INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING

SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
. Anlaan
1996
COMPUTER
INTEGRATED
MANUFACTURING
Definition of CIM by the Computer and Automation Systems
Association of the Society of manufacturing Engineers (CASA/SME):
CIM is the integration of the total
manufacturing enterprise through
the use of integrated systems and
data communications coupled with
new managerial philosophies that
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improve organizational and
personnel efficiency.
POTANTIAL BENEFITS OF CIM
Improved customer service
Improved quality
Shorter time to market with new products
Shorter flow time
Shorter vendor lead time
Reduced inventory levels
Improved schedule performance
Greater flexibility and responsiveness
Improved competitiveness
Lower total cost
Shorter customer lead time
Increase in manufacturing productivity
Decrease in work-in process inventory
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AGILE MANUFACTURING
The objective of agile manufacturing is to enable manufacturing
enterprises to be competitive by dynamically reconfiguring software,
equipment and organization structures.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AGILE MANUFACTURING:
Greater product customization
Rapid introduction of new or modified product
Advanced interenterpise networking technology
Upgradable products
Increased emphasis on knowledgeable, highly trained workers
Interactive customer relationship
Dynamic reconfiguration of production processes
Greater use of flexible production technologies
Rapid prototyping
An open systems information environment
Innovative and flexible management structures
Product pricing based on value to the customer
Commitment to the benign operations and product designs
COMMUNICATION NETWORKS
Communication networks based on its dominant applications can now
be categorised as telecommunication networks and data communication
networks. This separation does not mean that data cannot be carried over
the telecommunication (voice) network or vice versa. It only means that
the network is designed and optimised for its specific application, and
transporting any other information results in the inefficient use of
network resources. The most difficult part of building a communications
network is laying the transmission network because of the cost and time
involved in deploying cable across the country or even around the globe.
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TELECOMMUNICATION NETWORKS
As the name implies telecommunication networks are used for voice
communications.
Highlights in the History of Telecommunications
1844 Morse sends the first public telegraph message
1876 Telephone patent issued to Alexander Graham Bell
1877 First telephone in private home
1881 First long-distance line, from Boston, MA, to Providence,RI
1889 A.B. Stowger invents telephone switch, dial telephone
1890 Undersea telephone cable, England to France
1915 First transcontinental telephones call in U.S.
1929 Coaxial cable invented; Herbert Hoover becomes the first President with a phone on his desk.
1947 Transistor invented
1951 Direct long-distance dialing
1956 First transatlantic-repeated telephone cable
1960 First test of electronic switch
1963 Touch-tone service introduced
1964 First trial offers for reversing telephone charges (collect call)
1970 Laser invented
1976 First digital electronic switch installed
1977 First light wave system installed
1984 Divestiture of AT&T (Ma Bell and the baby bells)
1988 First transatlantic optical fiber cable
1989 First fiber-optic cable to the home field trial, Cerritos, CA
1990 Demonstration of 2000-km links using optical amplifiers without repeaters.
COMPUTER COMMUNICATIONS NETWORK
Computer (data) communication network is a collection of equipment
and physical media that interconnects two or more computers.
Computer network history
The unprecedented technology revolution involving computers did
not begin until the later part of this century. It is now predicted that, by
the turn of the century, the traffic generated from computers will
dominate communications networks, compared to todays voice-
dominated traffic.
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The communication requirement for a computer of the 1940s and
1950s was batch-based and minimal. The processor communicated with
its peripheral via input/output (I/O) devices over short distances at a very
low speed. The 1960s brought the concept of timesharing, where users
were connected to computers via dump terminal,
The 1970s saw the development of integrated circuits (IC) technology
and the microprocessor, making it possible to bring personal computers to
an individuals desk. This development drastically changed the way
people viewed computers. The growth of local area networks (LANs) in
the 1980s provided personal computers the technology to communicate
with each other, thus enabling the migration from centralized computing
to distributed computing.
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Centralized computing
In centralized computing environment, the main system or processor
(HQ) is centrally located and all remote locations are connected via a
direct link. All the information, i.e., the entire database, is located at the
central system.
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Distributed Computing
In distributed computing environment, the processors, or main
computers (SWT), are distributed at different locations, with each node
having a complete copy or a portion of the database. The user accesses
the information from the nearest processor, which keeps current by
periodically updating the information in its databases.
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COMPUTER NETWORK REFERENCE MODEL
Before discussing different types of computer networks, we must
understand the basics of computer interactions, or the protocols on which
all computer communications systems work. A data communication
network requires high degree of compatibility and interoperability among
network elements, particularly with respect to its physical and logical
interfaces and controls. The International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) established a committee to develop a standard
architecture to achieve the long-term goal of Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI). The term OSI denotes the standards for the
exchange of information among systems open to one another by virtue
of incorporating the ISO standards. The aim is to allow an application
process in any computer that supports a particular set of standards to
communicate freely with an application process in any other computer
that supports the same standards, irrespective of its origin of manufacture.
Examples of application processes that may wish to communicate in
an open way are:
A process (program) executing in a computer and accessing a
remote file system
A process in a supervisory computer controlling a distributed
community of computer-based instruments or robot controllers
associated with a process or automated manufacturing plant
A process in an instrument or robot controller receiving commands
and returning results to a supervisory system
A process in an office workstation (computer) accessing an
electronic mail (e-mail) service
OSI is concerned with the exchange of information between such
processed. The aim is to enable application processes to cooperate in
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carrying out a particular (distributed) information-processing task
irrespective of the computers on which they are running.
For this purpose, ISO has specified an OSI reference model that
segments the communications functions into seven layers. Each layer is
assigned a related subset of communications functions, which are
implemented in data terminal equipment (DTEs) that communicate with
other DTEs. Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform more
primitive functions and in turn provides services to support the next
higher layer. The layers are defined so that changes in one layer do not
affect other layers.
ISO reference model for OSI
There are seven layers in the OSI model:
1. Physical Layer Consists of the hardware that drives the
network and circuits. It specifies the type of cable or
transmission media that is used Twisted-Pair, Coaxial, Fiber-
optic, radio waves.
2. Data link layer Handles the task of transferring
information across the physical link by sending blocks of data
(frames) with necessary synchronisation, error control, and
flow control functions CSMA/CD (Ethernet) , Token Bus
(Token Ring)
3. Network Layer Decides which outgoing line will be
used to send the message to a node. Because it knows about the
physical connections and paths between the transport entities in
a session, it relives the transport layer of the need to know
anything about the underlying network technologies used to
connect end systems.
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4. Transport Layer Provides transparent transfer of
packets (data) to and from the session layer without disruption.
Has three major functions: establishing a connection of the
right type and quality (speed), initiating data transfer and
managing the data to be sent, and releasing the connection.
5. Session Layer Control communication between
applications by establishing, managing, and terminating virtual
connections between cooperating applications.
6. Presentation Layer Performs certain decoding and
conversion operations on data to match the device and network
requirements. Responsible for making the application processes
independent of differences in data representation.
7. Application Layer Provides the user interface to the
networking system. Therefore, in most cases user writes the
application layer. The services provided by this layer include
terminal emulation, file transfer, electronic mail, and
distributed database managers.
A number of protocols have been developed based on the OSI reference
model. The most known one is TCP/IP, SNA, DECNET,
MAP/MOP/MMS (Manufacturing message service).
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TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
Depending on the geographic area covered computer networks are
divided into following categories:
Local Area Networks (LANs) - Used to interconnect computers
within the same building or organisation. A LAN typically operates
at speeds ranging from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps, connecting several
hundred devices over a distance of up to 5 to 10 km.
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Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs) - MANs are large LANs that
cover a large city or suburb. Used to interconnect LANs within a
metropolitan area. A typical MAN operates at a speed of 1,5 to 150
Mbps.
Wide Area Networks (WANs) - Use common carrier facilities over
long distances and are used to connect sites and facilities over the
countries. Usually the speed between the cities can vary from 1.5
Mbps to 2.4 Gbps. In a WAN, the cost of transmission is very high,
and the network is usually owned and operated by a public
network.
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Global Area Networks (GAN) this are networks connections
between countries around the globe. A GANs speed ranges from
1.5Mbps to 100Gbps and its reach is several thousands of
kilometres.
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COMMUNICATION HIERARCHY
The organization itself can be mapped onto a communication
hierarchy that includes
enterprise level
Globally link various plants/sites and interconnect corporations
through electronic data interchange
plant level
Connect departments inside plant
cell level
Connect cells inside departments
equipment/device level
connect individual devices such as computers, robots and NC
machines
SELECTION OF NETWORK TECHNOLOGY
There are a number of factors that have to be considered in the
selection of the network technology
Communication medium Modem, Twisted-Pair or Coaxial
Ethernet Cable, Fiber-Optic Cable, Radio Wave
Network topology Bus, Star, Ring, Mixed (Tree)
Medium Access Control methods CSMA/CD, CSMA/CA
(Ethernet, Fast Ethernet), Token or Token Bus (Token Ring),
TDMA, FDMA
Signalling method - Broadband (ATM, Frame Relay, B-ISDN),
Baseband (Ethernet, Token Ring, Fast Ethernet etc)
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NETWORK TOPOLOGY
Bus Topology
One of the most used network layout in which single cable, usually
coaxial, is routed through locations where connection of machines,
computers or devices is made, and is terminated on both sides. This
Advantages: low initial price, less cable required.
Disadvantage: All devices connected share the same cable.
On any problem, or short circuit on cable, all of the devices are
disconnected.
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Star Network Topology
Star Network Topology is achieved using hubs interconnected with
Twisted-Pair Cable. Hub is device in which there is internal bus network
and all of the devices are connected directly to this bus.
Advantages:
On case of failure on cable only the device which is connected
cannot
connect to the network.
Every device uses its own cable.
Disadvantages:
More cable required in comparison to bus topology,
Additional device (hub) is required.
Number of devices that can be connected is limited to number of
outputs located on the hub.
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Ring Topology
With a ring topology, the network cable passes from one device to
another until all of the devices are interconnected in the form of a
loop or ring. An advantage of the ring topology is that the number
of slots in any device does not limit the number of devices
connected to the network.
Tree Topology
Formed in a hierarchical way by using hubs. This topology is
combination of bus and star topology. An advantage of the tree topology
is that it offers very flexible layouts.

