Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Chapter Outline
Mechanical Properties of Metals
How do metals respond to external loads?

! Stress and Strain

" Tension
" Compression
" Shear
" Torsion
! Elastic deformation
! Plastic Deformation
" Yield Strength
" Tensile Strength
" Ductility
" Toughness
" Hardness
Not tested: true stress-true stain relationships, resilience, details
of the different types of hardness tests, variability of material
properties
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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Introduction
To understand and describe how materials deform
(elongate, compress, twist) or break as a function of
applied load, time, temperature, and other conditions we
need first to discuss standard test methods and standard
language for mechanical properties of materials.

Stress, σ (MPa)

Strain, ε (mm / mm)

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Types of Loading
Tensile
Compressive

Shear

Torsion

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Concepts of Stress and Strain

(tension and compression)

To compare specimens of different sizes, the load is

calculated per unit area.

Engineering stress: σ = F / Ao
F is load applied perpendicular to speciment cross-
section; A0 is cross-sectional area (perpendicular to
the force) before application of the load.

Engineering strain: ε = ∆l / lo (×
× 100 %)
∆l is change in length, lo is the original length.

These definitions of stress and strain allow one to

compare test results for specimens of different cross-
sectional area A0 and of different length l0.

Stress and strain are positive for tensile loads, negative

for compressive loads

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Concepts of Stress and Strain

(shear and torsion)

Shear stress: τ = F / Ao
F is load applied parallel to the upper and lower faces
each of which has an area A0.

Shear strain: γ = tgθ

θ (×
× 100 %)
θ is strain angle

Torsion is variation of pure shear. A shear stress in

this case is a function of applied torque T, shear strain
is related to the angle of twist, φ.

Shear Torsion

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Stress-Strain Behavior

Elastic Plastic Elastic deformation

Reversible: when the stress
is removed, the material
returns to the dimension it
had before the loading.
Usually strains are small
Stress

(except for the case of

plastics).

Plastic deformation
Irreversible: when the stress
is removed, the material
does not return to its
Strain previous dimension.

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Stress-Strain Behavior: Elastic deformation

In tensile tests, if the deformation is elastic, the stress-
strain relationship is called Hooke's law:

σ = Eε
E is Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity, has the
same units as σ, N/m2 or Pa

Unload
Stress

Slope = modulus of
elasticity E

Load

Strain

Higher E → higher “stiffness”

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Elastic Deformation: Nonlinear elastic behavior

In some materials (many polymers, concrete...), elastic

deformation is not linear, but it is still reversible.

∆σ/∆ε = tangent modulus at σ2

Definitions of E

∆σ/∆ε = secant modulus

between origin and σ1

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Elastic Deformation: Atomic scale picture

Chapter 2: the force-separation curve for interacting atoms

High
modulus Strongly
bonded
Force, F

Separation, r
Low
modulus
Weakly
bonded E ~ (dF/dr) at ro
(r0 – equilibrium separation)

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Elastic Deformation: Anelasticity

(time dependence of elastic deformation)

• So far we have assumed that elastic deformation is

time independent (i.e. applied stress produces
instantaneous elastic strain)

• However, in reality elastic deformation takes time

(finite rate of atomic/molecular deformation
processes) - continues after initial loading, and after
load release. This time dependent elastic behavior
is known as anelasticity.
• The effect is normally small for metals but can be
significant for polymers (“visco-elastic behavior”).

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Elastic Deformation: Poisson’s ratio

Unloaded Loaded

εx εy
ν=− =−
εz εz
Materials subject to tension shrink laterally. Those
subject to compression, bulge. The ratio of lateral and
axial strains is called the Poisson's ratio υ.

υ is dimensionless, sign shows that lateral strain is in

opposite sense to longitudinal strain
Theoretical value for isotropic material: 0.25
Maximum value: 0.50, Typical value: 0.24 - 0.30

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Elastic Deformation: Shear Modulus

∆y

Zo
Unloaded

Loaded
τ
Relationship of shear stress to shear strain:
τ = G γ, where: γ = tgθ = ∆y / zo
G is Shear Modulus (Units: N/m2)
For isotropic material:
E = 2G(1+υ υ) → G ~ 0.4E
(Note: single crystals are usually elastically
anisotropic: the elastic behavior varies with
crystallographic direction, see Chapter 3)
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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Stress-Strain Behavior: Plastic deformation

Plastic deformation:
• stress and strain are not proportional
• the deformation is not reversible
• deformation occurs by breaking and re-arrangement of
atomic bonds (in crystalline materials primarily by
motion of dislocations, Chapter 7)

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Tensile properties: Yielding

Elastic Plastic

Yield strength σy - is chosen as

that causing a permanent strain
of 0.002
Stress

Yield point P - the strain deviates

from being proportional to the stress
(the proportional limit)

The yield stress is a measure of

resistance to plastic deformation

Strain

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Tensile properties: Yielding

Stress

Strain

For a low-carbon steel, the stress vs. strain curve

includes both an upper and lower yield point. The
yield strength is defined in this case as the average
stress at the lower yield point.

