EEEB413

Electro-Mechanical Systems

Induction Motor TorqueSpeed Characteristics

Induction motor torque-speed characteristics

Induced torque from a physical standpoint
No load condition

On the left is a figure of the magnetic

fields in an induction motor at no load
>> rotor speed very nearly at
synchronous speed

Currents in the
stator will produce a
stator field BS .

The induced rotor currents

will also produce field BR .
The net magnetic field, Bnet is produced by the combination of these two fields,
whereby:

Bnet is producedby magnetising current I M .

I M and hence Bnet directly proportional to E1 .

(refer to the induction motor equivalent circuit)

If E1 is constant >> the net magnetic field in the motor is constant.

In reality, E1 varies as load changes due to the voltage drops across the stator
impedances R1 and X1.
However, these voltage drops are relatively small
>> E1 is approximately constant with changes in load.
At no load:
nm is near nsync >> slip s is very small

(relative motion between rotor and Bnet is small)

the rotor induced voltage ER is very small
(since eind vrel)
Hence, small I R will flow in the rotor and will almost be in phase with ER .
(Due to rotor frequency fr s >> XR fr )

I
Small R produces small BR at an angle slightly greater than 90 behind Bnet .

Therefore, the induced torque will also quite small due to small BR (just enough to
overcome the motors rotational losses) since:

Tind kBR Bnet
and the magnitude is given by Tind kBR Bnet sin .

Note: Even though is small, must be quite large to supply most of . Hence, large no
load currents in IMs compared to other types of machines.

On load condition

On the left is a figure of

the magnetic fields in a
loaded induction motor

As the load increases >> slip s increases and the rotor speed falls .
A greater relative motion rotor induced voltage ER is produced. Hence, I R flowing
will be larger.

Hence, BR also increases.

However, the angle of I R and BR changes since:

larger slip >> rise in fr >> increase in XR.
Therefore, I R lags further behind ER .
The torque angle has also increase.


The increase in BR tends to increase the torque whereas the increase in

tends to decrease torque .

But the former effect (increase in ) is larger.
Hence, the overall torque increases to supply the motors increased load.

As load is further increased ( increases):

sin term decreases (the value is going towards the 0 cross over point for a
sine wave) at a much greater rate than the increment of BR .
At this point, any further load increase will reduce torque and hence will stop
the motor. This effect is known as pullout torque.

Modelling the torque-speed characteristics of an induction motor

We know that, Tind kBR Bnet sin .
Each term can be considered separately to derive the overall torque behaviour:

I
B
B
a) R R (provided the rotor core is unsaturated). Hence, R increases with I R
which in turn increases with slip (decrease in speed).

b) Bnet E1 and will remain approximately constant.

c) The angle increases with slip. Hence, sin term decreases. From the on load
condition,

(1)
where
Therefore,
sin sin R 90 cos R = power factor of rotor

Rotor power factor angle can be calculated since:

R tan 1

XR
sX
tan 1 R 0
RR
RR

Hence, the rotor power factor:

(2)
The torque-speed characteristic can be constructed from the graphical manipulation
of the three properties (a)-(c) which is shown on the next page.
The characteristic curve can be divided into three regions:
1. Low-slip region ( s linearly, nm linearly) :
XR negligible PFR 1
I R increases linearly with s
Contains the entire normal operating range of an induction motor.
2. Moderate-slip region:
XR same order of magnitude as RR PFR droops
I R doesnt increase as rapidly as in low-slip region
Peak torque (pullout torque) occurs in this region.
3. High-slip region:
Increase in I R completely overshadowed by decrease in PFR.
Tind decreases with increase in load
Note:
Typical pullout torque 200% to 250% of Trated.
The starting torque 150% of the Trated.
Hence induction motor may be started at full load.

Graphical development of an induction motor torque-speed characteristic

The derivation of the induction motor induced-torque equation

A general expression for induced torque can be derived from the equivalent circuit
of the motor as well as the power flow diagram.
It is known that,
P
P
T conv or T AG
ind

ind

The latter is more useful since sync is always constant.

Hence, to find an expression for Tind, we must derive an expression for PAG.
Referring to the per-phase equivalent circuit of the motor:

PAG ,1 I 22

sync

R2
s

Therefore, the total air gap power: PAG 3I 22 2

s
Hence, if I2 can be determined, then PAG and Tind is known.
This can be easily achieved by constructing a Thevenin equivalent circuit to the
left of the impedances X2 and R2/s.

