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Introduction to Science
1.1 What is Science?
1 2 3 4
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Science is a systematic study of nature and its effects on us and the environment. Natural phenomena are events that happen naturally around us. Science can be divided into many elds such as: Biology, physics, chemistry, geology, astronomy and meteorology. Science-based careers are occupations that are based on science, for example: Life science doctor, nurse, dietician, botanist, zookeeper; earth science environmental scientist, meteorologist, geologist, mineralogist, volcanologist; and physical science physicist, chemist, engineer, architect, and radiologist.
A Science Laboratory
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Beaker Filter funnel Measuring cylinder Evaporating dish
CHAPTER 1
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Water trough
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Tripod stand Bell jar
Pr Re E SS EXp s
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Gas jar
u in
Test tube rack Flat-bottomed ask Conical ask Test tube holder Crucible tongs Flat-bottomed ask Round-bottomed ask Dropper Eureka can
1.2
2 3
Test-tube
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Boiling tube
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It is a room or a building where scientic investigations are carried out. We must obey safety rules and precautions when working in a science laboratory. Common laboratory apparatus:
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4 Hazard warning symbols: Highly ammable Examples: Ethanol, petrol
1.3 The Steps in a Scientic Investigation
(3) Planning the experiment (4) Controlling variables (5) Collecting data (6) Analysing and interpreting data (7) Drawing a conclusion (8) Writing a report
1.4 Physical Quantities and Their Units
Explosive Examples: Sodium, potassium Corrosive Examples: Concentrated hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide Poisonous/toxic Examples: Lead, mercury 1
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Area of regular shapes Area of irregular shapes Volume of liquids
Length of curves
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(2) Forming a hypothesis
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m kg s K A Unit symbols Units and their relationship
(1) Identifying the problem
external), micrometer, vernier calipers String and ruler, opisometer Mathematical formulae, graph paper Estimation using graph paper Measuring cylinder, pipette, burette 1 cm2 = 100 mm2 1 m2 = 10 000 cm2 1 km2 = 1 000 000 m2 1 ml = 1 cm3 1 l = 1 000 cm3 1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3
Physical quantities and their s1 units: Physical quantities length mass time SI units metre
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kilogram second kelvin ampere
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Irritant
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1.5
1 2
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Examples: Chlorine, chloroform
The weight of an object is the pull of the Earths gravity on the object. The mass of an object is the quantity of matter in the object.
Measuring Tools
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temperature
electric current
Weight and Mass
Volume of Mathematical regularformulae, shaped solids water displacement method (Eureka can or measuring cylinder lled with water) Volume of Water irregulardisplacement shaped solids method (using Eureka can or measuring cylinder lled with water)
1 m3 = 1 000 000 cm3
1.6
Examples: Ethanol, petrol
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Highly ammable
Physical quantity Length of straight lines
Tools/method Metre rule, ruler, calipers (internal &
1 cm = 10 mm 1 m = 100 cm 1 km = 1000 m
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1.7 The Importance of Standard Units
Chloroplast Vacuoles 4
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Euglena (f) Yeast 2 Chondrus (c) Spirogyra
2.3
Stores water and dissolved materials
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nucleus
Standard unit improves international communications. They also ensure the physical quantities are measured accurately and consistently.
Carries out photosynthesis
(e)
CHAPTER 2
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1 Organisation of cell: Cell (simple) Tissue Organ System Organism (complex)
A microscope is used to study the general structure of a cell.
Unicellular and Multicellular Organisms
Cell As a Unit of Life
2.1 What is a Cell?
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2.2
1 2
A cell is the basic unit of life. Its function is to carry out life processes. Cell
(a)
nucleus
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A unicellular organism has one cell only.
