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Radartutorial
Book 3: Antennae Techniques

Preamble:
The name antenna has its seeds in the work of the Italian inventor Guglielmo Marconi !uring his e"#eriments with the electromagnetic waves he used a woodenl$ tent #ole along which was carried a radiating wire This tent #ole means in Italian language l'antenna The common use of this term in the descri#tion of the e"#eriments of Marconi led to the #o#ular name antenna for this com#onent #art of transmitter sites An antenna transmits or receives electromagnetic waves It is a transducer to convert electromagnetic waves into high%frequenc$ electrical currents and vice versa The mechanical si&es of the antenna are fractions of the used wavelength There are antennas with more than hundred meters length using frequencies in long%wave range' and antennas with a length of few millimeters for microwave ranges This (ook deals s#ecificall$ with antennae used in radar installations Table of Contents: )adartutorial
+ream(le: ,earning o(-ectives:

*
* *

.unctions of an Antenna Antenna 0haracteristics

Antenna Gain Antenna +attern +olari&ation

/ /
/ 3 1

2alf%wave Antenna +ara(olic Antennae Antennae with 0osecant 4quared +attern +hased Arra$ Antenna
+rinci#le of 6#eration ,inear Arra$ +lanar Arra$ .requenc$ 4canning Arra$ +hase 4hifter

3 3 5 **
** */ */ */ *3

Mono#ulse Antennae Mono#ulse 0once#t 0onical 4can

*7 *7 *3

Learning objectives:
The learning o(-ectives serve as a #review of the information $ou are e"#ected to learn in the cha#ter This cha#ter #rovides the (asis for understanding the s#ecific radar antennae 8#on com#letion of this cha#ter' the student will (e a(le to:

descri(e antenna directivit$ and #ower gain characteristics9 descri(e the focusing action of a (asic #ara(olic antenna9 descri(e the (asic radiation #atterns of the most common #ara(olic reflectors9 descri(e the (asic characteristics of horn radiators9 descri(e the mono#ulse antennae conce#t

Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt G A . ;)td <

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Functions of an Antenna
The antenna is one of the most critical #arts of a radar s$stem It #erforms the following essential functions: It transfers the transmitter energ$ to signals in s#ace with the required distri(ution and efficienc$ This #rocess is a##lied in an identical wa$ on rece#tion It ensures that the signal has the required #attern in s#ace Generall$ this has to (e sufficientl$ narrow in a&imuth to #rovide the required a&imuth resolution and It has to #rovide the required frequenc$ of target #osition u#dates In the case of a mechanicall$ scanned antenna this equates to the revolution rate A high revolution rate can (e a significant mechanical #ro(lem given that a radar antenna in certain frequenc$ (ands can have a reflector with immense dimensions and can weigh several tons It must measure the #ointing direction with a high degree of accurac$

The antenna structure must maintain the o#erating characteristics under all environmental conditions )adom=s are generall$ used where relativel$ severe environmental conditions are e"#erienced The (asic #erformance of radar can (e shown to (e #ro#ortional to the #roduct of the antenna area or a#erture and the mean transmitted #ower Investment in the antenna therefore (rings direct results in terms of s$stem #erformance Taking into account these functions and the required efficienc$ of a radar antenna' two arrangements are generall$ a##lied: the #ara(olic dish antenna and the arra$ antenna

Antenna Characteristics
Antenna Gain
Inde#endent of the use of a given antenna for transmitting or receiving' an im#ortant characteristic of this antenna is the antenna gain
.igure *: An isotro#ic radiator has got a (all%sha#ed radiation

