ferrous alloys of aluminum, copper and
titanium, as well as nickel-base alloys.

WHERE can you find forgings?

Automotive and Truck

In automotive and truck applications, forged components are commonly found
at points of shock and stress. Cars and trucks may contain more than 250
forgings, most of which are produced from carbon or alloy steel. Forged engine
and powertrain components include connecting rods, crankshafts, transmission
shafts and gears, differential gears, drive shafts, clutch hubs, and universal joint yokes and
crosses. Forged camshafts, pinions, gears, and rocker arms offer ease of selective hardening
as well as strength. Wheel spindles, kingpins, axle beams and shafts, torsion bars, ball studs,
idler arms, pitman arms, steering arms, and linkages for passenger cars, buses, and trucks
typify applications requiring extra strength and toughness.

Aerospace
High strength-to-weight ratio and structural reliability improve performance, range,
and payload capabilities of aircraft. That's why ferrous and nonferrous forgings are
used in helicopters, piston-engine planes, commercial jets, and supersonic military
aircraft. Many aircraft are "designed around" forgings, and contain more than 450
structural forgings as well as hundreds of forged engine parts. Forged parts include
bulkheads, wing roots and spars, hinges, engine mounts, brackets, beams, shafts,
bellcranks, landing-gear cylinders and struts, wheels, brake carriers and discs, and
arresting hooks. In jet turbine engines, iron-based, nickel-base, and cobalt-base
superalloys are forged into buckets, blades, couplings, discs, manifolds, rings, chambers,
wheels, and shafts--all requiring uniformly high-yield tensile and creep rupture strengths, plus
good ductility at temperatures ranging between 1,000 and 2,000°F. Forgings of stainless steels,
maraging steels, titanium, and aluminum find similar applications at lower temperatures. Forged
missile components of titanium, columbium, super alloys, and refractory materials provide
unduplicated mechanical and physical properties under severe service conditions. Aluminum
structural beams for boosters, titanium motor cases, and nuclear-engine reactor shields and
inflatable satellite launch canisters of magnesium are used in the space shuttle program.

Off-Highway and Agricultural

Strength, toughness, machinability, and economy account for the
use of ferrous forgings in off-highway and heavy construction
equipment, and in mining machinery. In addition to engine and
transmission parts, forgings are used for gears, sprockets, levers,
shafts, spindles, ball joints, wheel hubs, rollers, yokes, axle beams,
bearing holders, and links. Farm implements, in addition to engine and transmission
components, utilize key forgings ranging from gears, shafts, levers, and spindles to tie-rod ends,
spike harrow teeth, and cultivator shanks.
 Ordnance
Forged components are found in virtually every implement of defense, from rifle
triggers to nuclear submarine drive shafts. Heavy tanks contain more than 550
separate forgings; armored personnel carriers employ more than 250. The
majority of 155-mm, 75-mm, and 3-in. shells as well as mortar projectiles
contain at least two forged components.

Valves and Fittings

For valves and fittings, the mechanical properties of forgings and their freedom
from porosity are especially suited to high-pressure applications. Corrosion and
heat-resistant materials are used for flanges, valve bodies and stems, tees, elbows,
reducers, saddles, and other fittings. Oilfield applications include rock cutter bits,
drilling hardware, and high-pressure valves and fittings.

Industrial, Hardware and Tools

Stationary and shipboard internal combustion engines include forged crankshafts, connecting
rods, rod caps, camshafts, rocker arms, valves, gears, shafts, levers, and linkages. Outboard
motors, motorcycles, and power saws offer examples of the intensive use of forgings in
smaller engines. Industrial equipment industries use forgings in materials handling systems,
conveyors, chain-hoist assemblies, and lift trucks.

"Forged" is the mark of quality in hand tools and hardware. Pliers, hammers, sledges,
wrenches, and garden implements, as well as wire-rope clips and sockets, hooks, turnbuckles,
and eye bolts are common examples. Strength, resistance to impact and fatigue, and excellent
appearance are reasons why forgings have been the standard of quality since the earliest of
times. The same is true of surgical instruments. Special hardware for electrical transmission and
distribution lines is subject to high stresses and corrosion. For strength and dependability,
forgings are used for parts such as pedestal caps, suspension clamps, sockets, and brackets.

WHY are forgings so prevalent?

The degree of structural reliability achieved in a forging is unexcelled by any other metalworking
process. There are no internal gas pockets or voids that could cause unexpected failure under
stress or impact. Often, the forging process assists in improving chemical segregation of the
forging stock by moving centerline material to various locations throughout the forging.

El esfuerzo Direccional es Clave

Directional Strength is Key

Directional strength is a direct result of the forging process. In the forging process, controlled
deformation (usually at elevated temperatures) results in greater metallurgical soundness and
improved mechanical properties of the material. In most
cases, forging stock has been pre-worked to remove
porosity resulting from the solidification process. This
produces directional alignment (or "grain flow") for
important directional properties in strength, ductility, and
resistance to impact and [Link] properties are
deliberately oriented in directions requiring maximum
strength. Working the material achieves recrystallization
and grain refinement that yields the maximum strength
potential of the material with the minimum property
variation, piece-to-peace.
Properly developed grain flow in forgings closely follows the outline of the component. In
contrast, bar stock and plate have unidirectional grain flow; any changes in contour will cut flow
lines, exposing grain ends, and render the material more liable to fatigue and more sensitive to
stress corrosion.

Designers and materials engineers are recognizing the increasing importance of resistance to
impact and fatigue as a portion of total component reliability. With the use of proper materials
and heat treatments, if required, improved impact strength of forged components is achievable.

The resulting higher strength-to-weight ratio can be used to reduce section thickness in part
designs without jeopardizing performance characteristics of safety. Weight reduction, even in
parts produced from less expensive materials, can amount to a considerable cost savings over
the life of a product run.

The consistency of material from one forging to the next, and between separate quantities of
forgings is extremely high. Forged parts are made through a controlled sequence of production
steps rather than random flow of material into the desired shape.

Uniformity of composition and structure piece-to-piece, lot-to-lot, assure reproducible response

to heat treatment, minimum variation in machinability, and consistent property levels of finished
parts.