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MEDIUM ACCESS CONTROL METHODS
In order computers connected to the network communicated with each
other in proper way, medium access control methods (or protocols) are
established. These methods provide control techniques for computers to
access to network.
Most common is CSMA/CD (Carrier Sensed Multiple-Access with
Collision Detection). Used both in Bus and Star topologies. Also known
as Ethernet. Usually the speed is up to 10Mbps, but there is increasing of
collisions with increasing speed, so the practical value is much less than
10Mbps.
Token Ring is another medium access control method on which the
collision problem is completely solved. This is accomplished by having a
token at the station to authorise transmission. A token is a packet that is
used to send and receive messages. Token Ring is usually used on ring
topology.
Another common type of medium access control method widely used
in many manufacturing automation protocol environments is Token Bus.
It is very similar to Token Ring, as both use token passing for medium
access control. The main difference is that the token bus operates on a bus
instead of a ring topology.
SIGNALING METHOD
Data in a network are propagated from one point to another by means
of signals. The signals are therefore the electromagnetic representation of
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transmitted data. Data or signals converters convert the data to signals for
transmission on the sending end and back to data at the receiving end. A
modem is a typical example of converter. Depending on signaling method
coaxial cable LANs can be divided into various categories, including
baseband, broadband and carrierband.
Baseband all the available bandwith is used to derive a single high
bit rate (10 Mbps or higher) transmission path (channel). Impressing
data directly to communication wire. Ethernet, Token Ring are typical
examples
Broadband all the available bandwith is divided to derive a number
of lower bandwith subchannels (and hence transmission paths) on one
cable. It is getting more important now, since changing user needs and
demands. The broadband protocols are going to replace the current
standards of Ethernet and Token Ring. Now most of the world uses
Broadband signaling (SONET, ATM, Frame Relay, ISDN, B-ISDN)
in MANs and WANs.
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INTERNET
The technological progress in the communication networks is
continuously going up. The main cause of this is continuously increase of
amount of the information and data exchanged between people either
inside organisations or worldwide. INTERNET is the global highway
where all of this information, technology and people meet.
TCP/IP
The transmission control protocol/Internet protocol (TCP/IP) was
developed by the Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency
(DARPA) in the early 1970s to interconnect computers in the Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET). The TCP/IP suite now
consists of several major protocols, such as Internet Protocol (IP),
transmission control protocol (TCP), Telnet, File Transfer Protocol
(FTP), Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), HyperText Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) etc.
TCP/IP application protocols
TELNET Enables a user at a terminal on one machine to
communicate interactively with an application or user on a remote
machine, as if the user terminal were connected directly.
FTP (file transfer protocol) Enables a user at a terminal or user
application to access and interact with a remote file system.
SMTP (simple mail transfer protocol) Provides a networkwide mail
transfer service between the mail systems associated with different
machines.
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SNMP (simple network management protocol) - Enables a user (for
example, network manager), to gather performance data or to control
the operation of a network element via the network itself.
HTTP (hypertext Transfer Protocol) - one of the most popular one.
World Wide Web service is given with the means of this protocol.
MANUFACTURING
Parallel with increasing needs for faster communications the needs of
large data storage capacity and fast computers (supercomputers) is
increasing also. Now typical manufacturing environment, called also as
CAD/CAM/CAE environment is composed of supercomputers,
centralized data storage units, CNC controlled machine centers, robots
etc., all connected on the same network. On this networks either TCP/IP
or specially designed manufacturing protocols like, MAP or TOP, are
used.
MAP
An initiative by General Motors of The United States has resulted in the
selection of a set of protocols, all based on ISO standards, to achieve
open system interconnection within an automated manufacturing plant.
The resulting protocols are knows as manufacturing automation
protocols (MAPs).
As we can see, MAP is based on a factory-wide, backbone cable
distribution network. The cable is coaxial and operates at 10Mbps.
Because of the wide range of communication requirements within a
factory, the broadband mode of working has been selected. The Media
Access Control Method is Token Bus.
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TOP
In a similar way, an initiative by the Boeing Corporation (USA)
has resulted in the selection of a set of ISO standards to achieve open
system interconnection in a technical and office environment. The
selected protocols are known as technical and office protocols (TOPs).
The transmission medium used with a TOP network is also coaxial
cable operating at 10Mbps, using CSMA/CD Media Access control
method in baseband mode. In general, the communication requirements
in such environments are limited to voice (which is normally already
provided by the existing telephone system) and data, the latter being
primarily concerned with communications between a distributed
community of advanced workstations.
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CIM Concepts
Manufacturing industry is going through a period of rapid change,
accompanied by record growth. To meet the challenge of selling products
into a competitive global economy, while continuously reducing costs,
manufacturing companies have to increase the efficiency of existing
plants. The organizations are increasingly relying on the new generation
of hardware and software systems to achieve this elusive goal. Integration
is the key to the success of deploying a modern Computer Integrated
Manufacturing (CIM) system, but wiring the components together to
produce such a system requires skills in full system model design and
Information Technology.
Flexible software has become a major goal for developers of
manufacturing automation. Flexibility of machine tools and cells has now
reached such a level that it is often the inflexibility of the software, not
the machines, which inhibits a fast response to market demands. Major
categories of viewpoint to manufacturing automation have grown up from
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC) down to Computer Numeric
Controlled Machines (CNCs) to integrated Computer Aided Design and
Computer Aided Manufacturing (CAD/CAM), and finally to
Manufacturing Execution Systems (MES), which as a sum define the life-
cycle of a concurrent engineering approach. Instead of following the
conventional, sequentially arranged product development processes,
concurrent engineering design incorporates considerations such as
manufacturability, serviceability, and recycleability early into design
phase. Thus, the integrated definition of CIM includes both design and
manufacturing data to be processed uniquely to obtain the optimum
solution:
Design human user interfaces which make complex reconfiguration
more manageable,
Write code in an object oriented language that is modular, re-
configurable and fast,
Use standard and well accepted communication protocols,
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Distribute the processes to as many workstations as possible.
The fully integrated CIM system is composed of two major
disciplines, Computer Aided Design and Computer Aided Manufacturing
(CAD/CAM). The concepts of CIM, mostly deriving from flexible
manufacturing contains its own metamorphosis. CIM itself, is a flexible
definition. A summary of concepts through the integration of CIM is
given in Figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 CIM Integration
Each of the concepts discussed above can be considered as an
individual island in a total factory environment full of islands. These
islands as stand-alone components in the environment fulfill their
function regardless of whether their data has been transferred
automatically or manually. The integration of these activities is the goal
of CIM, which aims to automate and then integrate the direct and indirect
activities of a factory. A final CIM solution for any enterprise will be
unique to specific requirements, however the principles are the same. The
practicable objective of CIM is to produce:
the right mixture of parts,
of the right quantity,
at the right time,
to the required quality,
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with the lowest cost.
Successful application of CIM requires a structured approach. It is
important that cell control development should not be too shortsighted by
focusing on today's problems, which afterwards may be short-lived.
Manufacturing facilities must react to market demands more rapidly, with
new products and programs. Additionally, manufacturing companies
must be able to dynamically react to changes and reschedule current
production needs. Each of these conditions is aimed at increasing
throughput, while efforts continue to increase quality and reduce costs.
Flexible manufacturing system is a system in which all aspects of
CIM are found. FMS is the latest level of automation to achieve more
productivity and flexibility from manufacturing equipment. The elements
of FMS are easily interchangeable, modifiable PLCs and interconnected
hardware, CNC/NC machines usually arranged in cells connected to a
computer network. What is called as FMS is simple, an automated
manufacturing organization composed of manufacturing elements talking
to each other, to perform a specific task.
Throughout the last few years, the design of distributed systems of
autonomous agents, so called multi agent systems (MASs) for use in
manufacturing gained attention in the robotics and automation research
community. Due to their distributed nature, MASs promise, at least
theoretically, some advantages that make them attractive structures for
control and execution of manufacturing processes. Agents are modular
system elements having robustness and fault tolerance and are easily
maint3ainable and extendible. These features of MASs hold the potential
of building manufacturing systems with greater flexibility then the
currently used monolithic ones .
The concepts of CIM include a broad range of definitions from
manufacturing to control and computer technology. It cannot be
interpreted without a basic knowledge of software terms and
philosophies. Section 1.2 discusses the technology of CIM from the
programmer's perspective.
1.2 Software Technology
Professional software development requires a streamlined process
for managing changes in programming technology and networking
standards for each application under development. Before building a
major application with many separate components, alternatives of
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Software Development Kits must be reviewed in order to select the most
appropriate one for the given objective. Programming languages today
are usually supplied with necessary user-friendly interfaces and useful
help files in large volumes. Object oriented programming languages such
as C++, Visual J+, Visual Basic and Web-based development kits such as
Visual Inter-Dev supporting script-languages of Java (ECMA) script, VB
script and Database management tools such as SQL-Server, dBase,
Oracle etc. are among the ones, which most probably will shape future
developments. The common intersection of all these languages is the
object-oriented programming philosophy. The object-oriented
programming world consists of objects, which are special entities that can
be used to model real world objects, a property known as data abstraction.
Object-oriented design and object-oriented programming represent
a change in focus from standard procedural programming. Instead of
thinking about program flow from the first line of code to the last line of
code, the developer needs to think about creating objects which are self-
contained components of an application that have private functionality as
well as functionality that can be exposed to the user. The Microsoft's
solution to the object-oriented paradigm is represented by Object Linking
and Embedding (OLE) components. OLE is a unified environment of
object-based services with the capability of both customizing those
services and arbitrarily extending the architecture through custom
services, with the overall purpose of enabling rich integration between
components. Stated another way, OLE offers an extensible service
architecture, and in addition to the architecture, OLE itself provides a
number of key customizable services, one of which in turn provides for
the creation of custom services of any complexity that extend the
environment within the same architectural framework. All services,
regardless of their complexity, point of storage, point of execution, and
implementation, are globally usable by all applications, by the system,
and by all other services. The concepts that form the idea of an OLE
object are collectively called the Component Object Model, or COM.
Also it is called as an ActiveX control which just another term for an
OLE Object or COM Object. ActiveX controls are smaller, faster
controls that are more suitable for the Internet.
Through a few decades of Information Technology age, the
primary concern has been to unite in standards of communication,
networking, programming, operating system, and even user interfaces.
Not surprisingly, the Internet has been a very rapidly expanding
collection of computer networks that connects millions of computers
around the world. The World Wide Web is a client/server technology
used to access a vast variety of digital information from the Internet.
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Using a software client called a web browser and a modem or other
connection to an Internet Service Provider (ISP), one can easily access
text, graphics, sound, and other digital information from practically any
computer in the world that is running the appropriate server software on
the Internet. The most common protocol to access these resources is
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), which was originally created to
publish and view linked text documents, but has been extended to display
and run a growing variety of graphics, sound, video, and other
multimedia content. There is yet no doubt that Internet will be the
common platform of almost all of the digital data flowing all through the
world also in the next century. It means that, any properly designed web-
based application, data storage and communication resource will be
vendor or platform independent, accessible and sharable to the end user.
Client/server computing is moving into the mainstream of
corporate information systems. With this move comes the need for
client/server applications that can access enterprise-wide data. Much of
this data is stored in databases, which are accessible for the clients, which
will then process the information and perform individually. The common
interface architecture is Open Database Connectivity (ODBC), a gateway
to manage the communication with multiple back-end databases. Single
or multiple servers act as file or information storage, and interface
suppliers responding to client drivers on client's Application Program
Interfaces (API's). Figure 1.2 depicts a typical client server relationship
between client drivers and server interfaces.
Figure 1.2 Client Server Relationship [12]
DNA architecture maps out the framework for building scaleable,
three-tier distributed applications that can run over any network,
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including the web. The term three-tiered defines the computers on
which the application/service is running, which are:
Client tier: a local computer on which either a Web browser displays
a Web page that can display and manipulate data from a remote data
source, or (in nonWeb-based applications) a stand-alone compiled
front-end application.
Middle tier: a server computer that hosts components that encapsulate
an organization's business rules. Middle-tier components can be either
Active Server Page scripts executed on Internet Information Server, or
(in nonWeb-based applications) compiled executables.
Data source tier: a computer hosting a database management system
(DBMS), such as a SQL Server database. (In a two-tier application,
the middle tier and data source tier are combined.)
Many technologies under the DNA umbrella can help developers to
create applications for all three tiers: navigation and user interface,
business processes, and data storage. The user interface might be a DNA
client application that runs in a Web browser. The business process might
be a DNA application that runs on a Web server. Data storage could be
handled by a DNA application running on almost any type of computer,
from PC server to mainframe.
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29
AGRICULTRAL
AGE
- 18. Century
INDUSTRIAL
AGE
18. - 20. Century
INFORMATION
AGE
20. - . Century
HUMAN
(hand made)
MACHINE TOOLS
(manual)
HARD
AUTOMATION
(mechanization)
SOFT
AUTOMATION
(CNC machines)
INTEGRATION
(computer integrated
manufacturing)
INTELLIGENT
MANUFACTURING
SYSTEMS
?
. Anlaan
1996