4ome antenna sources radiate energ$ equall$ in all directions )adiation of this t$#e is known as isotropic radiation :e all know the 4un radiates energ$ in all directions The energ$ radiated from the 4un measured at an$ fi"ed distance and from an$ angle will (e a##ro"imatel$ the same Assume that a measuring device is moved around the 4un and sto##ed at the #oints indicated in the figure to make a measurement of the amount of radiation At an$ #oint around the circle' the distance from the measuring device to the 4un is the same The measured radiation will also (e the same The 4un is therefore considered an isotro#ic radiator All other antennae have a gain o##osite the isotro#ic radiator 4ome antennas are highl$ directional9 that is' more energ$ is #ro#agated in certain directions than in others The ratio (etween the amounts of energ$ #ro#agated in these directions com#ared to the energ$ that would (e #ro#agated if the antenna were not directional is known as its gain :hen a transmitting antenna with a certain gain is used as a receiving antenna' it will also have the same .igure /: The di#ole antennas emission diagram is a slightl$ flattened torus gain for receiving
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Antenna Pattern
Most radiators emit ;radiate< stronger radiation in one direction than in another A radiator such as this is referred to as anisotro#ic 2owever' a standard method allows the #ositions around a source to (e marked so that one radiation #attern can easil$ (e com#ared with another The energ$ radiated from an antenna forms a field having a definite radiation #attern A radiation #attern is a wa$ of #lotting the radiated energ$ from an antenna This energ$ is measured at various angles at a constant distance from the antenna The sha#e of this #attern de#ends on the t$#e of antenna used To #lot this #attern' two different t$#es of gra#hs' rectangular%and #olar%coordinate gra#hs are used The #olar%coordinated gra#h has #roved to (e of .igure 3: Antenna #attern in a #olar%coordinate gra#h great use in stud$ing radiation #atterns In the #olar%coordinate gra#h' #oints are located ($ #ro-ection along a rotating a"is ;radius< to an intersection with one of several concentric' equall$%s#aced circles The #olar%coordinate gra#h of the measured radiation is shown in .igure 3 The main beam ;or main lobe< is the region around the direction of ma"imum radiation ;usuall$ the region that is within 3 dB of the #eak of the main (eam< The main (eam in .igure 3 is north(ound The sidelobes are smaller (eams that are awa$ from the main (eam These sidelo(es are usuall$ radiation in undesired directions which can never (e com#letel$ eliminated The sidelobe level is an im#ortant #arameter used to characteri&e radiation #atterns 6ne sidelo(e is called backlobe This is the #ortion of radiation #attern that is directed o##osing the main (eam direction

The gra#h in .igure 7 shows the rectangular% coordinated gra#h for the same source In the rectangular%coordinate gra#h' #oints are located ($ #ro-ection from a #air of stationar$' #er#endicular a"es The hori&ontal a"is on the rectangular% coordinate gra#h corres#onds to the circles on the #olar%coordinate gra#h The vertical a"is on the rectangular%coordinate gra#h corres#onds to the rotating a"is ;radius< on the #olar%coordinate gra#h The measurement scales in the gra#hs can have linear as well as logarithmic ste#s .rom a #lotted antenna #attern $ou can measure some im#ortant characteristics of an antenna:

.igure 7: The same antenna #attern in a rectangular% coordinate gra#h

the front-to-back ratio, the ratio of #ower gain (etween the front and rear of a directional antenna ;in .igure 7 the value of the sidelo(e in *5> degrees: 37 !eci(els< the side lobe ratio' the ma"imum value of the sidelo(es awa$ from the main (eam ;in .igure 7 the value of the sidelo(e in e g ?3 degrees: /> !eci(els<

.or the anal$sis of an antenna #attern the following sim#lifications and terms are used:

Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt G A . ;)td <

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Beam

idth

The angular range of the antenna #attern in which at least half of the ma"imum #ower is still emitted is descri(ed as a beam with Bordering #oints of this ma-or lo(e are therefore the #oints at which the field strength has fallen in the room around 3 dB regarding the ma"imum field strength This angle is then descri(ed as (eam width or a#erture angle or half #ower ;%3 dB< angle % with notation ;also < The (eamwidth is e"actl$ the angle (etween the / (lack marked #ower levels in .igure 1 The angle can (e determined in the hori&ontal #lane ;with notation AZ< as well as in the vertical #lane ;with notation EL< A!erture

.igure 1: Antenna #attern in a rectangular%coordinate gra#h with narrower scale

An isotro#ic radiator dis#erses all energ$ at a surface of a s#here The #ower has a defined densit$ in a given distance A directive antenna concentrates the energ$ in a smaller area The #ower densit$ is higher than ($ an isotro#ic radiator The densit$ can (e e"#ressed as #ower #er area unit too The received #ower can (e com#ared with a related surface This area is called effective aperture. The effective a#erture of an antenna Ae is the surface #resented to the radiated or received signal therefore It is a ke$ #arameter' which governs the #erformance of the antenna The antenna gain is related to the effective area ($ the following relationshi#:

G=

4 Ae ; Ae = K a A 2

:here:

@ wavelength Ae@ effective antenna a#erture A @ #h$sical area of the antenna a@ antenna a#erture efficienc$