Dimensional characteristics are remarkably stable. Successive forgings are produced from the
same die impression, and because die impressions exert control over all contours of the forged
part, the possibility of transfer distortion is eliminated.

For cryogenic applications, forgings have the necessary toughness, high strength-to-weight
ratios, and freedom from ductile-brittle transition problems.

Forgings are produced economically in an extremely broad range of sizes. With the increased
use of special punching, piercing, shearing, trimming, and coining operations, there have been
substantial increases in the range of economical forging shapes and the feasibility of improved
precision. However, parts with small holes, internal passages, re-entrant pockets, and severe
draft limitations usually require more elaborate forging tooling and more complex processing,
and are therefore usually more economical in larger sizes.

Sizing Up the Competition

Forging versus Forging Advantages When Using A Similar Alloy

Casting Stronger
Preworking refines defects
More reliable, lower cost over component life
Better response to heat treatment
Adaptable to demand
Welding/Fabricating Material savings, production economies
Stronger
Cost-effective design/inspection
More consistent and better metallurgical properties
Simplified production
Machining Broader size range of desired material grades
Grain flow provides higher strength
More economical use of material
Yields lower scrap
Requires fewer secondary operations
Powder metal Stronger
Higher integrity
Requires fewer secondary operations
Greater design flexibility
 Less costly materials
Composites/Plastics Less costly materials
Greater productivity
Established documentation
Broader service-temperature range
More reliable service performance

Forgings are superior to metal parts produced by other methods in their compatibility with other
manufacturing processes.

• The characteristically uniform refinement of crystalline structure in forged components

assures superior response to all forms of heat treatment, maximum possible
development of desired properties, and unequaled uniformity.
• Because forged components of weldable materials have a near absence of structural
defects, material at welding surfaces offers the best possible opportunity for strong,
efficient welds by any welding technique.
• Again, the near absence of internal discontinuities or surface inclusions in forgings
provides a dependable machining base for metal-cutting processes such as turning,
milling, drilling, boring, broaching, and shear spinning; and shaping processes such as
electrochemical machining, chemical milling, electrical-discharge machining, and
plasma jet techniques.
• Forged parts are readily fabricated by assembling processes such as welding, bolting,
or riveting. More importantly, single-piece forgings can often be designed to eliminate
the need for assemblies.
• In many applications, forgings are ready for use without surface conditioning or
machining. Forged surfaces are suited to plating, polishing, painting, or treatment with
decorative or protective coatings.

Forging Spans the Metallurgical Spectrum

Metal Characteristic Application

Aluminum Readily forged Primarily for structural and engine
Combines low density with good strength- applications in the aircraft and
to-weight ratio transportation industries where
temperatures do not exceed 400°F.
Magnesium Offer the lowest density of any commercial Usually employed at service
metal temperatures lower than 500°F but
certain alloys provide short-time
service to 700°F.
Copper, Well-suited to forging Important for applications requiring
Brass, Electrical and thermal conductivity corrosion resistance.
Bronze
Low-Carbon Low material cost Comprise the greatest volume of
and Easily processed forgings produced for service
Low-Alloy Good mechanical properties applications up to 900°F.
Steels Varied response to heat treatment gives
designers a choice of properties in the
finished forging
Microalloy/ Low material cost Various automotive and truck
HSLA Cost benefit derived from simplified applications including crankshafts,
Steels thermomechanical treatment connecting rods, yokes, pistons,
Equivalent mechanical properties to many suspension and steering components,
 carbon and low-alloy steels spindles, hubs, and trunio
Special- Permit forgings with more than 300,000 psi Used in transportation, mining,
Alloy yield strength at room temperature industrial and agricultural equipment,
Steels as well as high-stress applications in
missiles and aircraft.
Stainless Corrosion-resistant Used in pressure vessels, steam
Steel turbines, and many other applications
in the chemical, food processing,
petroleum, and hospital services
industries. Used for high-stress service
at temperatures up to 1,250°F and low-
stress service to 1,800°F and higher.
Nickel-Base
Nickel-Base Creep-rupture strength Service in the 1,200-1,800°F range.
Superalloy Oxidation resistance Structural shapes, turbine components,
and fittings and valves.
Titanium High strength Used primarily in the temperature
Low density services to 1,000°F. Configurations
Excellent corrosion resistance nearly identical to steel parts are
Alloys offer yield strengths in the 120,000 to forgeable and 40% lighter in weight.
180,000 psi range at room temperatures Aircraft-engine components and
structurals, ship components, and
valves and fittings in transportation and
chemical industries.
Refractory Include columbium, molybdenum, tantalum, High-temperature applications
Metal and tungsten and their alloys involving advanced chemical,
Enhanced resistance to creep in high- electrical, and nuclear propulsion
thermal environments systems and flight vehicles.
Beryllium Light, hard, and brittle Used primarily in nuclear, structural,
Increasingly used as an alloying material and heat-sink applications.
High melting point
Special forging techniques have been
developed to process beryllium in sintered,
ingot, or powdered form
Zirconium Corrosion-resistant Produced in relatively limited quantities
and used almost exclusively in nuclear
applications.

HOW Are Forgings Produced?

Forging--metal shaping by plastic deformation--spans a myriad of equipment and techniques.

Knowing the various forging operations and the characteristic metal flow each produces is key
to understanding forging design.

Hammer and Press Forging

Generally, forged components are shaped either by a hammer or

press. Forging on the hammer is carried out in a succession of die
impressions using repeated blows. The quality of the forging, and
the economy and productivity of the hammer process depend
upon the tooling and the skill of the operator. The advent of
programmable hammers has resulted on less operator
dependency and improved process consistency. In a press, the
Fig. 1. Compression
between narrow dies.
stock is usually hit only once in each die impression, and the design of each impression
becomes more important while operator skill i

The Processes

Open Die Forging

Open die forging with hammers and presses is a
modern-day extension of the pre-industrial metalsmith
working with a hammer at his anvil.