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DEMAND DESIGN MANUFACTURING PRODUCT
Conceptual design
Mathematical analysis
Geometric data
(graphical representation)
Process design
Process planning (CNC codes)
Tool selection
Facilities management
CAD CAM
CAD/CAM
. Anlaan
1996
Intelligent processes
Finite element modelling
Process simulation
Design for manufacturing
Design optimization
Rule
based


Geometry
based
1960s 1970s 1980s 1990s
Increasing product definition
(Geometric and non-geometric information)
Engineering rules
Manufacturing constrains
Part dependencies

TYPES OF PRODUCTION
Continuous-process production: Products that flows in a continuous
stream.
Petroleum production, cement production, steel rolling, paper
production, etc.
Mass production: High volume production of discrete products with
relatively small variations in products.
Automobiles, tv sets, electronic components, etc.
Job-shop production: Production of small number of different discrete
products
. Anlaan
1996
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Knowledge-based
engineering
Parametric modelling
Assembly modelling
Surface and solid modelling
3D wire frame design
2D drafting
PRODUCTION VOLUME
STAND ALONE
HIGH PART VARIATION
LOW VOLUME
FLEXIBLE
MANUFACTURING
SYSTEM
MEDIUM PART VARIATION
MEDIUM VOLUME
TRANSFER LINES
LOW PART VARIATION
HIGH VOLUME
PRODUCTION VOLUME VERSUS FLEXIBILITY
FLEXIBILITY
The mile stones of the evolution of automation of a production line for a
particular product:
1909: Ford production line
1923: Automated transfer machine
1952: Numerical Control(NC)
1959: Control digital computer
1960: Robot implementation
1965:Production-line computer control
1970: Multiple machine computer control
1970-1972: Computer numerical control
1975-1980: Distributed numerical control
1980: Flexible manufacturing system
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INTEGRATED MANUFACTURING
SYSTEMS
GROUP TECHNOLOGY
33
. Anlaan
1996
BATCH MANUFACTURING
IS A DOMINANT MANUFACTURING ACTIVITY IN THE WORLD,
GENERATING A GREAT DEAL OF INDUSTRIAL OUTPUT
IT ACCOUNTS
60% - 80%
OF ALL MANUFACTURING ACTIVITIES
CHARACTERISTICS OF
BATCH MANUFACTURING:
High level of product variety
Small manufacturing lot size