;*<

The a#erture efficienc$ de#ends on the distri(ution of the illumination across the a#erture If this is linear then a@ * This high efficienc$ is offset ($ the relativel$ high level of sidelo(es o(tained with linear illumination Therefore' antennas with more #ractical levels of sidelo(es have an antenna a#erture efficienc$ less than one ;AeA A< "ajor and "inor Lobes The #attern shown in the u##er figures has radiation concentrated in several lo(es The radiation intensit$ in one lo(e is considera(l$ stronger than in the other The strongest lo(e is called ma!or lobe9 the others are ;minor< side lobes 4ince the com#le" radiation #atterns associated with arra$s frequentl$ contain several lo(es of var$ing intensit$' $ou should learn to use a##ro#riate terminolog$ In general' ma-or lo(es are those in which the greatest amount of radiation occurs 4ide or minor lo(es are those in which the radiation intensit$ is least Front#to#bac$ Ratio The front-to-back ratio is the ratio of #ower gain (etween the front and rear of a directional antenna In most cases there is a distinctive (ack lo(e in the antenna #attern diagram 4ometimes $ou=ll doesn=t find a lo(e e"actl$ o##osite to the main (eam In this case' the front%to%(ack ratio refers to the largest side lo(e in the area of B*> to B3> degrees around the o##osite direction of the main (eam A high front%to%(ack ratio is desira(le (ecause this means that a minimum amount of energ$ is radiated in the undesired direction

Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt G A . ;)td <

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Polari%ation
The radiation field of an antenna is com#osed of electric and magnetic lines of force These lines of force are alwa$s at right angles to each other The electric field determines the direction of #olari&ation of the wave :hen a single%wire antenna is used to e"tract energ$ from a #assing radio wave' ma"imum #icku# will result when the antenna is oriented in the same direction as the electric field The oscillations of the electric field ma$ (e oriented in a single direction ;linear #olari&ation<' or the oscillation direction of the electric field ma$ rotate as the wave travels ;circular or elli#tical #olari&ation< Linear Polari%ation Derticall$ and hori&ontall$ mounted receiving antennas are designed to receive verticall$ and hori&ontall$ #olari&ed waves' res#ectivel$ Therefore' changes in #olari&ation cause changes in the received signal level due to the ina(ilit$ of the antenna to receive #olari&ation changes Two #lanes of #olari&ation are used mainl$: In a verticall$ #olari&ed wave' the electric lines of force lie in a vertical direction In a hori&ontall$ #olari&ed wave' the electric lines of force lie in a hori&ontal direction
.igure 3: electric field ;(lue< and magnetic field ;red< of a vertical mounted ;#olari&ed< di#ole

The linear #olari&ation can o(viousl$ take all #lanes (ut (esides the hori&ontal #lane and vertical #lane onl$ the #ositions :hen a single%wire antenna is used to e"tract energ$ from a #assing radio wave' ma"imum #icku# will result when the antenna is oriented in the same direction as the electric field Thus a vertical antenna is used for the efficient rece#tion of verticall$ #olari&ed waves' and a hori&ontal antenna is used for the rece#tion of hori&ontall$ #olari&ed waves Circular Polari%ation 0ircular #olari&ation has the electric lines of force rotating through 33> degrees with ever$ c$cle of rf energ$ 0ircular #olari&ation arises ($ two E>F #hase shift income signals and also ($ #lane #olari&ed antennae moving E>F simultaneousl$ The electric field was chosen as the reference field since the intensit$ of the wave is usuall$ measured in terms of the electric field intensit$ ;volts' millivolts' or microvolts #er meter< In some cases the orientation of the electric field does not remain constant Instead' the field rotates as the wave travels through s#ace 8nder these conditions (oth hori&ontal and vertical com#onents of the field e"ist and the wave is said to have an elli#tical #olari&ation

.igure C: )ising of circular #olari&ation

0ircular #olari&ation can (e right%handed or left%handed A circularl$ #olari&ed wave is reflected ($ a s#herical raindro# in the o##osite sense of the transmission 6n rece#tion' the antenna re-ects waves of the o##osite sense of circular #olari&ation there($ minimi&ing the detection of rain The reflection from the target will have significant com#onents in the original #olari&ation sense (ecause unlike rain' aircraft are not s#herical The strength of the target signal is therefore enhanced relative to rain
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.or ma"imum a(sor#tion of energ$ from the electromagnetic fields' the receiving antenna must (e located in the same #lane of #olari&ation If a wrongl$ #olari&ed antenna is used' then considera(le losses arise' in #ractice (etween /> and 3> dB At the a##earance of strong weather%clutter the air traffic controllers #refer to switch on the circular #olari&ation In this case the hiding effect of the targets ($ the weather%clutter will (e decreased