In open die forging, the workpiece is not completely

confined as it is being shaped by the dies. The open die
process is commonly associated with large parts such
as shafts, sleeves and disks, but part weights can range
from 5 to 500,000 lb.
Fig. 2. Roll forging.
Most open die forgings are produced on flat dies. Round
swaging dies and V dies also are used in pairs or with a flat die. Operations performed on open
die presses include:

1. Drawing out or reducing the cross-section of an ingot or billet to lengthen it.

2. Upsetting or reducing the length of an ingot or
billet to a larger diameter.
3. Upsetting, drawing out, and piercing--processes
sometimes combined with forging over a
mandrel for forging rough-contoured rings.

As the forging workpiece is hammered or pressed, it is

repeatedly manipulated between the dies until it reaches
final forged dimensions. Because the process is inexact
and requires considerable skill of the forging master,
substantial workpiece stock allowances are retained to
accommodate forging irregularities. The forged part is
rough machined and then finish machined to final Fig. 3. Roll forging using speciality
dimensions. The increasing use of press and hammer shaped rolls.
controls is making open die forging, and all forging processes for that matter, more automated.

In open die forging, metals are worked above their recrystallization temperatures. Because the
process requires repeated changes in workpiece positioning, the workpiece cools during open
die forging below its hot-working or recrystallization temperature. It then must be reheated
before forging can continue. For example, a steel shaft 2 ft in diameter and 24 ft long may
require four to six heats before final forged dimensions are reached.

In open die forging of steel, a rule of thumb says that 50 lb of falling weight is required for each
square inch of stock cross-section.

Compression between flat dies, or upsetting, is an open die forging process whereby an
oblong workpiece is placed on end on a lower die and its height reduced by the downward
movement of the top die. Friction between end faces of the workpiece and dies prevents the
free lateral spread of the metal, resulting in a typical barrel shape. Contact with the cool die
surface chills the end faces of the metal, increasing its resistance to deformation and enhancing
barreling.

Upsetting between parallel flat dies is limited to deformation symmetrical around a vertical axis.
If preferential elongation is desired, compression between narrow dies (Fig. 1) is ideal.
Frictional forces in the ax ial direction of the bar are smaller than in the perpendicular direction,
and material flow is mostly axial.

A narrower die elongates better, but a too-narrow die will cut metal instead of elongate. The
direction of material flow can also be influenced by using dies with specially shaped surfaces.

Compression between narrow dies is discontinuous since many strokes must be executed while
the workpiece is moved in an axial direction. This task can be made continuous by roll forging
(Fig. 2). Note the resemblance between Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. The width of the die is now
represented by the length of the arc of contact. The elongation achieved depends on the length
of this contact arc.

Larger rolls cause greater lateral spread and less elongation because of the greater frictional
difference in the arc of contact, whereas smaller rolls elongate more. Lateral spread can be
reduced and elongation promoted by using specially shaped rolls (Fig. 3).

The properties of roll-forged components are very satisfactory. In most cases, there is no flash
and the fiber structure is very favorable and continuous in all sections. The rolls perform a
certain amount of descaling, making the surface of the
product smooth and free of scale pockets.

Impression Die Forging

In the most basic example of impression die forging,

which accounts for the majority of forging production,
two dies are brought together and the workpiece
undergoes plastic deformation until its enlarged sides
touch the die side walls
(Fig. 4). Then, some material begins to flow outside the
die impression, forming flash. The flash cools rapidly
and presents increased resistance to deformation,
effectively becoming a part of the tool. This builds
pressure inside the bulk of the workpiece, aiding
material flow into unfilled impressions.
Fig. 4. Impression die forging
Impression die forgings may be produced on a
horizontal forging machine (upsetter) in a process referred to as upsetting. In upsetting, stock
is held between a fixed and moving die while a horizontal ram provides the pressure to forge the
stock (Fig. 5). After each ramstroke, the multiple-impression dies can open to permit transfer of
stock from one cavity to another.
A form of impression die forging, closed die forging
does not depend on flash formation to achieve complete
filling of the die. Material is deformed in a cavity that
allows little or no escape of excess material, thus
placing greater demands on die design.

For impression die forging, forging dies become more

important, and operator skill level is less critical in press
forging operations. The press forging sequence is
usually block and finish, sometimes with a preform, Fig. 5. Upsetting.
pierce, or trim operation. The piece is usually hit only
once in each die cavity.

The Precision Forging Advantage

Precision forging normally means close-to-final form or close-
 tolerance forging. It is not a special technology, but a refinement of
existing techniques to a point where the forged part can be used
with little or no subsequent machining. Improvements cover not
only the forging method itself but also preheating,
Stages in the Ringdescaling,
Rolling Process
lubrication, and temperature control practices.
The decision to apply precision forging techniques depends on the
relative economics of additional operations and tooling vs.
elimination of machining. Because of higher tooling and
.
development costs, precision forging is usually limited to extremely
high-quality applications. 2 3

Ring Rolling
Ring rolling has evolved from an art into a
strictly controlled engineering process. 4 5
Seamless rolled rings are produced on a
variety of equipment. All give the same
product--a seamless section with
circumferential grain orientation. These
rings generally have tangential strength
and ductility, and often are less expensive
to manufacture than similar closed die 6 7
forgings. In sum, the ring rolling process
offers homogeneous circumferential grain
flow, ease of manufacture, and versatility in
material, size, mass, and geometry.

In the ring rolling process, a preform is

heated to forging temperature and placed
over the idler (internal) roll of the rolling
machine. Pressure is applied to the wall by the main (external) roll as the ring rotates. The
cross-sectional area is reduced as the inner and outer diameters are expanded. Equipment can
be fully automated from billet heating through post-forge handling. Advanced ring rolling
equipment can roll contours in both the inner and outer diameter of the ring, allowing for
excellent weight reductions, material savings, and reduced machining cost.
There is an infinite variety of sizes into which rings can be rolled, ranging from rollerbearing
sleeves to rings of 25 ft in diameter with face heights of more than 80 in. Various profiles may be
rolled by suitably shaping the drive and idling rolls.