A multicellular organism has many cells. (a) (b)
Pleurococcus Protoplasm Nucleus Animal cells Irregular in shape No cell wall No chloroplasts Mostly no vacuoles 3 Cytoplasm Plant cells Regular in shape Have cell wall Have chloroplasts Have large vacuoles Cell membrane (b)
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Hydra
nucleus
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Amoeba
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pseudopodium
Cell Organisation in the Human Body
The functions of cell structures: Structure Nucleus Cytoplasm Cell membrane Cell wall Function
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(c) Chlamydomonas
chloroplast
Controls all cell activities
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A place where chemical processes take place
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(d)
cilium
Controls ow of materials in and out of cell Gives shape to the cell
Paramecium
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2 Examples of cell: (a) Nerve cell (c) Nerve tissue 5 Examples of system:
Trachea
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Lungs
Nose
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Bronchus Skin Liver Kidney Urinary bladder
(d) Epithelial tissue (b) Red blood cell
4 (c) Epithelial cell
Examples of system: (a) (b)
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Respiratory system
Pituitary gland Thyroid gland
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Stomach
Excretory system
Oviduct or Fallopian tube
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(d) Bone cell
Ovary Uterus Vagina
Lungs
(c) 3 Examples of tissue: (a) Connective tissue
.b
Female
Adrenal gland Testis (male) Sex glands Testis Sperm duct
(d)
Ovary (female)
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Urethra penis
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Eye
Kidney
Endocrine system
2.4
Male
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The Human Being A Complex Organism
(e)
(f)
1 2 3
(b) Mucsle tissue
Tongue
Brain
A human being is a complex multicellular organism because the cells are organized into tissues, organs and systems. Cell specialisation helps to divide body functions among the different types of cells. Cell specialisation and cell organisation ensure the life processes are carried out effectively.
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CHAPTER 3
Examples Soil, wood, most metals Water, mercury (a type of metal) Air Liquid Mercury Water Air To make thermometer, hydrometer To make drinks, cooking, washing and cleaning To ll buoy, rise hot air balloons, make a submarine sink or oat
3.1
What is Matter? 3.3
Density is dened as mass per unit volume of a substance. Mass Density = Volume
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Matter exists in three states: solid, liquid and gas. 2 Matter changes its state when it is heated or cooled. 3 The kinetic theory of matter states that matter consists of tiny and discrete particles. 4 Characteristics of state matter: 1 Characteristic Arrangement of particles Solid Closely packed Liquid Gas Further apart Very far apart
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The unit of density is gram per cubic centimeter (g/cm3). 3 The buoyancy of a substance is affected by its density. 4 Buoyancy (or otation) refers to the ability of a substance to oat or sink in another substance. 5 A lower density substance will oat on a higher density liquid. 6 On the other hand, a higher density substance will sink in a lower density liquid. 2
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3.2
The States of Matter
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4.1
Matter is everything that has mass and occupies space. 2 Examples of matter are wood, air, water, soil and living things.
The Concept of Density
Gas
CHAPTER 4
The Variety of Resources on Earth
The Various Resources on Earth
The basic resources needed for life on Earth are: Importance Needed for respiration and combustion Carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis Useful substances Oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide
Basic resource Air
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cork (0.24 g/cm3) water (1.00 g/cm3) zinc (7.10 g/cm3)
Movement of particles
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No free movement, vibrate about a xed position High Denite shape Denite volume
Move freely, collide with one another
Move freely, very rapidly and randomly Low
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Spaces between particles
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Very small
Large
Very large
Water
3.4
The Properties of Matter and Their Application in Everyday Life
Soil
Matter
Example Iron, steel
Applications To construct buildings, bridges and vehicles, make cooking utensils To build bridges ad houses, making furniture To make toys, components in vehicles
Solid
Shape Volume
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Density
Medium
No denite shape Denite volume
No denite shape No denite volume
Minerals
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Needed to support Fresh water the functions of the body systems Contains air, water, Humus minerals and organic substances which are needed to support living things Minerals such as metals are used to make useful products and construct buildings Metals