&alf#'ave Antenna
A half%wave antenna ;referred to as a di#ole' 2ert&' or dou(let< consists of two lengths of wire rod' or tu(ing' each *G7 wavelength long at a certain frequenc$ It is the (asic unit from which man$ com#le" antennas are constructed .or a di#ole' the current is ma"imum at the center and minimum at the ends Doltage is minimum at the center and ma"imum at the ends Hnerg$ ma$ also (e fed to the half%wave antenna ($ dividing the antenna at its center and connecting the transmission line from the final transmitter out#ut stage to the two center ends of the halved antenna 4ince the antenna is now (eing fed at the center ;a #oint of low voltage and high current<' this t$#e of feed is known as the center%feed or current%feed method The #oint of feed is im#ortant in determining the t$#e of transmission line to (e used 4tanding waves of current and voltage similarl$ arise as when a #arallel oscillating circuit 2owever' o##osite the isotro#ic radiator with the gain of e"act *' the half%wave antenna alread$ has an gain of a(out * 1 while the ma"imum radiation comes from it in a direction #er#endicular to the antenna a"is The half%wave di#ole also has arisen from a sim#le oscillating circuit :e sim#l$ imagine that the condenser #lates of the oscillating circuit are a#art (ent a little The ca#acit$ is reduced now' (ut the condenser remains to (e a condenser with that :hen a getting the condenser #lates a#art further the lines of force of the electrical field have to cover a (igger and (igger wa$ The form of the condenser cannot (e recogni&ed an$ more The lines of force of the electrical field go over into the free s#ace A half%wave di#ole has arisen which is now (eing fed at the center

.igure 5: .olded di#ole and half%wave di#ole

.igure E: )ise of an antenna di#ole from a dis#ersed oscillating circuit

Parabolic Antennae
The #ara(olic dish antenna is the form most frequentl$ used in the radar engineering of installed antenna t$#es of .igure ** illustrates the #ara(olic antenna A dish antenna consists of one circular #ara(olic reflector and a #oint source situated in the focal #oint of this reflector This #oint source is called I#rimar$ feed or Ifeed The circular #ara(olic ;#ara(oloid< reflector is constructed of metal' usuall$ a frame covered ($ metal mesh at the inner side The width of the slots of the metal mesh has to (e less than J G *> This metal covering forms the reflector acting as a mirror for the radar energ$
.igure *>: +ara(olic antenna of the :eather radar "eteor manufactured ($ Gematronik

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According to the laws of o#tics and anal$tical geometr$' for this t$#e of reflector all reflected ra$s will (e #arallel to the a"is of the #ara(oloid which gives us ideall$ one single reflected ra$ #arallel to the main a"is with no sidelo(es The field leaves this feed horn with a s#herical wave front As each #art of the wave front reaches the reflecting surface' it is shifted *5> degrees in #hase and sent outward at angles that cause all #arts of the field to travel in #arallel #aths This is an ideali&ed radar antenna and #roduces a #encil (eam If the reflector has an elli#tical sha#e' then it will #roduce a fan (eam 4urveillance radars use two .igure **: +rinci#le of a #ara(olic reflector different curvatures in the hori&ontal and vertical #lanes to achieve the required #encil (eam in a&imuth and the classical cosecant squared fan (eam in elevation This ideal case shown in .igure ** figure doesnKt ha##en in the #ractice The real #ara(olic antennas #attern has a conical form (ecause of irregularities in the #roduction This main lo(e ma$ var$ in angular width from one or two degrees in some radar sets to *1 to /> degrees in other radars The radiation #attern of a #ara(olic antenna contains a ma-or lo(e' which is directed along the a"is of #ro#agation' and several small minor lo(es Der$ narrow (eams are #ossi(le with this t$#e of reflector as shown in .igure 3 and 7 in a #revious cha#ter The gain # of an antenna with #ara(olic reflector can (e determined as follows:

1602 G Az El

:here:

A$ @ (eamwidth in a&imuth angle El @ (eamwidth in elevation angle

;/<

This is an a##ro"imate formula (ut gives a good indication for most #ur#oses while noting that gain will (e modified ($ the illumination function Fan#Beam Antenna A fan%(eam antenna is a directional antenna #roducing a main (eam having a narrow (eamwidth in one dimension and a wider (eamwidth in the other dimension This #attern can (e o(tained ($ .igure */: .an%(eam antennae #attern a< lateral view (< frontal view illuminating an as$mmetrical section of the #ara(oloid' e g ($ a truncated #ara(oloid reflector 4ince the reflector is narrow in the vertical #lane and wide in the hori&ontal' it #roduces a (eam that is wide in the vertical #lane and narrow in the hori&ontal This t$#e of antenna s$stem is generall$ used in height% finding equi#ment ;if the reflector is rotated E> degrees< 4ince the reflector is narrow in the hori&ontal #lane and wide in the vertical' it #roduces a (eam that is wide in the hori&ontal #lane and narrow in the vertical In sha#e' the (eam of height% finding radar is a hori&ontal fan (eam #attern as shown in .igure *7 The hornfeed isn=t mounted in the middle of the antenna (ut more sideward=s like as a commercial satellite receiver=s dish antenna This kind of feeding is known as an offset antenna