Extrusion
In extrusion (Fig. 6), the workpiece is placed in a
container and compressed until pressure inside
the metal reaches flowstress levels. The
workpiece completely fills the container and
additional pressure causes it to travel through an
orifice and form the extruded product.
Extrusion can be forward (direct) or backward
(reverse), depending on the direction of motion
between ram and extruded product. Extruded Fig. 6. a-Foward extrusion; b-backward
product can be solid or hollow. Tube extrusion is extrusion; c-tube extrusion; d-container
typical of forward extrusion of hollow shapes, extrusion.
and backward extrusion is used for mass
production of containers.
Piercing is closely related to reverse extrusion but distinguished by greater movement of the
punch relative to movement of the workpiece material.
Secondary Processes
Besides the primary forging processes, secondary operations often are
employed. Drawing through a die is a convenient way to eliminate forged
draft (Fig. 7a). The mode of deformation is tangential compression. The
diameter of the drawing ring can be slightly smaller than the outer diameter
of the preforged shell to control or reduce wall thickness and increase the
height of the shell in a drawing or ironing operation (Fig. 7b).

Bending can be performed on the finished forging or at any stage during

its production.

Because forging stock may assume complex shapes, it is rare that only a
single die impression is needed. Preforming the forging stock--by bending
or rolling it, or by working it in a preliminary die--may be more desirable. Fig. 7.a-drawing;
Gains in productivity, die life, and forging quality often outweigh the fact that b-ironing
preforming adds an operation and attendant costs. Forging in one final die
impression may be practical for extremely small part runs.

Since bending of larger parts requires a machine of long stroke, special mechanical or hydraulic
presses are often necessary. Simple shapes can be bent in one operation, but more complex
contours take successive steps. If complex shapes are to be formed in a single operation, the
tool must contain moving elements.

Special Techniques
After deformation, forged parts may undergo further metalworking. Flash is removed, punched
holes may be needed, and improved surface finish or closer dimensional accuracy may be
desired.

Trimming--Flash is trimmed before the forging is ready for shipping. Occasionally, especially
with crack-sensitive alloys, this may be done by grinding, milling, sawing, or flame cutting.

Coining--Coining and ironing are essentially sizing operations with pressure applied to critical
surfaces to improve tolerances, smoothen surfaces, or eliminate draft.
Coining is usually done on surfaces parallel to the parting line, while ironing is typified by the
forcing of a cup-shaped component through a ring to size on outer diameter. Little metal flow is
involved in either operation and flash is not formed.

Swaging--This operation is related to the open die forging process whereby the stock is drawn
out between flat, narrow dies. But instead of the stock, the hammer is rotated to produce
multiple blows, sometimes as high as 2,000 per minute. It is a useful method of primary working,
although in industrial production its role is normally that of finishing. Swaging can be stopped at
any point in the length of stock and is often used for pointing tube and bar ends and for
producing stepped columns and shafts of declining diameter.

Hot Extrusion--Extrusion is most suitable for forming parts of

drastically changing cross section and is, therefore, a direct
competitor to continuous upsetting and the horizontal forging
machine. In Fig. 8, a bar section of car efully controlled volume is
heated, descaled, and placed into the die. Under pressure of the
closely fitting punch (Fig. 8a), the material first fills the cavity, then
part of it is extruded into a long stem. At the end of the stroke (Fig. Fig. 8. Hot extrusion of a
8b), a valve body is obtained that needs only grinding of the valve body.
seating surfaces.

There are a number of variants of the extrusion process, many of them patented. The slug may
be hollow (machined), pierced in a separate operation or in the extrusion process itself. In all
instances, the quality of heating, the efficiency of scale removal or prevention, and the
effectiveness of lubrications are matters of greatest importance. The variety of shapes produced
are numerous. Dimensional accuracy, surface quality, and productivity are high, and a greater
degree of deformation can be achieved in a single operation than in any other forging method.

Cold, Warm, and Hot Forging--What's the Difference?

Cold
Cold forging involves either impression die forging or true closed die forging with lubricant and
circular dies at or near room temperature. Carbon and standard alloy steels are most commonly
cold-forged. Parts are generally symmetrical and rarely exceed 25 lb. The primary advantage is
the material savings achieved through precision shapes that require little finishing. Completely
contained impressions and extrusion-type metal flow yield draftless, close-tolerance components.
Production rates are very high with exceptional die life. While cold forging usually improves
mechanical properties, the improvement is not useful in many common applications and
economic advantages remain the primary interest. Tool design and manufacture are critical.

Warm
Warm forging has a number of cost-saving advantages which underscore its increasing use as a
manufacturing method. The temperature range for the warm forging of steel runs from above
room temperature to below the recrystallization temperature, or from about 800 to 1,800°F.
However, the narrower range of from 1,000 to 1,330°F is emerging as the range of perhaps the
greatest commercial potential for warm forging. Compared with cold forging, warm forging has the
potential advantages of: Reduced tooling loads, reduced press loads, increased steel ductility,
elimination of need to anneal prior to forging, and favorable as-forged properties that can
eliminate
heat treatment.

Hot
Hot forging is the plastic deformation of metal at a temperature and strain rate such that
recrystallization occurs simultaneously with deformation, thus avoiding strain hardening. For this
to occur, high workpiece temperature (matching the metal's recrystallization temperature) must be
attained throughout the process. A form of hot forging is isothermal forging, where materials and
dies are heated to the same temperature. In nearly all cases, isothermal forging is conducted on
superalloys in a vacuum or highly controlled atmosphere to prevent
oxidation.

Introduction

Forging is the process by which metal is heated and is shaped by plastic

deformation by suitably applying compressive force. Usually the compressive
force is in the form of hammer blows using a power hammer or a press.

Forging refines the grain structure and improves physical properties of the
metal. With proper design, the grain flow can be oriented in the direction of
principal stresses encountered in actual use. Grain flow is the direction of the
pattern that the crystals take during plastic deformation. Physical properties
(such as strength, ductility and toughness) are much better in a forging than
in the base metal, which has, crystals randomly oriented.
Forgings are consistent from piece to piece, without any of the porosity,
voids, inclusions and other defects. Thus, finishing operations such as
machining do not expose voids, because there aren't any. Also coating
operations such as plating or painting are straightforward due to a good
surface, which needs very little preparation.

Forgings yield parts that have high strength to weight ratio-thus are often
used in the design of aircraft frame members.

A Forged metal can result in the following

• Increase length, decrease cross-section, called drawing out the metal.