Wood Plastic
Matter
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Fossil fuels Used to produce energy in power plants, factories, vehicles, machines and to make plastics They are sources of food, building materials, clothes and fuel Coal, petroleum, natural gases Examples Iron, hydrogen, oxygen, helium, carbon, mercury Naphthalene, Soil, air, sugar, rubber, dessert table salt, water Brittleness and hardness Ductile (can be pulled into strands) and hard Malleable Brittle (can break easily) and soft Nonmalleable Poor conductor of heat Poor conductor of electricity Low Low Low of Compounds and
Comparing metals and non-metals Physical properties Surface appearance Brittleness and hardness Metals Shiny Ductile (can be pulled into strands) and hard Malleable Non-metals Dull
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Density Comparing Mixtures (c)
Living things
Meat, skin, carcasses, silk, milk
Malleability (ability to be shaped)
Conductivity of heat Conductivity of electricity Melting point Boiling point the
4.2
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Elements, Compounds and Mixtures
Comparing elements, compounds and mixtures Aspect Appearance Element Compound Mixture
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Nonmalleable
Brittle (can break easily) and soft
Denition
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It is the simples substance
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Composition
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Only consists of one type of particle Cannot be separated by any processes
Can consist of one or more than one type of particle
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It is made up of two or more substances which are chemically combined
It is made up of two or more substances which are not chemically combined
Malleability (ability to be shaped)
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Conductivity of heat Conductivity of electricity
Good conductor of heat Good conductor of electricity High High High
Poor conductor of heat Poor conductor of electricity Low Low Low
Aspect (a) Method of separation (b) Formation of a new substance Conversion of energy
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High High High
Good conductor of heat Good conductor of electricity
Properties
Compounds By chemical reactions. A new substance is formed Heat is released or absorbed when a compound is formed The characteristics of the original components are no longer maintained
Mixtures By physical means. No new substance is formed No heat is released or absorbed when a mixture is formed The characteristics of the original components are maintained
Melting point Boiling point Density
Separation method
Can be separated by chemical means only, such as electrolysis
Can be separated by physical means, such as ltration
Physical methods to separate components of a mixture Physical properties Surface appearance Metals Shiny Non-metals Dull
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(d) Characteristic of the original components
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(e) Identication of the original components The original components cannot be identied easily Components are combined in a specic ratio The original components can be identied easily Components are formed without a xed ratio 1 Air consists of about 20% of oxygen.
Water lls up of gas jar, showing that about 20% of the volume of air consists of oxygen
5.2
The Properties of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
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Slightly soluble No effect
Properties Colour
Oxygen
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Carbon dioxide Colourless Odourless Slightly soluble Very soluble (to form sodium carbonate) Lime water turns cloudy
Colourless Odourless
Air contains water vapour.
Cork Test tube Ice Water Beginning of experiment
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Liquid on the outer wall of the test tube
(f) Ratio of components
Odour (smell) Solubility in water Solubility in sodium hydroxide
1 2 3
CHAPTER 5
5.1
The Composition of Air
Nitrogen (78%)
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The Air Aroun Us
Oxygen (21%) Glass slide Glass slide
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Preservation of resources is the act of keeping the resources in their original state. Conservation of resources is the responsible use and management of natural resources to prevent loss, waste or damage. Preservation and conservation of Earths resources are important to: (a) prevent extinction of animal and plant species (b) prevent depletion of natural resources such as fossil fuels and minerals (c) prevent the pollution of air and water (d) ensure the basic needs of humans are not threatened (e) ensure the natural resources will be available for future generations
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Air contains microorganisms.
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Air contains dust particles.
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End of experiment
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4.3
To Appreciate the Importance of Earths Resources
Not soluble
Effect on lime water Supporting combustion
Supports combustion.