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Tensile Strength

If stress = tensile strength is maintained

then specimen will eventually break

Fracture
Strength
Stress, σ

“Necking”

Tensile strength: maximum

stress (~ 100 - 1000 MPa)

Strain, ε

For structural applications, the yield stress is usually a

more important property than the tensile strength, since
once the yield stress has passed, the structure has deformed
beyond acceptable limits.
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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Tensile properties: Ductility

Ductility is a measure of the deformation at fracture

 lf − l0 
Defined by % EL =   ×100
percent elongation  l0 
or  A0 − Af 
percent reduction in area % RA =   × 100
 A0 
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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Typical mechanical properties of metals

The yield strength and tensile strength vary with prior

thermal and mechanical treatment, impurity levels,
etc. This variability is related to the behavior of
dislocations in the material, Chapter 7. But elastic
moduli are relatively insensitive to these effects.

The yield and tensile strengths and modulus of

elasticity decrease with increasing temperature,
ductility increases with temperature.

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Toughness

Toughness = the ability to absorb energy up to fracture =

the total area under the strain-stress curve up to fracture
Units: the energy per unit volume, e.g. J/m3
Can be measured by an impact test (Chapter 8).

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

True Stress and Strain

σT = F/Ai εT = ln(li/lo)

σ = F/Ao ε = (li-lo/lo)

True stress = load divided by actual area in the

necked-down region, continues to rise to the point of
fracture, in contrast to the engineering stress.

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation

If a material is deformed plastically and the stress is then

released, the material ends up with a permanent strain.
If the stress is reapplied, the material again responds
elastically at the beginning up to a new yield point that is
higher than the original yield point.
The amount of elastic strain that it will take before
reaching the yield point is called elastic strain recovery.

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Hardness (I)
Hardness is a measure of the material’s resistance
to localized plastic deformation (e.g. dent or scratch)
A qualitative Moh’s scale, determined by the ability of
a material to scratch another material: from 1 (softest
= talc) to 10 (hardest = diamond).

Different types of quantitative

hardness test has been designed
(Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, etc.).
Usually a small indenter (sphere,
cone, or pyramid) is forced into the
surface of a material under
conditions of controlled magnitude
and rate of loading. The depth or
size of indentation is measured.
The tests somewhat approximate,
but popular because they are easy
and non-destructive (except for the
small dent).
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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Hardness (II)
Tensile strength (MPa)

Tensile strength (103 psi)

Brinell hardness number

Both tensile strength and hardness may be regarded as

degree of resistance to plastic deformation.
Hardness is proportional to the tensile strength - but
note that the proportionality constant is different for
different materials.

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

What are the limits of “safe” deformation?

Stress

For practical engineering design,

the yield strength is usually the
important parameter

Strain

Design stress: σd = N’σc where σc = maximum

anticipated stress, N’ is the “design factor” > 1. Want to
make sure that σd < σy

Safe or working stress: σw = σy/N where N is “factor of

safety” > 1.

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Summary
Make sure you understand language and concepts:
" Anelasticity
" Ductility
" Elastic deformation
" Elastic recovery
" Engineering strain
" Engineering stress
" Hardness
" Modulus of elasticity
" Plastic deformation
" Poisson’s ratio
" Proportional limit
" Shear
" Tensile strength
" Toughness
" Yielding
" Yield strength

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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Reading for next class:

Chapter 7: Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms

" Dislocations and Plastic Deformation

# Motion of dislocations in response to stress
# Slip Systems
# Plastic deformation in
! single crystals
! polycrystalline materials
" Strengthening mechanisms
# Grain Size Reduction
# Solid Solution Strengthening
# Strain Hardening
" Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth
Optional reading (Part that is not covered / not tested):
7.7 Deformation by twinning
In our discussion of slip systems, §7.4, we will not get into
direction and plane nomenclature
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 Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

Homework #3: 6.3, 6.7, 6.9, 6.23, 6.28

Due date: Thursday, February 15.

Test #1: Thursday, February 15.

Chapters 1 - 5.

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