• Decrease length, increase cross-section, called upsetting the metal.
• Change length, change cross-section, by squeezing in closed impression
dies. This results in favorable grain flow for strong parts

Top of Page

Common Forging Processes

The metal can be forged hot (above recrystallization temperatures) or cold.

Open Die Forgings / Hand Forgings: Open die forgings or hand forgings
are made with repeated blows in an open die, where the operator
manipulates the workpiece in the die. The finished product is a rough
approximation of the die. This is what a traditional blacksmith does, and is
an old manufacturing process.

Impression Die Forgings / Precision Forgings: Impression die forgings

and precision forgings are further refinements of the blocker forgings. The
finished part more closely resembles the die impression.

Design Consideration:
 • Parting surface should be along a single plane if possible, else follow the
contour of the part. The parting surface should be through the center of
the part, not near the upper or lower edges. If the parting line cannot
be on a single plane, then it is good practice to use symmetry of the
design to minimize the side thrust forces. Any point on the parting
surface should be less than 75º from the principal parting plane.
• As in most forming processes, use of undercuts should be avoided, as
these will make the removal of the part difficult, if not impossible.
• Recommended draft angles are described in the following table.
Material Draft Angle (º)
Aluminum 0-2
Copper Alloys (Brass) 0-3
Steel 5-7
Stainless Steel 5-8

• Generous fillets and radius should be provided to aid in material flow

during the forging process. Sharp corners are stress-risers in the
forgings, as well as make the dies weak in service. Recommended
minimum radiuses are described in the following table.
Height of Min. Corner Min. Fillet
Protrusion Radius Radius
mm mm mm
(in) (in) (in)
12.5 1.5 5
(0.5) (0.06) (0.2)
25 3 6.25
(1.0) (0.12) (0.25)
50 5 10
(2.0) (0.2) (0.4)
100 6.25 10
(4.0) (0.25) (0.4)
400 22 50
(16) (0.875) (2.0)

• Ribs should be not be high or narrow, this makes it difficult for the
material to flow.

Tolerances:
 • Dimension tolerances are usually positive and are approximately 0.3 %
of the dimension, rounded off to the next higher 0.5 mm (0.020 in).
• Die wear tolerances are lateral tolerances (parallel to the parting plane)
and are roughly +0.2 % for Copper alloys to +0.5 % for Aluminum and
Steel.
• Die closure tolerances are in the direction of opening and closing, and
range from 1 mm (0.040 inch) for small forgings, die projection area <
150 cm2 (23 in2), to 6.25 mm (0.25 inch) for large forgings, die
projection area > 6500 cm2 (100 in2).
• Die match tolerances are to allow for shift in the upper die with respect
to the lower die. This is weight based and is shown in the the following
table.

Finished Forging Weight

Trimmed kg (lb)
< 10 < 50 > 500
Material
(< 22) (< 110) (> 1100)
Die Match Tolerance
mm (in)
Aluminum,
0.75 1.75 5
Copper Alloys,
(0.030) (0.070) (0.200)
Steel
Stainless Steel, 1.25 2.5 6.5
Titanium (0.050) (0.100) (0.260)

• Flash tolerance is the amount of acceptable flash after the trimming

operation. This is weight based and is shown in the following table.

Finished Forging Weight

Trimmed kg (lb)
< 10 < 50 > 500
Material
(< 22) (< 110) (> 1100)
Flash Tolerance
mm (in)
Aluminum,
0.8 3.25 10
Copper Alloys,
(0.032) (0.125) (0.4)
Steel
Stainless Steel, 1.6 5 12.5
Titanium (0.064) (0.2) (0.5)
A proper lubricant is necessary for making good forgings. The lubricant is
useful in preventing sticking of the workpiece to the die, and also acts as a
thermal insulator to help reduce die wear.

Press Forgings: Press forging use a slow squeezing action of a press, to

transfer a great amount of compressive force to the workpiece. Unlike an
open-die forging where multiple blows transfer the compressive energy to
the outside of the product, press forging transfers the force uniformly to the
bulk of the material. This results in uniform material properties and is
necessary for large weight forgings. Parts made with this process can be
quite large as much as 125 kg (260 lb) and 3m (10 feet) long.

Upset Forgings: Upset forging increases cross-section by compressing the

length, this is used in making heads on bolts and fasteners, valves and other
similar parts.

Roll Forgings: In roll forging, a bar stock, round or flat is placed between
die rollers which reduces the cross-section and increases the length to form
parts such as axles, leaf springs etc. This is essentially a form of draw
forging.

Swaging: Swaging - a tube or rod is forced inside a die and the diameter is
reduced as the cylindrical object is fed. The die hammers the diameter and
causes the metal to flow inward causing the outer diameter of the tube or
the rod to take the shape of the die.

Net Shape / Near-Net Shape Forging: In net shape or near-net shape

forging, forging results in wastage of material in the form of material flash
and subsequent machining operations. This wastage can be as high as 70 %
for gear blanks, and even 90+ % in the case of aircraft structural parts. Net-
shape and near-net-shape processes minimize the waste by making precision
dies, producing parts with very little draft angle (less than 1º). These types
of processes often eliminate or reduce machining. The processes are quite
expensive in terms of tooling and the capital expenditure required. Thus,
these processes can be only justified for current processes that are very
wasteful where the material savings will pay for the significant increase in
tooling costs.
Facts About Forging
When buyers must select a process and supplier for the production of an important metal part,
they face an enormous array of possible alternatives. A great many metalworking processes are
now available, each offering a unique set of capabilities, costs and advantages. The forging
process is ideally suited to many part applications, however some buyers may be unaware of the
exclusive benefits available only from this ancient form of metal forming. In fact, forging is often
the optimum process, in terms of both part quality and cost-efficiency-especially for applications
that require maximum part strength, special sizes or critical performance specifications.

There are several forging processes available, including impression or closed die, cold forging, and
extrusion. However,here we will discuss in detail the methods, application and comparative
benefits of the open die and seamless rolled ring forging processes. We invite you to consider this
information when selecting the optimum process for the production of your metal parts.

A Historical Perspective
Perhaps the oldest mechanical method of metalworking known to man, forging traces its origins
from ancient Egypt through the blacksmith shops of the pre-industrial period, and directly to the
high-technology forging plants of today.