Does not support combustion. A glowing A glowing splinter splinter relights relights A burning A burning splinter splinter burns more burns more brightly brightly Neutral Has no effect on moist blue and red litmus papers Has no effect on hydrogen carbonate indicator Acidic Turns moist blue litmus paper to red Turns red hydrogen carbonate indicator to yellow
pH
Sticky surface facing up Dust particles
Experiments to show the properties of air
Inert gases + water vapour + dust + microorganisms (0.97%)
Carbon dioxide (0.03%)
Dust particles
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5.3 Oxygen is Needed for Respiration
Inhaled air 78 21 0.03 0.97 Less
Exhaled air 78 16 4 0.97 More
5.6
Nitrogen Oxygen Carbon dioxide Inert gases Water vapour
5.4
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Kinetic (working energy) Heat (working energy) Light (working energy) Sound (working energy)
Gas
Composition (%)
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Oxygen is needed for respiration to produce energy. The composition of inhaled and exhaled air:
Bronchitis, pneumonia (caused by sulphur dioxide) Death (caused by carbon monoxide) The effects of air pollution on the environment: Acid rain (caused by sulphur dioxide) Thinning of the ozone layer (caused by CFC) Greenhouse effect (caused by carbon dioxide) Haze (caused by dust particles, soot)
The Importance of Keeping the Air Clean
Energy
Characteristics
Examples
Potential Energy stored A stretched (stored energy) in an object due sling-shot to its position or A rock on a cliff condition. A compressed spring A wound up alarm clock Energy that is found in moving objects. A moving bus A swinging pendulum A rotating ceiling fan A ying aeroplane A burning candle A boiling water The hot Sun A hot iron A shining star A glowing light bulb A burning campre A switched on torch A beating drum A person singing A blowing whistle
Oxygen is Needed for Combustion
1 2
Combustion kerosene):
of
hydrocarbon
(such
as
in
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Carbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide
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Combustion is a process that requires oxygen, heat and fuel. Combustion of carbon (such as charcoal):
5.5
Air Pollution
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Air pollution is caused by the pollutants in the air. Air pollutants are harmful substances that are added to the air. The effects of air pollution on human beings: Lung cancers (caused by asbestos, sulphur dioxide) Brain damage in children (caused by lead particles, carbon monoxide)
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Hydrocarbon + Oxygen Carbon dioxide + Water
We can keep the air clean by practising the following: Using less CFC based products, such as aerosols. Recycling and reducing wastes Using unleaded petrol Using public transport or sharing vehicles (car pooling) Installing catalytic converters to motor vehicles 2 Cigarette smoke contains tar, nicotine and carbon monoxide which are harmful to humans.
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Energy that is released by hot objects.
CHAPTER 6
Energy that is produced by glowing objects.
Sources of Energy
The Various Forms and Sources of Energy
6.1
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1 2 3
Energy is an ability to do work. The SI unit for energy is joule (J). Forms of energy: Potential, electrical, kinetic, chemical, heat, nuclear, light, mechanical, sound
Energy that is produced by vibrating objects.
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A ringing telephone Electrical (working energy) Energy that is produced by owing electrical current (electricity). An electric iron An electric heater 4 Sources of energy: Examples Coal Petroleum Natural gas Uses To generate electricity in power plants As the main fuel for vehicles and machines To move a sailboat To turn a windmill for pumping water and grind corn To generate electricity in wind farms Geothermal Geysers Hot springs Volcanoes To produce geothermal energy that can be used to generate electricity
Fossil fuels
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6.2
Energy changes from one form to another. For example: Situation Energy change Potential energy Kinetic energy A marble rolls down a slope
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Chemical Energy that (stored energy) is stored in a substance that can be burnt.
Food Fossil fuels (such as natural gas, coal and petrol) Wood Explosion of an atomic bomb The explosion on the Suns surface
Wind
Moving air
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Winding up spring Kinetic energy Potential energy of a toy car Burning a candle Beating a drum Switching on a fan An exploding atomic bomb Chemical energy Heat + Light energy Kinetic energy Sound energy Electrical energy kinetic energy Nuclear energy Heat + Light + Sound energy
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Nuclear Energy that (stored energy) is produced by atoms that are broken down (through nuclear ssion) or combined (through nuclear fusion). Mechanical (combination of working and stored energy) Energy that is posessed by an object that has both kinetic energy and potential energy.
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Sun (solar)
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Water (hydro)
Rain fall The Sun
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To generate hydroelectricity To generate electricity (solar cells and solar panels collect solar energy and convert it electrical energy) To enable photosynthesis in green plants.
The Sun is the primary source of energy.