.igure *3: A truncated #ara(oloid reflector forming a fan (eam

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(ffset Antenna 6ne #ro(lem associated with feedhorns is the shadow introduced ($ the feedhorn if it is in the #ath of the (eam The shadow is a dead s#ot directl$ in front of the feedhorn Lormall$ the feed horn constitutes an o(struction for the ra$s coming from the reflector at a #ara(olic antenna To solve this #ro(lem the feedhorn can (e offset from center In an offset feed' the feed is outside the #ath of the wave so there is no #attern deterioration due to a#erture (locking The horn faces u#wards relative to the a"is of the #ara(ola and the lower half of the #ara(ola is removed The net effect is that the #ara(ola is shallower with a larger focal length The feed horn is therefore situated further from the reflector and requires greater directivit$ to avoid s#ill over of energ$ This design therefore requires larger horns and is generall$ more difficult and e"#ensive to construct

.igure *7: T$#ical antenna of a height% finder using an offset antenna forming a fan (eam

Antennae 'ith Cosecant )*uared Pattern

Antennae with cosecant squared #attern are s#ecial designed for air%surveillance radar sets These #ermit an ada#ted distri(ution of the radiation in the (eam and causing a more ideal s#ace scanning The cosecant squared #attern is a means of achieving more uniform signal strength at the in#ut of the receiver as a target moves with a constant height within the (eam There are a cou#le of variation #ossi(ilities' to get a cosecant squared #attern in #ractice:
.igure *1: Dertical #ro-ection of the radiation #attern of an antenna with cosecant squared characteristic' the (lue gra#h shows the theoreticall$ form' the red gra#h e measured one in #ractice

deformation of a #ara(olic reflector a stacked (eam ($ more horns feeding a #ara(olic reflector

In the #ractice a cosecant squared #attern can (e achieved ($ a deformation of a #ara(olic reflector A radiator is in the focal #oint of a #ara(olic reflector and #roduces a relativel$ shar#l$ (undled radiation lo(e since the ra$s leave the reflector #arallel in the ideal case

.igure *3: !ifferent deformations to achieve a cosecant

To get the cosecant squared #attern' a #art of squared #attern the radiated energ$ must (e turned u# A #ossi(ilit$ consists in lower (ending of the to# of the reflector The #art of the ra$s which falls to the less (ent area ;in the to#< is reflected u# now A #ossi(le method analogousl$ for this one is' to (end the lower #art of the reflector more intense

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The lo(e of the radiator is weaker to the margin too therefore the margins of the reflector are hit weaker as the center B$ the fact that the ra$s turned u# donKt have a large #ower densit$' the ma"imum range in the higher elevation is limited with that +nverse Cosecant )*uared Pattern 4urface Movement )adars and Dessel Traffic 4$stems use antennas designed to #rovide inverse cosecant squared coverage and direct energ$ #referentiall$ towards the surface giving constant gain for targets on the surface The coverage diagram shows the antenna .igure *C: Inverse cosecant squared coverage diagram #attern of a vessel radar with an inverse cosecant squared antenna #atter The antenna is designed to #referentiall$ radiate (elow >F ;the hori&on line< to #rovide constant detection for targets a##roaching on sea surface )tac$ed Beam Cosecant )*uared Antenna A cosecant squared #attern can (e achieved ($ two or more horns feeding a #ara(olic reflector Hver$ feed horn alread$ emits directionall$ If one distri(utes the transmit #ower unevenl$ on the single radiating elements' then the antenna #attern a##roaches a cosecant squared #attern At use of several receiving channels a height allocation also can (e carried out The targets can (e assigned to (eams with defined elevation there
.igure *5: +rinci#le of a stacked (eam 0osecant squared antenna

The cosecant squared #attern isnKt restricted to #ara(olic reflectors This can (e reali&ed also with other kind of antennae At an antenna arra$ with Magi% antennae the #attern is achieved ($ interference of the direct wave with this at the earthKs surface reflected quotas

.igure *E: An arrangement of twelve feed horns at the antenna of the radar set A4) E*> achieves a stacked (eam cosecant squared #attern

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Proof The term 0osecant sounds ver$ much like a mathematical triangular function This is rightN 2owever' what does this term have to do with our antennaO The height 2 and the range ) define the elevation angle % :e remem(er what is written there on the #revious #age:
&'he cosecant s(uared pattern is a means of achievin) a uniform si)nal stren)th at the input of the receiver as a tar)et moves with a constant hei)ht within the beam.*

If we convert the formula according to the range and using the trigonometric relation mentioned a(ove alread$ a##ears the term 0osecant P furthermore :hat there still was with the &...uniform si)nal
stren)th...*