WHAT IS GROUP TECHNOLOGY?
Group technology (GT) is a philosophy that implies the notion of
recognizing and exploiting similarities in three different ways:
1. By performing like activities together
2. By standardizing similar tasks
3. By efficiently storing and retrieving information about recurring
problems
Large manufacturing system can be decomposed into smaller subsystems
of part families based on similarities in design attributes and
manufacturing features.
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Time on
machine
5%
Moving and waiting
95%
Cutting
less than
30%
Positioning, loading, gauging,
idle, etc.
70%
. Anlaan
1996
DESIGN ATTRIBUTES:
part configuration (round or prismatic)
dimensional envelope (length to diameter ratio)
surface integrity (surface roughness, dimensional tolerances)
material type
raw material state (casting, forging, bar stock, etc.)
PART MANUFACTURING FEATURES:
operations and operation sequences (turning, milling, etc.)
batch sizes
machine tools
cutting tools
work holding devices
processing times
An essential aspect of the integration of CAD and CAM is the integration
of information used by engineering and manufacturing and all the other
departments in a firm.
Group technology emphasis on part families based on similarities in
design attributes and manufacturing, therefore GT contributes to the
integration of CAD and CAM.
Group technology begun by grouping parts into families based on their
attributes. There are three methods that can be used to form part families:
1. Manuel visual inspection
2. Production flow analysis
3. Classification and coding
Manual visual inspection involves arranging a set of parts into groups
known as part families by visually inspecting the physical characteristics
of the parts.
Manual visual inspection
incorrect results
human error
different judgment by different people
inexpensive
least sophisticated
35
good for small companies having smaller number of parts
. Anlaan
1996
Production flow analysis: Parts that go through common operations are
grouped into part families.
The machines used to perform these common operations may be grouped
as a cell, consequently this technique can be used in facility layout
(factory layout)
Coding methods: are employed in classifying parts into part families
Coding refers to the process of assigning symbols to the parts
The symbols represent design attributes of parts or manufacturing
features of part families
The variations in codes resulting from the way the symbols are assigned
can be grouped into three distinct type of codes:
1. Monocode or hierarchical code
2. Polycode or attribute
3. Hybrid or mixed code
MONOCODE (HIERARCHICAL CODE):
This coding system was originally developed for biological classification
in 18
th
century.
The structure of monocode is like a tree in which each symbol amplifies
the information provided in the previous digit.
A monocode (hierarchical code) provides a large amount of information
in a relatively small number of digits
useful for storage and retrieval of design-related information
such as part geometry, material, size, etc.
it is difficult to capture information on manufacturing sequences
in hierarchical manner, so applicability of this code in
manufacturing is rather limited
36
. Anlaan
1996
POLYCODE (ATTRIBUTE CODE):
The code symbols are independent of each other
Each digit in specific location of the code describes a unique property of
the workpiece
it is easy to learn and useful in manufacturing situations where
the manufacturing process have to be described
the length of a polycode may become excessive because of its
unlimited combinational features
Differences in information storage capacity between monocode and
polycode:
Assume that a code consists of a five symbols and that in each of the five
code fields the digits 0 to 9 are used. Determine how many mutually
exclusive characteristics can potentially be stored in the monocode and
the polycode.
Number of characteristics may be stored in a monocode:
10
1
+ 10
2
+ 10
3
+ 10
4
+ 10
5
=111110
Number of characteristics may be stored in a polycode:
10 + 10 + 10 + 10 + 10 = 50
MIXED CODE (HYBRID CODE):
It is the mixture of both monocode and polycode systems. Mixed code
retains the advantages of both systems. Most coding systems use this
code structure.
The first digit for example, might be used to denote the type of part, such
as gear. The next five position might be reserved for a short attribute code
that would describe the attribute of the gear. The next digit (7
th
digit)
might be used to designate another subgroup, such as material, followed
by another attribute code that would describe the attributes.
. Anlaan
1996
37
A code created by this manner would be relatively more compact than a
pure attribute code while retaining the ability to easily identify parts with
specific characteristics.
The OPITZ classification system:
it is a mixed (hybrid) coding system
developed by Opitz, Technical University of Aachen, 1970
it is widely used in industry
it provides a basic framework for understanding the
classification and coding process
it can be applied to machined parts, non-machined parts (both
formed and cast) and purchased parts
it considers both design and manufacturing information
The Opitz coding system consists of three groups of digits:
Form Supplementary Secondary
code code code
12345 6789 ABCD
PART FAMILY FORMATION:
One of the primary uses of coding systems is to develop part families.
Example: Consider the family of ferrous parts formed by first three digits
of Opitz form code; 132.
This implies that the attributes associated with the family members are
length/diameter ratio in the range 0.5 to 3.0, all parts stepped to one end
and internal shape elements with threads.
A number of mathematical approaches have also been developed to form
part families using classification and coding system.
38
part geometry
and features
relevant to part
design
information
relevant to
manufacturing
(polycode)
Production
processes and
production
sequences
. Anlaan
1996
SELECTION OF CLASSIFICATION AND CODING SYSTEMS
For the purpose of selecting or developing your own code, it is important
to understand the attributes of classification and coding systems. Some of
the important classification and coding system attributes include:
1. Flexibility for various applications such as part family formation,
process planning, costing, and purchasing
2. Accuracy, to provide correct information on parts
3. Expandability, to accommodate information on more part attributes
deemed important later on
4. Ease of learning
5. Ease of retrieval
6. Reliability and availability of software
7. Suitability for specific applications
Matching these attributes with the objectives of an organization would be
helpful in selecting or developing a coding system to meet
organizational needs.
BENEFITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY
Group technology is a management strategy to help eliminate waste
caused by duplication of effort.
It affects all areas of a company, including:
engineering
equipment specification
facilities planning
process planning
production control
quality control
tool design
purchasing
service
39
. Anlaan
1996
Some of the well-known tangible and intangible benefits of implementing
GT :
1. Engineering design
Reduction in new parts design
Reduction in the number of drawings through standardization
Reduction of drafting effort in new shop drawings
Reduction of number of similar parts, easy retrieval of similar
functional parts, and identification of substitute parts
2. Layout planning
Reduction in production floor space required
Reduced material-handling effort
3. Specification of equipment, tools, jigs, and fixtures
Standardization of equipment
Implementation of cellular manufacturing systems
Significant reduction in up-front costs incurred in the release of
new parts for manufacture
4. Manufacturing: process planning
Reduction in setup time and production time
Alternative routing leading to improved part routing
Reduction in number of machining operations and numerical
control (NC) programming time
5. Manufacturing: production control
Reduced work-in-process inventory
Easy identification of bottlenecks
Improved material flow and reduced warehousing costs
Faster response to schedule changes
Improved usage of jigs, fixtures, pallets, tools, material handling,
and manufacturing equipment
40
. Anlaan
1996