Renewable Sources and Non-Renewable Energy
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A car is driven up a hill A pendulum swings back and forth
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Comparing renewable and non-renewable energy sources:
Radioactive substances
Uranium To produce nuclear energy. Plutonium To produce electrical energy in submarines and warships
Renewable Energy Non-renewable Energy (energy sources that (energy sources that will can be reused and be used up one day and will never run out) cannot be replaced) Solar energy (from the Sun) Fossil fuels (such as natural gas, petroleum and coal)
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Sources of energy
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Hydroelectricity (from owing water) Biomass energy (from plants) Wind energy (from wind) Geothermal energy (from the Earth) 2 Nuclear energy (from plutonium) Aspect Denition on SI Unit Heat A form of energy joule (J) Temperature Degree of hotness of an object kelvin (K). Normally we use degrees Celsius (C) Affected by Volumethe bigger the volume, the more the heat Amount of heat- the more the heat energy is supplied, the higher the temperature
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Conservation and efcient use of energy: (a) Use energy efcient equipment, such as uorescent lights (b) Use public transport, such as buses and light-rail transit (LRT) (c) Practice car-pooling to work
The Importance of Conserving Energy Sources
How it is produced
6.3
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Conserving non-renewable resources will make them last longer for the future generations.
CHAPTER 7
1 2
Heat is a form of energy Heat can be produced from: (a) kinetic energy, such as rubbing two objects together (b) chemical energy, such as burning fossil fuels (c) electrical energy, such as lighting an electric bulb (d) nuclear energy, such as nuclear ssion in the Sun Comparing heat and temperature:
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7.1
Heat as a Form of Energy
in
Heat
Kinetic Supplying energy heat energy (such as to an object rubbing (causing temperature hands) to increase) Chemical energy Removing heat from (such as burning an object fossil fuels) (causing temperature Electrical to decrease) energy (such as lighting a light bulb) Nuclear energy (such as nuclear ssion in the Sun)
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Difference
7.2
.a
P
u
Q
Q 100C
100C
P contains more heat than Q
P and Q have the same temperature
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The Effects of Heat Flow on Matter
1 2 3 4
Effect
Causes matter to expand or contract Causs matter to change from one state to another
Causes matter to become hot or cold Causes heat to ow from a hot region to a cold region
Heat changes the volume of matter. When heated, the volume of matter increases. Hence, matter expands. When cooled, the volume of matter decreases. Hence, matter contracts. Heat ows from a hot region to a cold region in three ways: (a) conduction, occurs in solids (b) convection, occurs in uids (such as liquids and gases) (c) radiation, does not require a medium
Effects of Heat on Matter
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7.3
Process Melting Freezing
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Change of state of matter Solid Liquid Liquid Solid
Heat ow Heat is absorbed Heat is released
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Boiling Liquid Gas Heat is absorbed Heat is released Heat is absorbed
7.5
Evaporation Sublimation
Liquid Gas Solid Gas Gas Solid
Absorbing and Giving Out Heat
3 4
7.4
Application of Contraction and Expansion of Matter
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Application of expansion and contraction of matter:
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3
Heat is absorbed Heat is released
1 2
Objects that absorb heat are called heat absorber. Objects that give out heat are called heat radiator. Dark, dull objects are good heat absorber and good heat radiator. White, shiny surfaces are poor heat absorber and poor heat radiator.
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2.
.a
Condensation Gas liquid
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)
Mercury or alcohol in thermometers Bimetallic strip in thermostats Bimetallic strip in re alarms Gaps in railway tracks and bridges Telephone wires Metal pipes carrying hot water and oil
7.6
The Benets of Heat Flow
Application of heat ow via conduction: (a) Heat is used for cooking food with cooking utencil (b) Heat is used to melt metal for making jewellery and equipment Applications of heat ow via convection: (a) Convection currents improve the air circulation and keeps the buildings cool (b) Convection currents cool the Earths surface through sea breeze and land breeze. Applications of heat ow via radiation: (a) Heat ow by radiation is used to dry laundry (b) The heat from the Sun keeps the Earth and our body warm