To meet the changing needs of industry, forging has evolved to incorporate the tremendous
advances in equipment, computers and electronic controls that have occurred in recent years.
These sophisticated tools complement the creative human skills which, even today, are essential to
the success of every forging made. Modern forging plants are capable of producing superior quality
metal parts in a virtually limitless array of sizes, shapes, materials and finishes.

Forging Defined
At its most basic level, forging is the process of forming and shaping metals through the use of
hammering, pressing or rolling. The process begins with starting stock, usually a cast ingot (or a
"cogged" billet which has already been forged from a cast ingot), which is heated to its plastic
deformation temperature, then upset or
"kneaded" between dies to the desired shape
and size.

During this hot forging process, the cast, coarse

grain structure is broken up and replaced by
finer grains. Low-density areas, microshrinkage
and gas porosity inherent in the cast metal are
consolidated through the reduction of the ingot,
achieving sound centers and structural integrity.
Mechanical properties are therefore improved
through the elimination of the cast structure, How the open die forging process
enhanced density, and improved homogeneity. affects the crystal structure.
Forging also provides means for aligning the
grain flow to best obtain desired directional strengths. Secondary processing, such as heat
treating, can also be used to further refine the part.

No other metalworking process can equal forging in its ability to develop the optimum combination
of properties.
Open Die Forging
Open die forging involves the shaping of heated metal parts between a top die attached to a ram
and a bottom die attached to a hammer anvil or press bed. Metal parts are worked above their
recrystallization temperatures-ranging from 1900°F to 2400°F for steel-and gradually shaped into
the desired configuration through the skillful hammering or pressing of the work piece.

While impression or closed die forging confines the metal in dies, open die forging is distinguished
by the fact that the metal is never completely confined or restrained in the dies. Most open die
forgings are produced on flat dies. However, round swaging dies, V-dies, mandrels, pins and loose
tools are also used depending on the desired part configuration and its size.

Although the open die forging process is often associated with larger, simpler-shaped parts such as
bars, blanks, rings, hollows or spindles, in fact it can be considered the ultimate option in "custom-
designed" metal components. High-strength, long-life parts optimized in terms of both mechanical
properties and structural integrity are today produced in sizes that range from a few pounds to
hundreds of tons in weight. In addition, advanced forge shops now offer shapes that were never
before thought capable of being produced by the open die forging process.

The Open Die Forging Process

Steps to produce a typical spindle-shaped part:

1. Rough forging a heated billet between

flat dies to the maximum diameter
dimension.
 A "fuller" tool marks the starting "step"
2. locations on the fully rounded workpiece.

3. Forging or "drawing" down the first step

to size.

4. The second step is drawn down to size.

Note how the part elongates with each
process step as the material is being
displaced.

"Planishing" the rough forging for a

5. smoother surface finish and to keep
stock allowance to a minimum.

Rolled Ring Forging

The production of seamless forged rings is often performed by a process called ring rolling on
rolling mills. These mills vary in size to produce rings with outside diameters of just a few inches
to over 300" and in weights from a single pound up to over 300,000 pounds.

The process starts with a circular preform of metal that has been previously upset and pierced
(using the open die forging process) to form a hollow "donut". This donut is heated above the
recrystallization temperature and placed over the idler or mandrel roll. This idler roll then moves
under pressure toward a drive roll that continuously rotates to reduce the wall thickness, thereby
increasing the diameters (I.D. and O.D.) of the resulting ring.

Seamless rings can be produced in configurations ranging from flat, washer-like parts to tall,
cylindrical shapes, with heights ranging from less than an inch to more than 9 feet. Wall thickness
to height ratios of rings typically range from 1:16 up to 16:1, although greater proportions can be
achieved with special processing. The simplest, and most commonly used shape is a rectangular
cross-section ring, but shaped tooling can be used to produce seamless rolled rings in complex,
custom shapes with contours on the inside and/or outside diameters.

The Seamless Rolled Ring Forging Process

Producing a ring "preform" by the open die forging process:
 Starting stock cut to size by weight is
1. first rounded, then upset to achieve
structural integrity and directional grain
flow.

2. Work piece is punched, then pierced to

achieve starting "donut" shape needed
for ring rolling process.

Completed preform ready for placement

3. on ring mill for rolling.

Rolled ring forging process:

4. Ring rolling process begins with the idler roll

applying pressure to the preform against the
drive roll.

5. Ring diameters are increased as the

continuous pressure reduces the wall
thickness. The axial rolls control the height of
the ring as it is being rolled.

6. The process continues until the desired size

is achieved.

Part Integrity

1. Directional Strength
By mechanically deforming the heated metal under tightly controlled conditions, forging produces
predictable and uniform grain size and flow characteristics. Forging stock is also typically pre-
worked to refine the dendritic structure of the ingot and remove defects or porosity. These
qualities translate into superior metallurgical and mechanical qualities, and deliver increased
directional strength in the final part.

2. Structural Strength
Forging also provides a degree of structural integrity
that is unmatched by other metalworking processes.
Forging eliminates internal voids and gas pockets that
can weaken metal parts. By dispersing segregation of
alloys or nonmetallics, forging provides superior
chemical uniformity. Predictable structural integrity
reduces part inspection requirements, simplifies heat
Cross section of continuous grain flow treating and machining, and ensures optimum part
of custom forged contoured ring. performance under field-load conditions.

3. Impact Strength
Parts can also be forged to meet virtually any stress, load or impact requirement. Proper
orientation of grain flow assures maximum impact strength and fatigue resistance. The high-
strength properties of the forging process can be used to reduce sectional thickness and overall
weight without compromising final part integrity.

Grain Flow Comparison

Forged Bar:
Directional alignment through the forging process has been deliberately
oriented in a direction requiring maximum strength. This also yields ductility
and resistance to impact and fatigue.
Machined Bar:
Unidirectional grain flow has been cut when changing contour, exposing grain
ends. This renders the material more liable to fatigue and more sensitive to
stress corrosion cracking.
Cast Bar:
No grain flow or directional strength is achieved through the casting process.