6. Manufacturing: quality control
Reduction in number of defects leading to reduced inspection
effort
Reduced scrap generation
Better output quality
Increased accountability of operators and supervisors responsible
for quality production, making it easier to implement total quality
control concepts.
7. Purchasing
Coding of purchased part leading to standardized rules for
purchasing
Economies in purchasing possible because of accurate knowledge
of raw material requirements
Reduced number of part and raw materials
Simplified vendor evaluation procedures leading to just-in-time
purchasing
8. Customer service
Accurate and faster cost estimates
Efficient spare parts management, leading to better customer
service
CELLULAR MANUFACTURING
Cellular manufacturing is an application of group technology in
manufacturing in which all or a portion of a firms manufacturing
system has been converted into cells.
A manufacturing cell is a cluster of machines or processes located in
close proximity and dedicated to the manufacture of a family of parts.
The parts are similar in their processing requirements, such as
operations, tolerances, and machine tool capacities
41
. Anlaan
1996
The primary objectives in implementing a cellular manufacturing
system are to reduce:
setup times (by using part family tooling and sequencing)
flow times (by reducing setup and move times and wait time for
moves and using smaller batch sizes)
reduce inventories
market response times
In addition, cells represent sociological units that have more tendency to
teamwork. This means that motivation for process improvements often
arises naturally in manufacturing cells.
Manufacturing cells are natural candidates for just-in-time (JIT)
implementation.
Cell Design
Design of cellular manufacturing system is a complex exercise with
broad implications for an organization.
The cell design process involves issues related to both system
structure and system operation
Structural issues include:
1. Selection of part families and grouping of parts into
families
2. Selection of machine and process populations and grouping of
these into cells
3. Selection of tools, fixtures, and pallets
4. Selection of material-handling equipment
5. Choice of equipment layout
42
. Anlaan
1996
Issues related to procedures include:
1. Detailed design of jobs
2. Organization of supervisory and support personnel around the
cellular structure
3. Formulation of maintenance and inspection policies
4. Design of procedures for production planning, scheduling,
control, and acquisition of related software and hardware
5. Modification of cost control and reward systems
6. Outline of procedures for interfacing with the remaining
manufacturing system (in terms of work flow and information,
whether computer controlled or not)
Evaluation of Cell Design Decisions
The evaluation of design decisions can be categorized as related to
either the system structure or system operation. Typical considerations
related to system structure include:
1. Equipment and tooling investment (low)
2. Equipment relocation cost (low)
3. Material-handling costs (low)
4. Floor space requirements (low)
5. Extent to which parts are completed in a cell (high)
6. Flexibility (high)
Evaluations of cell system design are incomplete unless they relate
to the operation of the system.
A few typical performance variables related to system operation
are:
1. Equipment utilization (high)
2. Work-in-process inventory (low)
3. Queue lengths at each workstation (short)
4. Job throughput time (short)
5. Job lateness (low)
43
. Anlaan
1996
A major problem throughout the cell design process is the necessity of
trading off against each other objectives related to structural parameters
and performance variables.
For example, higher machine utilization can be achieved if several cells
route their parts through the same machine. The drawbacks are increased
queuing and control problems.
System cost and performance are affected by every decision related
to system structure and system operation.
It is necessary to evaluate each important design parameter and relate its
performance to pre-established criteria. For example, structural variables
such as number of machines must be balanced against operational
variables such as machine utilization and throughput time using analytical
and simulation approaches.
CELL FORMATION APPROACHES
Machine - Component Group Analysis
Machine - Component Group Analysis is based on production production
flow analysis
Production flow analysis involves four stages:
Stage 1: Machine classification. Machines are classified on the
basis of operations that can be performed on them. A
machine type number is assigned to machines capable of
performing similar operations.
Stage 2: Checking parts list and production route information.
For each part, information on the operations to be
undertaken and the machines required to perform each of
these operations is checked thoroughly.
Stage 3: Factory flow analysis.
This involves a micro-level examination of flow of
components through machines. This, in turn, allows the
problem to be decomposed into a number of machine-
component groups.
44
Stage 4: Machine-component group analysis.
An intuitive manual method is suggested to manipulate the
matrix to form cells. However, as the problem size
becomes large, the manual approach does not work.
Therefore, there is a need to develop analytical approaches
to handle large problems systematically.
EXAMPLE:
Consider a problem of 4 machines and 6 parts. Try to group them.
Components
Machines 1 2 3 4 5 6
M1 1 1 1
M2 1 1 1
M3 1 1 1
M4 1 1 1
Components
Machines 2 4 6 1 3 5
M1 1 1 1
M2 1 1 1
M3 1 1 1
M4 1 1 1
Rank Order Clustering Algorithm:
Rank Order Clustering Algorithm is a simple algorithm used to form
machine-part groups.
Step 1: Assign binary weight and calculate a decimal weight for
each row and column using the following formulas:
. Anlaan
45
1996
Decimal we
Decimal we b
pj
n p
ight for row i = b
ight for column j =
ip
m-p
p=1
m
p=1
n
2
2

Step 2: Rank the rows in order of decreasing decimal weight values.
Step 3: Repeat steps 1 and 2 for each column.
Step 4: Continue preceding steps until there is no change in the position
of each element in the row and the column.
EXAMPLE:
Consider a problem of 5 machines and 10 parts. Try to group them by
using Rank Order Clustering Algorithm.
Components
Machines 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
M1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
M2 1 1 1 1 1
M3 1 1 1 1
M4 1 1 1 1 1 1
M5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Table 1
46
. Anlaan
1996
Binary weight
2
9
2
8
2
7
2
6
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
0
Components
Machines 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Decimal
equivalent
M1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1007
M2 1 1 1 1 1 451
M3 1 1 1 1 568
M4 1 1 1 1 1 1 455
M5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1020
Table 2
Binary weight
2
9
2
8
2
7
2
6
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
0
Components
Binary
weight
Machines
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
4
M5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2
3
M1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2
2
M3 1 1 1 1
2
1
M4 1 1 1 1 1 1
2
0
M2 1 1 1 1 1
Decimal
equivalen
t
28 27 27 27 28 20 28 26 11 11
Table 3
47
. Anlaan
1996
Binary weight
2
9
2
8
2
7
2
6
2
5
2
4
2
3
2
2
2
1
2
0
Components
Binary
weight
Machines
1 5 7 2 3 4 8 6 9 10
Decimal
equivalent
2
4
M5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1020
2
3
M1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1019
2
2
M3 1 1 1 1 900
2
1
M4 1 1 1 1 1 1 123
2
0
M2 1 1 1 1 1 115
Decimal
equivalen
t
28 28 28 27 27 27 26 20 11 11
Table 4
Similarity Coefficient-Based Approaches
In similarity coefficient methods, the basis is to define a measure of
similarity between machines, tools, design features, and so forth and then
use it to form part families and machine groups.
Single-Linkage Cluster Analysis (SLCA):
It is a hierarchical machine grouping method known as single-linkage
cluster analysis using similarity coefficients between machines.
The procedure is to construct a tree called a dendrogram.
The similarity coefficient between two machines is defined as the ratio of
the number of parts visiting both machines and the number of parts
visiting one of the two machines:
S =
+ Z - X
ij
k=1
N
jk ijk
X
Y
ijk
ik
k
N