:e can derive this connection from the radar equation: If the echo has a uniform signal strength at the in#ut of the receiver than the range is de#endent on the square of the antenna gain in the fourth #ower linearl$ :e can shorten the #owers arithmeticall$ :e re#lace the range ($ the formula with the u##er 0osecant%formula now According to definition mentioned a(ove the height also shall (e constant That means' we can shorten the height too without changing the de#endence 4o we get the mathematical descri(ing of an antenna with a cosecant squared #atternN

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*>

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Phased Arra, Antenna

Princi!le of (!eration
A #hased arra$ antenna is com#osed of lots of radiating elements each with a #hase shifter Beams are formed ($ shifting the #hase of the signal emitted from each radiating element' to #rovide constructiveGdestructive interference so as to steer the (eams in the desired direction In .igure /> ;u##er case<' (oth radiating elements are fed with the same #hase The signal is am#lified ($ constructive interference in the main direction The (eam shar#ness is im#roved ($ the destructive interference In .igure /> ;lower case<' the signal is emitted ($ the lower radiating element with a #hase shift of *> degrees earlier than of the u##er radiating element Because of this the main direction of the emitted sum%signal is moved u#wards

.igure />: electronic (eam%deflection' u##er case: Boresight' lower case: !eflected

;Lote: )adiating elements have (een used without reflector in the figure Therefore the (ack lo(e of the shown antenna diagrams is -ust as large as the main lo(e <

.igure /*: electronic (eam%deflection ($ a #hased arra$' left: Boresight' right: !eflection

The main (eam alwa$s #oints in the direction of the increasing #hase shift :ell' if the signal to (e radiated is delivered through an electronic #hase shifter giving a continuous #hase shift now' the (eam direction will (e electronicall$ ad-usta(le 2owever' this cannot (e e"tended unlimitedl$ The highest value' which can (e achieved for the .ield of Diew ;.6D< of a #hased arra$ antenna' is */>F ;3>F left and 3>F right< :ith the sine theorem the necessar$ #hase moving can (e calculated Ar(itrar$ antenna constructions can (e used as a s#otlight in an antenna field .or a #hased arra$ antenna is decisive that the single radiating elements are steered for with a regular #hase moving and the main direction of the (eam therefore is changed H g the antenna of the German air%defense radar ))+%**C consists of *157 radiating elements

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**

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Linear Arra,
These antennae consist of lines whose elements are steered a(out a common #hase shifter A num(er of verticall$ a(out each other mounted linear arra$s form a flat antenna H"am#les given: +recision a##roach radar +A)%5> ;hori&ontall$ electronic (eam deflection< Air%defense radar ))+%**C ;verticall$ electronic (eam deflection< ,arge Dertical A#erture ;,DA< Antenna ;fi"ed (eam direction<

.igure //: linear arra$ of a #hased%arra$ antenna' each row of radiating element needs an own #hase shifter

This kind of the #hased%arra$ antenna is commonl$ used' if the (eam%deflection is required in a single #lane onl$ (ecause a turn of the com#lete antenna is an$wa$ carried out

Planar Arra,
These antenna arra$s com#letel$ consist of singles radiating elements and each of it gets an own com#uter%controlled #hase shifter The elements are ordered in a matri" arra$ The #lanar arrangement of all elements forms the com#lete #hased%arra$ antenna Advantage: )a$ deflection in two #lanes #ossi(le !isadvantage: com#licated arrangement and more electronicall$ controlled #hase shifter needed H"am#les given: AL%.+4%51 and Thomson Master%A

.igure /3: +lanar arra$ of a #hased%arra$ antenna' each radiating element needs an own #hase shifter

The #rocessor arranging the (eam deflection needs high #rocessing #ower The #hase shifters are controlled via a serial (us%s$stem often Additional own controlled attenuator one #er radiating element can com#ose various (eam sha#es If the radar set is mounted at a moving #latform' the #rocessor must take in account for (eam deflection calculating the #itch and roll of the #latform too

Fre*uenc, )canning Arra,

.requenc$ scanning is a s#ecial case of the #hased arra$ antenna where the main (eam steering occurs ($ the frequenc$ scanning of the e"citer The (eam steering is a function of the transmitted frequenc$ This t$#e of antenna is called a frequenc$ scanning arra$ The normal arrangement is to feed the different radiating elements from one folded waveguide The frequenc$ scanning arra$ is a s#ecial case of serial feeding t$#e of a #hased arra$ antenna and is (ased on a #articular #ro#ert$ of wave #ro#agation in waveguides The #hase difference (etween two radiating elements is nQ33>F at the normal frequenc$