Part Flexibility

1. Variety of Sizes
Limited only to the largest ingot that can be cast, open die forged part weights can run from
a single pound to over 400,000 pounds. In addition to commonly purchased open die parts,
forgings are often specified for their soundness in place of rolled bars or castings, or for
those parts that are too large to produce by any other metalworking method.

2. Variety of Shapes
Shape design is just as versatile, ranging from simple bar, shaft and ring configurations to
specialized shapes. These include multiple O.D./I.D. hollows, single and double hubs that approach
closed die configurations, and unique, custom shapes produced by combining forging with
secondary processes such as torch cutting, sawing and machining. Shape designs are often limited
only by the creative skills and imagination of the forging supplier.

3. Metallurgical Spectrum
Forgings can be produced from literally all ferrous and non-ferrous metals. The forging process
itself can be adjusted-through the selection of alloys, temperatures, working methods and post-
forming techniques-to yield virtually any desired metallurgical property.

4. Quantity and Prototype Options

Virtually all open die and rolled ring forgings are custom made one at a time, providing the option
to purchase one, a dozen or hundreds of parts as needed. An added benefit is the ability to offer
open die prototypes in single piece or low volume quantities. No better way exists to test initial
closed die forging designs, because open die forging imparts similar grain flow orientation,
deformation, and other beneficial characteristics. In addition, the high costs and long lead times
associated with closed die tooling and set-ups are eliminated.
What is Forging?

Forging is manufacturing process where metal is pressed, pounded or

squeezed under great pressure into high strength parts known as forgings. The
process is normally (but not always) performed hot by preheating the metal to a
desired temperature before it is worked. It is important to note that the forging
process is entirely different from the casting (or foundry) process, as metal used
to make forged parts is never melted and poured (as in the casting process).

Why use Forgings and where are they used?

The forging process can create parts that are stronger than those manufactured
by any other metalworking process. This is why forgings are almost always
used where reliability and human safety are critical. But you'll rarely see
forgings, as they are normally component parts contained inside assembled
items such a airplanes, automobiles, tractors, ships, oil drilling equipment,
engines, missiles and all kinds of capital equipment - to name a few.

How FORGINGS compare to Castings

• Forgings are stronger. Casting cannot obtain the strengthening effects of hot
and cold working. Forging surpasses casting in predictable strength properties -
producing superior strength that is assured, part to part.

• Forging refines defects from cast ingots or continuous cast bar. A casting has
neither grain flow nor directional strength and the process cannot prevent
formation of certain metallurgical defects. Pre-working forge stock produces a
grain flow oriented in directions requiring maximum strength. Dendritic
structures, alloy segregation's and like imperfections are refined in forging.

• Forgings are more reliable, less costly. Casting defects occur in a variety of
forms. Because hot working refines grain pattern and imparts high strength,
ductility and resistance properties, forged products are more reliable. And they
are manufactured without the added costs for tighter process controls and
inspection that are required for casting.

• Forgings offer better response to heat treatment. Castings require close

control of melting and cooling processes because alloy segregation may occur.
This results in non-uniform heat treatment response that can affect straightness
of finished parts. Forgings respond more predictably to heat treatment and offer
better dimensional stability.

• Forgings' flexible, cost-effective production adapts to demand. Some castings,

such as special performance castings, require expensive materials and process
controls, and longer lead times. Open-die and ring rolling are examples of
forging processes that adapt to various production run lengths and enable
shortened lead times.
The History of Forgings

Durante la edad del oscurantismo(Alta Edad Media) la producción de armas prosperó. La

cultura europea y la industria fueron seriamente retrasadas debido a guerras constantes. Aún la
Industria siderúrgica permaneció intacta debido a la necesidad de armas.
Uno de los acontecimientos más significativos vino de la combinación del descubrimiento
romano de energía hidráulica y la forja de metales. La energía hidráulica fue usada para
manejar el fuelle y martillos mecánicos. Este descubrimiento significativo entró en el empleo
entre los siglos X y XII D. de C.

Forja(Falsificación) como una forma de arte comenzada con el deseo de producir objetos
decorativos de metales preciosos. Hoy, la forja(falsificación) es una industria principal mundial
que considerablemente ha contribuido al desarrollo de hombre

The 19th century invention of the steam engine brought us to the doorstep of
modern forging as we know it. Of course, to follow was the harnessing of electrical
power and the development of explosive forming, which truly brought forging out of
the dark ages.

Forging as an art form started with the desire to produce decorative objects from
precious metals. Today, forging is a major world-wide industry that has significantly
contributed to the development of man.
[Link] Cold Forging Processes

There is a variety of cold forging processes currently in -use, either alone or in combination.
Following is an overview of those used most often.

Forward Extrusion In the most common forward extrusion process, a billet is pushed through a
container or die by means of a punch. The material flows in the same direction as the punch to
provide various types of exit sections. The process is also used on hollow slugs to reduce wall
thickness, and to manufacture cans with either cylindrical cavities or cavities with varying cross
sections. It is used to produce solid shapes such as rounds, thread blanks, squares, rectangles,
triangles, polygons and splines. Hollow shapes, including rounds, polygons and splines are also
forward extruded. Figure 5-18 shows three types of forward extrusion.

Backward Extrusion In this process, the material flows in the opposite direction to the upper
punch. The workpiece is formed either in the cavity formed between the punch and die, or in the
cavity of the punch. Backward extrusion is used to produce circular inside and outside
diameters, squares with rounded corners, multiple outside diameters and multiple inside
diameters. Figure 5-19 shows three types of backward extrusion.

Side Extrusion In this process, the material flows lateral to the direction of the punch, generally
in one direction. Two types of lateral extrusion are shown in Figure 5-20.

Upsetting In this process, material flows lateral to the direction of the punch in all directions,
increasing the cross section of the stock. The term "heading" is often used interchangeably with
upsetting. Sometimes a distinction is drawn, and "heading" (or "flanging") is used to describe
upsetting at the end of the workpiece, and "gathering" to describe upsetting at locations other
than the end. Headed shapes include T- and L-heads, ball heads, square heads and socket
heads. Three types of upsetting operations are shown in Figure 5-21.