( )
1
48
. Anlaan
1996
where: X
ijk
= operation on part k
performed both on machine i and j,
Y
ik
= operation on part k performed on machine i,
Z
jk
= operation on part k performed on machine j.
SLCA ALGORITHMS
It helps in constructing dendrograms.
A dendrogram is a pictorial representation of bonds of similarity between
machines as measured by the similarity coefficients.
The steps of algorithm are as follows:
Step 1: Compute similarity coefficients for all possible pairs of
machines,
Step 2: Select the two most similar machines to form the first machine
cell,
Step 3: Lower the similarity level (threshold) and form new machine cells
by including all the machines with similarity coefficients not less than
the threshold value,
Step 4: Continue step 3 until all machines are grouped into a single cell.
EXAMPLE:
Consider the matrix of 5 machines and 10 components given below.
Components
Machines 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
M1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
M2 1 1 1 1 1
M3 1 1 1 1
M4 1 1 1 1 1 1
M5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Develop a denrogram and discuss the resulting cell structures.
Step 1: Determine similarity coefficients between all pairs of machines.
49
. Anlaan
1996
SC =
5
9 +5- 5
= 0.556
12
Similarity coefficients of machine pairs
Machine
pairs
M1
M2
M1
M3
M1
M4
M1
M5
M2
M3
M2
M4
M2
M5
M3
M4
M3
M5
M4
M5
SC 0.55 0.30 0.67 0.70 0.00 0.83 0.30 0.00 0.50 0.40
Step 2: Select machines M2 and M4, having the highest similarity
coefficients of 0.83, to form the first cell.
Step 3: The next lower coefficient of similarity is between machines M1
and M5. Use these machines to form the second cell.
Step 4: The next lower coefficient of similarity is now 0.67 between
machines M1 and M4. At this threshold value machines M1, M2, M4,
and M5 will form one machine group. The other possible groups will be
evaluated by the same way.
0.00
0.50
0.67
0.70
0.83
M4 M1 M2 M3 M5
Dendrogram
50
. Anlaan
1996
EXCEPTIONAL PARTS & BOTTLNECK MACHINES:
One of the important goal in cell design is to create mutually independent
machine cells. However, it may not always be economical or practical to
achieve this goal.
In practice, therefore, some parts need to be processed in more than one
cell. These are known as exceptional parts and the machines processing
them are known as bottleneck machines.
The problem of exceptional elements can possibly be eliminated by:
Generating alternative process plans
Duplication of machines
Subcontracting these operations
. Anlaan
1996
EVALUATION OF CELL DESIGN:
In design of cells, there will be more than one alternative solution. The
objective is to find the best alternative.
Assume we have the following alternative cell configuration:
Similarity
coefficient
Number of
cells formed
Cell configuration
1.00 5 (M1), (M2), (M3), (M4), (M5)
0.83 4 (M2, M4), (M5), (M1), (M3)
0.70 3 (M2, M4), (M1, M5), (M3)
0.67 2 (M1, M2, M4, M5), (M3)
0.50 1 (M1, M2, M3, M4, M5)
The criteria is to minimize the distance that the parts should travel during
the processes; in other words, to minimize the material handling costs of
intercell (between cells) and intracell (within cell) movements of the
parts.
51
. Anlaan
1996
The following factors affect the cost of intercell and intracell
movements of parts.
1. The layout of machines in a group
2. The layout of machine groups
3. The sequences of parts through machines and machine groups
The total distances moved by a component visiting a number of machines
in a cell has to be determined.
Assumptions:
1. In the absence of the real data on the sequences in which the
components visit the machines, it is assumed that the machines
are laid out in a random manner.
2. There is one unit distance between each machine in a group of
N machines.
3. A part has to visit two machines in a group of N machines.
Expected distance for a straight-line layout:

N+1
3
Expected distance for a rectangle layout of M rows of L machines:

M+ L
2
Expected distance for a square layout:
2
N
3
The total distance moved in j
th
cell for the i
th
configuration:
k
ij
j
m
d
ij

52
. Anlaan
1996
where:
d
ij
= expected distance moved between two machines for i
th

configuration in j
th
cell
k
ij
= number of moves between two machines by all the parts for i
th
configuration in j
th
cell
The total cost of intercellular and intracellular movements (TC
i
) for the
i
th
configuration:
TC = C + C
i 1 2
N d k
i ij ij
j
m

where:
C
1
= cost of an intercell movement
C
2
= cost per unit distance of an intracell movement
N
i
= number of intercell movements for i
th
configuration
EXAMPLE:
Consider the following cell configuration.
Components
Machines 1 5 2 3 4 7 8 9 10 6
M1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
M5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
M2 1 1 1 1 1
M4 1 1 1 1 1 1
M3 1 1 1 1
Consider 3-cell case:
Expected movement distance,
in cell (M1, M5) =
( )
2 1
3
1
+

in cell (M2, M4) =

in cell (M3) = 0
The number of moves passing through two machines by all the parts,
in cell (M1, M5) = 7
in cell (M2, M4) = 5
in cell (M3) = 0
53
. Anlaan
1996
The total distance for all intercell moves for 3-cell configuration:
1 x 7 + 1x 5 + 0 = 12
The number of intercell moves in 3-cell configuration is 10.
Assume:
C
1
= $2.00 (cost of intercell unit movement)
C
2
= $1.00 (cost of intracell unit movement)
The total cost of intercell and intracell movements in 3-cell configuration:
2.00 $ x 10 + 1.00 $ x 12 = 32.00 $
The summary of cost calculation for all possible cell configuration is
given in the following table:
Cell
configuration
Number
of
intercell
moves
Total
distance of
intracell
moves
Total cost of
intercell and
intracell
moves
5-cells (M1), (M2),
(M3), (M4),
(M5)
22 0 2 x 22 +
1 x 0 = 44
4-cells (M2, M4),
(M5), (M1),
(M3)
18 5 2 x 18 +
1 x 5 = 41
3-cells (M2, M4),
(M1, M5),
(M3)
10 12 2 x 10 +
1 x 12 = 32
2-cells (M1, M2,
M4, M5),
(M3)
4 30 2 x 4 +
1 x 30 = 38
1-cells (M1. M2,
M3, M4, M5)
0 44 2 x 0 +
1x 44 = 44
54
. Anlaan
1996
In 1988, a survey of 53 show that the use of GT and cellular
manufacturing in US industries has met with success. The benefits
reported from these studies include:
Reduction in throughput time by 46%
Reduction in work-in-process inventory by 41%
Reduction in material handling by 39%
Reduction in setup time by 32%
Improvement in quality by 29.6%
55
PROCESS
PLANNING
56
. Anlaan
1996
PROCESS PLANNING
The 21
st
century engineering response to world competition is concurrent
engineering.
Concurrent engineering requires the integration of all aspects of the
product life cycle, that is:
design,
manufacturing,
assembly,
distribution,
service,
disposal
Two important areas in the life cycle of a product are design and
manufacturing. Process planning serves as an integration link between
design and manufacturing.