Thevenins theorem states that any linear circuit that can be separated by two
terminals from the rest of the system can be replaced by a single voltage
source in series with an equivalent impedance.
Therefore, the per-phase equivalent circuit reduces to the following Thevenin
equivalent circuit:
Calculation via Thevenin equivalent method:
1. Derive the Thevenin voltage (potential divider rule): open-circuit the terminals
after the Rc and Xm branch. Hence,
jX M
VTH V
R1 jX 1 jX M
(3)
Hence, the magnitude is:
(4)

Since XM >> X1 and XM>> R1, the magnitude of the Thevenin voltage is quite
accurately approximated by:
(5)

2. Find the Thevenin impedance: take out the source and replace by a short circuit.
Hence,
(6)
Again, since XM >> X1 and XM>> R1,

(7)
(8)
3. Therefore, the current flowing in the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the induction
motor is given by:
VTH
I2
RTH R2 s jX TH jX 2
(9)
And the current magnitude will be:
I2 I2

VTH

RTH R2 s 2 X TH X 2 2

(10)

Hence, the air gap power is:

PAG

2
R2
3VTH
R2 s
3I

s
RTH R2 s 2 X TH X 2 2
2
2

(11)

Finally, the induced torque expression is:

P
Tind AG
sync

(12)
A plot of the induction motor torque as a function of speed (and slip) above and
below the normal operating range is shown below.

Comments on the induction motor torque-speed curve

1) At synchronous speed, Tind = 0.
2) The curve is linear between no load and full load.
3) The maximum torque is known as pullout torque or breakdown torque. It
is approximately 2 to 3 times the rated full-load torque of the motor.
4) The starting torque is slightly larger than its full-load torque. So, IM will
start carrying any load it can supply at full power.
5) Torque for a given slip varies as square of the applied voltage. This is
useful as one form of IM speed control.
6) If rotor is driven faster than synchronous speed,
>> Tind direction in the machine reverses and machine becomes a
generator.
7) If motor is turning backward relative to the direction of magnetic fields
(achieved by reversing the magnetic field rotation direction),
>> Tind will stop the machine very rapidly (braking) and try to rotate in the
other direction.
>> Can be achieved by switching two stator phases, i.e. plugging.

The power converted to mechanical form in an induction motor is:

Pconv Tindm
Hence, a characteristic to show the variation of converted power with speed (i.e. load) can
be obtained.

Note that:
Peak power supplied by the induction motor occurs at different speed to maximum
torque.
No power is converted when rotor speed = 0.

Maximum (Pullout) torque in an induction motor

Maximum Tind occurs when PAG is maximum.
PAG is maximum when power consumed by resistor R2 /s is maximum.
According to the maximum power transfer theorem:
Maximum power transfer is achieved when the magnitude of the load impedance is
equal to the source impedance.
Hence, referring to the Thevenin equivalent circuit of the induction motor:

Source impedance =
Load impedance =
Hence, maximum power transfer occurs when:
(13)

Solving equation (7.47) for slip, we see that the slip at pullout torque is given by:
(14)
Hence, the resulting equation for the maximum or pullout torque is:
Tmax

2
3VTH

2sync RTH

2
2
RTH X TH X 2

From this we see that:

Torque is related to the square of supplied voltage.
Torque is inversely proportional to stator impedances and rotor reactance.
smax is directly proportional to R2.
Tmax is independent of R2.
As increase R2 (i.e. increase smax):
pullout speed of motor decreases
maximum torque remains constant
starting torque increases

This is an advantage of a wound rotor

induction motor

(15)

Variations in induction motor torque-speed characteristics

Based on the properties of the induction motor torque-speed characteristics,
machine designers are faced with a dilemma high stating torque or high
efficiency?

Design Option 1:
High R2 (or RR)
High starting torque
Slip high at normal operating
conditions
Decreased efficiency
Pconv = (1-s) PAG
s , Pconv,

Design Option 2:
Low R2 (or RR)
Low starting torque,
high starting current
Slip low at normal operating
conditions
High efficiency
Pconv = (1-s) PAG
s , Pconv,

Solution 1:
Use a wound rotor induction motor with:
extra resistance added to rotor during starting
then removed for better efficiency during normal operations
But wound rotor motors are:
more expensive
need more maintenance
more complex automatic control circuit

Better solution:
Utilise leakage reactance in induction motor design to achieve the desired
torque-speed curve shown below.
Torque-speed
characteristics curve
combining high-resistance
effects at low speeds (high
slip) with low resistance
effects at high speed (low
slip).