Ironing In this process, the wall thickness of hollow cans or tubes is reduced, as shown in
Figure 5-22. The force is applied to the bottom of the preform by a relatively long punch. The
process differs from forward extrusion in that the workpiece is in tension, whereas forward
extrusion places the workpiece in compression.
Nosing Nosing is used to reduce the end of a backward extrusion, or its radius. The process is
shown in Figure 5-23.

Radial Forging In this process, tools moving radially forge the workpiece to the desired shape,
as shown in Figure 5-24. Radial forging can also be used to make solid parts, such as axles.
Hollow parts, such as gun barrels, can be axially forged using a mandrel.

Bending Bending operations are often used to generate non-symmetrical shapes. The process
is used to produce rod and bar shapes with and without heads, including J-, S, U-, W-, and Z-
bends.

Combined Processes Many of the above processes can be combined to advantage in a single
operation. For example, forward and backward extrusion are combined to produce shaft gears
with either solid or cup heads, splined shafts and threaded shafts. Seven common process
combinations are shown in Figure 5-25.

Process Sequence In almost all cases, cold forgings are made in several forming strokes. The
number of strokes is determined by the formability of the alloy, die loading, press loading, press
characteristics, and the opportunity to combine processes. If the formability limit is reached, the
workpiece must be annealed in an intermediate stage before proceeding with the next
operation. The application of surface coatings between processes may be necessary for some
materials. The design of process sequence is therefore based on many years of experience by
the process design engineer.

Process sequences for two cold forgings are shown in Figures 5-26 and 5-27. The process
sequence for the bevel gear in the figure shows the progress in cold forming technology in
recent years to produce very intricate shapes
El taller de forjado está dotado de dos prensas mecánicas para el forjado en matrices -una de 4000 y otra de
2500 toneladas-, donde se elaboran bridas de dimensiones limitadas además de engranajes y ejes para la
industria productora de maquinaria agrícola.
Este departamento cuenta también con un grupo de martillos -el mayor de 16.000 Kgm.- que son utilizados
para realizar forja libre con la ayuda de manipuladores de 3000, 1500 y 750 Kg.
A modo de ejemplos de fabricación podemos mencionar:

• Cabezas de pozo
• Cuerpos de válvulas
• Bielas
• Repuestos ferroviarios
• Ruedas de puente grúa
• Discos
• Placas tubulares
Welcome to TW Stamping
Forging

Components can be forged into an infinite variety of shapes which would be difficult
to produce by conventional machining or fabrication techniques. The result is a
product with a superior surface finish, lack of porosity and enhanced strength since
it does not suffer from internal stresses and it's grain structure has been improved.
The result is a cost effective product fit for most applications.

Tooling is relatively cheap and setting times short, this allows for economic
production down to as little as a couple of hundred piece parts per order.

As well as forging in brass we also work in aluminium, copper, aluminium bronze,

etc.

Machining

After forging, many customers find it economical for the subsequent machining
operations to be carried out by the supplier of the brass stampings. The photograph
gives a few examples of the vast range of items which we machine after they have
been forged. This is in fact due to the very efficient re-cycling of machining waste.
This also includes work in aluminium, copper, etc.

By virtue of the fact that we are sub contractors, our products have to comply with
many British and foreign standards, a few of which are,

• BS5433 Underground stop valves for water services

• BS3288 Electrical fittings

• BS 746 Gas Meter Unions And Adapters

• BS2767 Valves and unions for hot water radiators

 • BS1010 Draw off taps and stop valves

• BS5154 Globe, check and gate valves

Electrical Components

Our range of products include:

• Parts for lighting fittings

• Immersion and kettle element heads and other domestic

appliance components.
• Distribution line fittings including pole mounted fuse

holders, line taps, etc.

• Cable Sockets

• Components for generators, transformers and switchgear

• Parts for telephone, radio, radar and scientific equipment

• Components for industrial use such as railway traction

engines, welding sets and traffic control equipment

Gas Fittings

• Our range includes parts for the gas supply industry such

as unions, connectors, meter couplers, etc.

• We manufacture a multitude of parts for the domestic gas

appliance industry such as elbows, tees, gas cocks and

manifolds.
• In addition we supply decorative and other fittings for use

on domestic gas fires and cookers.

Hydraulic / Pneumatic Applications

We manufacture many parts for hydraulic/ pneumatic applications, these being

used in a variety of situations from mining equipment through industrial applications
for use on aircraft. In particular we manufacture items which are subject to high
pressure with CO2 and other bottled gases. In this case these items are fully tested
well above the required specification.

Security

It is commonplace for lock and bolt parts to be made from brass components since
these do not suffer from failure through corrosion attack in the event of adverse
weather conditions. Such fittings are ideally made using the hot forging process.
Many other applications are now to be found in the home security market which use
hot brass forging in production.

Decorative Hardware

It has always been traditional to use hot brass forgings in the manufacture of door
handles, window stays and other types of architectural fittings. In recent years there
has been a vast increase in the use of highly decorative components for other
items of door furniture such as letter boxes, finger plates, door pulls, etc.

Sport and Leisure

A popular use for aluminium components is found in the world of mountaineering in

which it is commonplace to use such items as 'karabineer' hooks or parts for ice
axes.

Similarly hot brass forging are incorporated into the design of many popular types
of golf club putters.

Transport: Road, Rail, Ship, Aircraft

There are many applications for hot brass forgings in the transport industry. These
range from parts for road vehicles such as elbows or tees in the fuel line, flanges
for petrol tanks, radiator filler caps, etc. to discrete items such as battery terminals,
light weight wheel nuts and hinges and fittings for heavy goods vehicles, supplied
to component manufacturers.

Hot brass, aluminium, aluminium bronze forgings are used extensively in the
marine industry. Typically such items would include shackles and turnbuckles on
yachts, parts for pumps, guard-wire terminals, etc.

On aircraft there is a greater tendency to use items forged in aluminium.

Assembly Work

As well as forging and machining we have a considerable capacity for work which
requires sub-assembly before use. It is usual for the resulting assembly to consist
predominantly of hot brass forged and machined components. However, we are
obviously willing to discuss any other type of assembly work. The problems of
resourcing the parts, and as necessary holding them against scheduled call-off
devolve onto TW Stamping Limited.