Process planning consists of preparing a set of instructions that describe
how to fabricate a part or build an assembly which will satisfy
engineering design specifications.
The resulting set of instructions may include any or all of the following:
operation sequence,
machines,
tools,
materials,
tolerances,
cutting parameters,
processes (such as how to heat-treat),
jigs,
fixtures,
time standards,
setup details,
inspection criteria,
gauges,
57
graphical representations of the part in various stages of
completion.
58
. Anlaan
1996
Process planning emerges as a key factor in CAD/CAM integration
because it is the link between CAD and CAM. After engineering designs
are communicated to manufacturing, either on paper or electronic media,
the process planning function converts the designs into instructions used
to make the specified part.
CIM cannot occur until this process is automated; consequently,
automated process planning is the link between CAD and CAM.
Some typical benefits of automated process planning include:
50% increase in process planner productivity
40% increase in capacity of existing equipment
25% reduction in setup costs
12% reduction in tooling
10% reduction in scrap and rework
10% reduction in shop labor
6% reduction in work in process
4% reduction in material
59
Conceptual design
Mathematical analysis
Geometric data
(graphical representation)
Process design
Process planning (CNC codes)
Tool selection
Facilities management
CAD
CAM
CAPP
COMPUTER AIDED
PROCESS
PLANNING
. Anlaan
1996
If the process planners productivity is significantly improved:
More time can be spent on methods, improvements and cost-reduction
activities.
Routings can be consistently optimized.
Manufacturing instructions can be provided in greater detail
Preproduction lead times can be reduced.
Responsiveness to engineering charges can be increased.
The development of process plans involves a number of activities:
Analysis of part requirement
Selection of raw workpiece
Determining manufacturing operations and their sequences
Selection of machine tools
Selection of tools, workholding devices, and inspection equipment
Determining machining conditions and manufacturing time
ANALYSIS OF PART REQUIRENTS:
The part requirements can be defined as:
part features
process determination
steps of processes
dimensions
machine tool size
tolerance specifications
machine tool capability
CNC code generation
60
. Anlaan
1996
SELECTION OF RAW WORKPIECE:
It involves such attributes as:
shape
standard materials
rod
slab
blank
profile
pre-shaped materials
cast
forged
extruded
size
machine tool size
material
cutting conditions
tool selection
DETERMINING MANUFACTURING OPTIONS AND THEIR
SEQUENCES:
selection of processes
availability
accuracy requirement
suitability
cost
sequence of operations
work holding method
cutting tool availability
SELECTION OF MACHINE TOOLS:
work piece related attributes
part features
dimensions
dimensional tolerances
raw material form
61
. Anlaan
1996
machine tool related attributes
process capability
size
mode of operation
manual
semiautomatic
automatic
CNC
tooling capabilities
type of tool
size of tool
tool changing capability
manual
automatic
production volume related information
production quantity
order frequency
EVALUATION OF MACHINE TOOL ALTERNATIVES:
Machine tool capability:
0 1 2 3 - 1 - 2 - 3
9 9 . 7 3 %
9 5 . 4 6 %
6 8 . 2 6 %
c o n t r o l l i n e s
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. Anlaan
1996
MACHINING CAPABILITY
( )
=
x - x
or =
R
d

2

2
1

n
MC =
6
tolerance
100 (%)

MC < 100% capability is good

where: Z
u
and Z
l
are the standard normal variates for the
upper and lower tolerance limits,
t
u
and t
l
are the upper and lower tolerance
limits
is the mean of the population
is the standard deviation
63
. Anlaan
1996
portion of
accepted parts (AP) = (Z
u
) - (Z
l
)
where: (Z
u
) is the probability of parts having
the dimension less than the upper tolerance value
(Z
l
) is the probability of parts having the
dimension less than the lower tolerance value
portion of rejected parts (SC) = 1- AP
Y
i
= Y
o
+ Y
s
where: Y
i
= number of parts being machined
Y
o
= number of accepted parts
Y
s
= number of rejected (scraped) parts
SC =
Y
Y

k =
Y
Y

k =
Y
Y

s
i
i
i
o
s
s
o

k =
SC
1-SC

k = 1 + k
s
i s
where: k
i
and k
s
are the technological coefficients
material balance
Y
i
= k
i
Y
o
Y
s
= k
s
Y
o
SC = 1- (Z
u
) + (Z
l
)
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. Anlaan
1996
cost of a part
X
i
Y
i
+ Y
i
f(Y
i
) = X
o
Y
o
+ X
s
Y
s
where: X
i
is the unit cost of a raw part
X
o
is the unit cost (value) of a machined part
X
s
is the unit value of a scraped part
f(Y
i
) is the processing (machining) cost per unit
average manufacturing lead time
where: T is the average lead time
S is the setup time
t is the average machining (processing) time
EXAMPLE:
Suppose 500 units of a shaft are to be manufactured within 25 0.075 t
mm. Suppose there are three alternative machine tools as follows:
Types of machine tools Standard
deviation;
(mm)
Processing cost
per Unit ($/unit)
Processing time
per Unit
(min/unit)
Setup time (min)
Turret lathe 0.175 7 1.00 15
Engine lathe 0.025 10 0.90 30
Automatic screw
machine
0.013 15 0.70 60
Unit raw material cost = $10.00
Unit salvage value = $2.00
Process average = 25.038 mm
X
o
= k
i
X
i
- k
s
X
s
+ k
i
f(Y
i
)
T = S + t k
i
Y
o
65
. Anlaan
1996
Determine the most suitable machine tool for the job.
(Take the turret lathe case first)
Z =
25.075- 25.038
0.175
= 0.21
Z =
24.925- 25.038
0.175
= - 0.64
u
l
Use a normal distribution table to determine the scrap rate.
(Z
u
) = 0.5832
(Z
l
) = 0.2611
% of parts above upper tolerance limit =
(1 - 0.5832) x 100 = 41.68
% of parts below lower tolerance limit =
(0.2611) x 100 = 26.11
total scrap:
SC = 0.4168 + 0.2511 = 0.6779
technological coefficient of scrap:
k =
SC
1-SC
=
0.6779
1- 0.6779
= 2.1047

s
technological coefficient of input:
k
i
= 1 + k
s
= 1 + 2.1047 = 3.1047
number of units scraped:
Y
s
= k
s
Y
o
= 2.1047 x 500 = 1052
number of raw part required:
Y
i
= k
i
Y
o
= 3.1047 x 500 = 1552
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. Anlaan
1996
manufacturing lead time:
T = S + t Y
i
= 15+1.00 x 1552 = 1567 min
unit output cost:
X
o
= k
i
X
i
- k
s
X
s
+ k
i
f(Y
i
)
X
o
= 3.1047 x 10.00 - 2.1047 x 2.00 + 3.1047 x 7.00
X
o
= 48.47 $/part (for turret lathe case)
Type of machine tools Unit cost
($/unit)
Scrap
(units)
Manufacturing lead
time (min)
Turret lathe 48.57 1052 1567
Engine lathe 21.28 33 510
Automatic screw
machine
25.03 1 410
Turret lathe should not be the choice. However there is a trade-off
between the unit cost and the number of units of scrap as well as the
manufacturing lead time for the engine lathe and automatic screw
machine.
SELECTION OF TOOLS, WORKHOLDING DEVICES, AND
INSPECTION EQUIPMENT:
Tools
tool material
shape
size
nose radius
tolerance
Workholding devices
The primary purpose of a workholding device is to position the
workpiece accurately and hold it securely.
manually operated devices
collets
chucks
mandrel
faceplates