Control of motor characteristics by cage rotor design

Leakage reactance, X2 (referred rotor leakage reactance) is due to

>> rotor flux lines that do not couple with stator windings

If rotor bar (or part of a bar) is:

far away from stator

nearer to stator

more rotor flux leakage

value of X2

less rotor flux leakage

value of X2

Generally, the farther away the rotor bar is from the stator, the greater its X2,
since a smaller percentage of the bars flux will reach the stator.

Example 1

A 460-V, four-pole, 50-hp, 60-Hz, Y-connected three-phase induction

motor develops its full-load induced torque at 3.8 percent slip when
operating at 60 Hz and 460 V. The per-phase circuit model impedances
of the motor are:
R1 = 0.33
XM = 30
X1 = 0.42
X2 = 0.42
Mechanical, core, and stray losses may be neglected in this problem.
a)
b)
c)

Find the value of the rotor resistance R2.

Find max , smax , and the rotor speed at maximum torque for this
motor.
Find the starting torque of this motor.

Starting & Speed Control

of Induction Motor

Starting induction motors

An induction motor has the ability to start directly. However direct starting of an
induction motor is not advised due to the starting current causing a dip in the power
system voltage.
To estimate starting current, we must be able to calculate the starting apparent power
of the motor. This is represented in all motors by a designated starting code letter on
their nameplates.

Table of NEMA code letters, indicating the starting kilovoltampere per horsepower of rating for a
motor. (from Chapman textbook, page 431)
Note: These letters must not be confused with the motors design class letter.

Hence, to determine the starting current for an induction motor:

1.

Read the rated horsepower and code letter from its nameplate. The
starting apparent power for the motor is:
(1)

2.

Read the rated voltage from its nameplate. Hence, the starting current can
be found from:
(2)

Example: What is the starting current of a 15-hp, 208-V,

code letter F, three-phase induction motor?
According to the table, the maximum kilovolt-amperes per
horsepower = 5.6
Hence, the maximum starting KVA of this motor is

Sstart = (15hp)(5.6) = 84kVA

Therefore, the starting current is

It is seen that to start an IM requires a high starting current.

How can we reduce the starting current?
Wound rotor IM relatively low starting currents achieved by
inserting
Extra resistance in the rotor circuit during starting and as the
rotor picks up speed, the resistor banks are not only increases the
starting torque but also reduces the starting current
Cage rotor IM reduced starting current achieved by varying
motors rate power and on the effective rotor resistance at
starting condition at the stator.
One way to achieve this is by using autotransformers, i.e. a step
down transformer during the starting sequence and stepping up
the transformer ratio as the machine spins faster (refer figure
below).

An autotransformer starter for an induction motor.

during starting, contacts 1 and 3 are shut to supply lower
voltage to motor
once motor is nearly up to speed, contacts 1 and 3 are opened
and contacts 2 are shut to apply full line voltage across the
motor

When starting induction motors:

The starting current is reduced in direct proportion to reduce
terminal voltage VT
starting torque decreases as the square of the applied voltage
(Tstart VT2 )

Therefore, only certain amount of current reduction can be

done if motor is to start with shaft load attached.

Induction motor starting circuits

Typical full-voltage or across-the-line magnetic induction motor starter circuit
is shown below:

Circuit operation:
when the start button is pressed, the relay or contactor

coil
M is energized, causing normally open contacts M1, M2
and M3 to shut.

Power is then applied to the motor, and the motor starts.

Contact M4 also shuts, which shorts out the starting

switch, allowing the operator to release it without
removing
power from the M relay.
When the stop button is pressed, the M relay is
deenergized, and the M contacts open, stopping the motor.

A magnetic motor starter of this sort has several built-in

protective features:
1. Short circuit protection
>> provided by fuses F1, F2 and F3
2. Overload protection
>> provided by overload heaters & overload contacts
(OL)

3. Undervoltage protection
>> through de-energising of M relays

Three-step resistive starter for an induction motor

Circuit operation:
1. Similar to previous circuit, except there are additional components present to
control removal of the starting resistor. Relays 1TD, 2TD and 3TD are called timedelay relays.

2. When the start button is pushed, the M relay energizes and power is supplied to
the motor as before.
3. Since the 1TD, 2TD and 3TD contacts are all open, the full starting resistor is in
series with the motor, reducing the starting current.
4. When the M contacts close, the 1TD relay is energized. But there is a finite delay
before the 1TD contacts close. During that time, the motor partially speeds up and
the starting current drops off some.