.igure /7: .requenc$ scanning arra$

Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt G A . ;)td <

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B$ changing the frequenc$' changes the angle s (etween the a"is of the main (eam and the normal on the arra$ antenna 2eight information is generated using the following #hiloso#h$: If the transmitted frequenc$ rises then the (eam travels u# the face of the antenna9 If the transmitted frequenc$ falls then the (eam travels down the face of the antenna

As frequenc$ is varied' the (eam a"is will change' and scanning can (e accom#lished in elevation The radar set is designed so that it kee#s track of the frequencies as the$ are transmitted and then detects and converts the returned frequencies into 3! dis#la$ data Lote that frequenc$ scanning reduces the value of using frequenc$ change as a means of achieving other valua(le effects ;(enefits of #ulse com#ression<

Phase )hifter
+hase shifters switching different detour lines are faster than regulators In the #icture a 7 (its%switching #hase shifter which is used in a radar unit is shown !ifferent detour lines are switched to the signal wa$ It is created therefore *3 different #hase angles (etween >F and 33C 1F in ste#s with a distance of // 1F The inductivities ;the thin meander wires as low#ass filters< also can (e recogni&ed in the switching voltage su##lies for the altogether /7 #in diodes

4ince this #hase shifter module works (oth for the transmitting wa$ and for the rece#tion wa$' (ranching (etween these two #aths are attached with #in diode switches on the ceramic stra# at the entrance and e"it of the module The same data word must (e used for the rece#tion time and for the transmitting moment It is eas$ to understand: This one radiator' transmitting the latest #hase shift' first receives the echo%signal Its #hase shifter must have the largest detour line for diagram forming in a decided direction The same detour line is needed for a summation of the received energ$ and the video%#ulse The #hase shifter routes the microwave signal that is su##lied to each radiating element through ca(les of var$ing length The ca(les dela$ the wave' there($ shifting the relative #hase of the out#ut The illustration shows the three (asic dela$s each #hase shifter can introduce The switches are fast #in diode switches A central com#uter calculates the #ro#er #hase dela$ for each of the radiating elements and switches in the a##ro#riate com(ination of #hase%shifters #athwa$s

.igure /1: 0ircuit (oard with a #hase shifter wiring with switched detour lines

.igure /3: :iring of the #hase shifters dela$ lines

Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt G A . ;)td <

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"ono!ulse Antennae
8nder this conce#t antennae are com(ined which are (uilt u# as an antenna arra$ and which get a s#ecial method in the feeding: The single antenna elements arenKt alwa$s together switched in #haseN .or different #ur#oses various sums and differences can (e formed from the received energ$ In #rimar$ radar sets using a mono#ulse .igure /C: +rinci#le of mono#ulse antennae antenna all antenna elements are fed in #hase and the radiation #atterns are summari&ed 0ertain grou#s are onl$ summari&ed in the rece#tion time and their sums or differences feed own receive channels All signals are then com#ared as a video #rocessor function and their difference is used to estimate the a&imuth of the target more e"actl$ Therefore it can o#erate at a much lower rate of hits #er scan In secondar$ radar sets using a mono#ulse antenna a #ulse grou# is transmitted on the sum channel and an additional #ulse in the difference channel :ell' the mono#ulse antenna is used for side lobe suppression there These two e"am#les #oint: A mono#ulse antenna isnKt an own (asic antenna model A mono#ulse antenna can (e constructed as a grou# of logarithmic #eriodical antennae' a collection of sim#le di#ole radiators or #atch antenna fields

"ono!ulse Conce!t
Mono#ulse radars find their origin in tracking s$stems 4ince the late *EC>s' the #rinci#le of mono#ulse has (een ada#ted to suit +4) and 44) s$stems and is in common o#erational use world% wide toda$ A target will (e seen ($ radar from the moment it .igure /5: estimating of the angular #osition at classic enters the main antenna (eam or from the moment radar sets with high hit rate it is illuminated ($ the transmitted radar antenna (eam 4earch radar alwa$s makes an error in the determination of the direction of the target (ecause it makes the assum#tion that the target is situated in the direction of the a"is of the main (eam of the antenna This error is of the order of the (eam width of the main antenna (eam A crude wa$ of determining angular #osition of a target is to move the antenna #ast the target direction and note the #ointing direction that gives the ma"imum echo am#litude 8nfortunatel$' the estimated a&imuth #osition will (e effected ($ thermal noise errors and target fluctuation errors ;scintillation< The target fluctuation error is due to the cross%section changing of the target during the time%on%target of the antenna which gives a distortion of the envelo#e of the reflected #ulse train
.igure /E: using a mono#ulse antenna the radar data #rocessor can calculate the targets #osition into the (eam

Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt G A . ;)td <

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(ne received echo is sufficientl,Mono#ulse gives much (etter target a&imuth measurements than the estimating of the angular #osition shown in .igure /E It can o#erate at a much lower interrogation rate to (enefit others in the environment Mono#ulse s$stems usuall$ contain enhanced #rocessing to give (etter qualit$ target code information A single #ulse is sufficientl$ for mono#ulse (earing measurement ;hence the use of the term mono#ulse< The elements in linear antenna arra$ are divided into two halves These two se#arate antennae arra$s are #laced s$mmetricall$ in the focal #lane on each side of the a"is of the radar antenna ;this often called (oresight a"is< In transmission ;T"< mode' (oth antennae arra$s will (e fed in #hase and the radiation #attern is re#resented ($ the ice (lue area' which is called the R or 4um Pdiagram' as shown in the .igure 3> as (lue gra#h and (lue #attern In rece#tion ;)"< mode an additional receiving wa$ is #ossi(le .rom the received signals of (oth se#arate antenna arra$s' it is #ossi(le to calculate + ;like the transmitted 4um %diagram< and the difference ,A$' the so called !elta a&imuth% diagram The antenna #attern is given ($ the red and green area on the same figure Both signals are then com#ared as a re#l$ #rocessor function and their difference is used to estimate the a&imuth of the target more e"actl$

The angle (etween the a"is of the antenna ;(oresight a"is< and the direction of the target is also known as 6BA%value ;6ff%Boresight Angle< The elevation angle is also measured at 3! radars as a third coordinate :ell' the #rocedure is used twice now 2ere the antenna is derived in addition in an u##er half and a lower half The second difference channel ;,El< is called I!elta Hlevation now The Mono#ulse antenna is divided u# into four quadrants now: The following signals are formed from the received signals of these four quadrants: The Au"iliar$ 4ignal U also shall to com#lete the #icture (e mentioned' although this one isnKt tied to the mono#ulse antenna This channel to the com#ensation of side lo(es alwa$s has #racticall$ its own small antenna and has a ver$ wide antenna diagram and also serves for the reconnaissance of active -amming 4um % signal + S; I ? II ? III ? ID <T !ifference % signal ,A$ S; I ? ID < % ; II ? III <T !ifference % signal ,El S; I ? II < % ; III ? ID <T

.igure 3>: +rinci#le of a mono#ulse s$stem

.igure 3*: The antenna is divided into four quadrants

All these signals need an own receiver channel :ell' modern 3!% radar sets have at least four #arallel receiver% channels

Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt G A . ;)td <

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Conical )can
4ome older tracking radar uses the conical scanning #rinci#le Mou can generate a conical scan #attern' as shown in figure *' ($ using a rotating feed driven ($ a motor in the housing at the rear of the dish The a"is of the radar lo(e is made to swee# out a cone in s#ace9 the a#e" of this cone is' of course' at the radar transmitter antenna or reflector

.igure 3>: At conical scan the antenna traces a cone #attern around its central a"is 8sed in tracking radars conical scan with target a&imuth and elevation (eing taken from the mechanical #osition of the antenna

At an$ given distance from the antenna' the #ath of the lo(e a"is is a circle :ithin the useful range of the (eam' the inner edge of the lo(e alwa$s overla#s the a"is of scan Low assume that we use a conicall$ scanned (eam for target tracking If the target is on the scan a"is' the strength of the reflected signals remains constant ;or changes graduall$ as the range changes< But if the target is slightl$ off the a"is' the am#litude of the reflected signals will change at the scan rate .or e"am#le' if the target is to the left of the scan a"is' as shown in the .igure 3* the reflected signals will (e of ma"imum strength as the lo(e swee#s through the left #art of its cone9 the signals will quickl$ decrease to a minimum as the lo(e swee#s through the right #art Information on the instantaneous #osition of the (eam' relative to the scan a"is' and on the strength of the reflected signals is fed to a com#uter 4uch a com#uter in the radar s$stem is referred to as the angle%tracking or angle%servo circuit ;also angle%error detector< If the target moves off the scan a"is' the com#uter instantl$ determines the direction and amount of antenna movement required to continue tracking The com#uter out#ut is used to control servomechanisms that move the antenna In this wa$' the target is tracked accuratel$ and automaticall$ 0ommonl$ used conical scan #attern include 0onical 4can on )eceive 6nl$ ;a((reviated to 064)6< in which a conical scan #attern is used while the radar is in receive mode onl$

.igure 3*: +rinci#le of conical scan: if the target isn=t in the (oresight direction' then a ma"imum of (ackscattered #ower will (e received in direction of the eccentric moving The antenna must follow in this direction now

Author: 0hristian :olff' graduated radar engineer' 4M4gt G A . ;)td <

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