5. After that, 1TD closes, cutting out part of the starting resistance and
simultaneously energizing 2TD relay.
6. After another delay, the 2TD contacts shut, cutting out the second part of the
resistor and energizing the 3TD relay.
7. Finally, the 3TD contacts close, and the entire starting resistor is out from the
circuit.

Speed control of induction motors

Induction motors are not good machines for applications
requiring considerable speed control. The normal operating
range of a typical induction motor (design class A, B and C) is
confined to less than 5% slip, and the speed variation is more or
less proportional to the load on the motor shaft.
If slip is made higher, motor efficiency becomes very poor since
rotor copper losses will be high as well (PRCL = sPAG).

There are basically 2 techniques to control the speed of an

induction motor:
a) Varying speed of the stator and rotor magnetic fields, i.e. synchronous speed by:
- varying the electrical frequency
- changing the number of poles
b) Varying the slip by:
- varying the rotor resistance or
- varying the terminal voltage of the motor

Induction motor speed control by pole changing

Method of consequent poles
(requires motor with special stator
windings)

A two-pole stator winding for pole

changing. Notice the very short
pitch (60 to 90) of these
windings.

General Idea:
Consider one phase winding in a stator. By changing the current flow in one
portion of the stator winding such that it is similar to the current flow in the
opposite portion of the stator, an extra pair of poles is generated.
Close up view of one phase of a pole
changing winding.
a) In the 2-pole configuration, one coil is
a north pole and the other is a south
pole.
b) When the connection on one of the
two coils is reversed, they are both
north poles, and the magnetic flux
returns to the stator halfway
between the two coils. The south
poles are called consequent poles.
Hence the winding is now 4-pole.

Rotor must be of cage type.

In terms of torque, the maximum torque magnitude would

generally be maintained.

Disadvantage:
speed changes must be in a ratio of 2:1.
Hence to obtained variations in speed, multiple stator
windings have to be applied:
extra sets of windings with different number of poles that
may be energized one at a time as required.
(eg: IM wound with 4-pole and 6-pole set of stator windings
to give switch in nsync from 1800 rpm to 1200 rpm on a 60-Hz
system)
Unfortunately this is an expensive alternative.

Combination of consequent poles and multiple stator

windings creates a four-speed induction motor.

Speed control by changing the line frequency

This is also known as variable frequency control.

Changing the electrical frequency will change the synchronous

speed of the machine since no-load point on the torque-speed
characteristic curve will change with it.
*Base speed = synchronous speed of motor at rated conditions

Hence, it is possible to adjust speed of motor either above or

below base speed.

BUT it also requires terminal voltage limitation in order to

maintain the same amount of flux level in the machine core.

If not the machine will experience:

a. Core saturation (non linearity effects)
b. Excessive magnetization current will flow

Varying frequency with or without adjustment to the terminal voltage may

give 2 different effects:
Below base speed

Above base speed

decreased linearly with decrease

in stator frequency, i.e. derating

held constant at rated value

Motor speed

varying

varying

Flux level

constant

decrease

Operating torque

increase

decrease

maximum power rating must

also be decreased to protect
from overheating

Terminal (stator)
voltage

Notes

Note:
Flux in the core of an induction motor is given by Faradays Law
vt N

d
dt

If vt VM sin t is applied, the resulting flux is:

V
1
1
vt dt VM sin tdt M cost

N
N
N

Variable-frequency speed control in an induction

motor: the family of torque-speed curves for
speed below base speed.

Variable-frequency speed control in an induction

motor: the family of torque-speed curves for speed
above base speed.

There may also be instances where both characteristics are needed

in the motor operation, hence it is possible to combine both
effects.

With the arrival of solid state devices/power electronics, variable

frequency control has become the method of choice for induction
motor speed control.

Advantage: can be used with any induction motor.

Speed control by changing the line voltage

Varying the terminal voltage will vary the operating speed.

But it also causes variation of operating torque since Tstart VT2
However, it only allows for motor speed variations over limited range.
Hence, this method is only suitable for small motors.

Variable-line-voltage
speed control in an
induction motor.

Speed control by changing the rotor resistance

This is only possible for wound rotor induction motors, i.e we can add extra
resistances into the rotor circuit to vary the torque-speed curve.
*But this causes reduction in motor efficiency.
Hence, it is used only for short periods

Speed control by varying the rotor resistance of a wound-rotor induction motor.

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