67
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1996
designed devices
power chucks
specially designed fixtures and jigs
flexible fixtures used in flexible manufacturing systems
Inspection equipment
on-line inspection equipment
off-line inspection equipment
DETERMINING CUTTING CONDITION AND MANUFACTURIN
TIMES:
Machining conditions
cutting speed
feed rate
depth of cut
Object is to set the cutting conditions in such a way that the economically
best production state is achieved.
What is the economically best production state?
It is :
1- Minimum production cost
or
2- Maximum production rate
CHOICE OF FEED
Finishing cut: Proper feed rate to provide desired surface quality
(relatively low)
Roughing cut: Feed rate is not effective as cutting speed over tool life,
therefore, feed should be set to maximum possible value
limitations:
maximum tool force that the machine or the tool can stand and the
maximum power available
CHOICE OF CUTTING SPEED
Cutting speed is set to provide the optimum tool life.
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1996
High V : low tool life
high tool cost
high production rate
short production time
Low V: high tool life
low tool cost
low production rate
long production time
MINIMUM COST PER PIECE:
Cost per
component, C
u
= nonproductive cost
+ machining cost
+ tool changing cost
+ tooling cost
C
u
+ +

_
,
+

_
,
c t c t c t
t
T
c
t
T
o l o c o d
ac
t
ac

where:
c
o
= labor and overhead cost ($/min)
c
t
= tool cost per cutting edge ($/edge)
t
l
= nonproductive time (min/piece)
t
c
= machining time (min/piece)
t
d
= tool changing time (min/edge)
For a single pass turning operation:
t

c

LD
vf
where:
t
c
= machining time (min/piece)
L = length of workpiece (mm)
D = diameter of workpiece (mm)
v = cutting speed (mm/min)
f = feed rate (mm/rev)
. Anlaan
1996
Taylors equation for tool life:
vT
n
C
where:
v = cutting speed (mm/min)
T = tool life (min/edge)
n = Taylor exponent
C = cutting speed for one minute of tool life
(mm/min)
Combine the above equation one can get the cost per piece equation:
( ) ( )( ) ( )( )
C
u
+ + + c t c
LD
vf
c
LD
vf
v
C
t c
LD
vf
v
C
o l o o
n
d t
n

1 1
Differentiating this equation with respect to cutting speed and equating to
zero, then solving for cutting speed will give the cutting speed for
minimum production cost.
( )
( )
v

T
min
min

_
,

1
]

+

_
,
C
n
c t c
c
n
c t c
c
o d t
o
n
o d t
o
1
1
1
1
MAXIMUM PRODUCTION RATE:
Time per
piece: T
u
= nonproductive time
+machining time
+tool changing time
( ) ( ) ( )
T
or
T
u
u
+ +

_
,
+ +
t t t
t
T
t
LD
vf
LD
vf
v
C
t
l c d
c
l
n
d

1
70
. Anlaan
1996
Differentiating T
u
with respect to v and equating it to zero, then solving
for v will give the cutting speed for maximum production rate:
( )
( )
v
and
T
max
max

1
]

1
]
C
n
t
n
t
d
n
d
1
1
1
1
MANUFACTURING LEAD TIME:
Lead time = S + T
u
Q
where: S = major set up time
T
u
= production time per piece
Q = lot size
EXAMPLE:
A lot of 500 units of steel rods 30 cm long and 6 cm in diameter is turned
on a CNC lathe at a feed rate of 0.2 mm/rev and a depth of 1 mm. The tool
life is given by:
vT
0.2
= 200 (m/min)
The other data are:
Machine labor rate = 10 $/hr
Machine overhead rate = 50% of labor
Grinding labor rate = 10 $/hr
Grinding overhead rate = 50% of grinding labor
Workpiece loading and
unloading time = 0.5 min/piece
Tool = Brazed insert
Cost of tool = 27.96 $/tool
Grinding time = 2 min/edge
Tool changing time = 0.5 min/edge
Tool can be ground only five times before it is discarded.
71
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1996
Determine:
a) Optimum tool life and optimum cutting speed to minimize the cost
b) Optimum tool life and optimum cutting speed to maximize the
production rate
c) Minimum cost per component, time per component and
corresponding lead time
d) Maximum production rate, corresponding cost per component, and
lead time
SOLUTION:
a)
c = 0.25 $ / min
0

+ 10 05 10
60
. x
c 5.16 $ / edge
t
+
+

2796
6
2 10 05 10
60
.
( . ) x
T
T min
min
min

_
,

_
,

1
]
1

_
,

_
,

1
]
1

1
1
1
02
1
025 05 516
025
8456
n
c t c
c
x
o d t
o
.
. . .
.
.
( )
v 82.3 m/ min
min

C
T
n
min
.
.
200
8456
02
b)
( ) T 2 min
v m/ min
max
max

_
,

_
,


1
1
1
02
1 05
200
2
1741
02
n
t
C
T
d
n
.
.
.
max
.
72
. Anlaan
1996
c) Minimum cost:
t
LD
v
=
3.14 x 300 x 60
x 82.3 x 0.2
= 3.4 min / piece
c
min

f 1000
C
u
+ +

_
,
+

_
,
c t c t c t
t
T
c
t
T
o l o c o d
ac
t
ac
C
u
= 0.25 $/min x 0.5 min/piece
+ 0.25 $/min x 3.43 min/piece
+ 0.25 $/min x 3.43 min/piece
x (1/84.56) edge/min x 0.50 min/edge
+ 5.16 $/edge x 3.43 min/piece
x (1/84.56) edge/min
Time per component:
T

u
+ +

_
,
t t t
t
T
l c d
c
T
u
= 0.5 min/piece
+ 3.43 min/piece
+ 3.43 min/piece
x (1/84.56) edge/min x 0.5 min/edge
Lead Time = 500 units x 3.95 min/piece
d) Maximum production rate:

LD
v
=
3.14 x 300 x 60
x 174.1 x 0.2
= 1.62 min / piece
min

f 1000
C
u
= 1.20 $/piece
T
u
= 3.95 min/piece
Lead Time = 1976.4 min
73
. Anlaan
1996
Production time per piece:
T

u
+ +

_
,
t t t
t
T
l c d
c
T
u
= 0.5 min/piece
+ 1.62 min/piece
+ 1.62 min/piece x () edge/min
x 0.5 min/edge
Lead Time = 500 units x 2.53 min/piece
Cost for maximum production rate:
C
u
+ +

_
,
+

_
,
c t c t c t
t
T
c
t
T
o l o c o d
ac
t
ac

C
u
= 0.25 $/min x 0.5 min/piece
+ 0.25 $/min x 1.62 min/piece
+ 0.25 $/min x 1.62 min/piece
x (1/2) edge/min x 0.50 min/edge
+ 5.16 $/edge x 1.62 min/piece
x (1/2) edge/min
THE PRINCIPAL PROCESS PLANNING APPROACHES:
Manual experience-based process planning method
Computer-aided process planning method
T
u
= 2.53 min/piece
Lead Time = 1264.4 min
C
u
= 4.82 $/piece
74
. Anlaan
1996
MANUAL EXPERIENCE-BASED PROCESS PLANNING METHOD:
most widely used method
time consuming
inconsistent plans
requires highly skilled, therefore, costly planners
COMPUTER-AIDED PROCESS PLANNING METHOD:
it can systematically produce accurate and consistent process plans
it can reduce the cost and lead time of process planning
less skilled process planners may be employed
it increases the productivity of process planners
manufacturing cost, manufacturing lead time and work standards can
easily be interfaced with the CAPP system
Organizational
planning
system
CAD
MRP
Material resource
planning
Capacity planning
CAPP
CAM Production control
Machine tool
Fixture
Data bank
Product design and
development request
Corrected data
Part list
Geometry data
Parts master file
Process plan
Production
order
Actual
data
NC
program
Corrected
data
A computer-aided process planning framework
There are two basic methods used in computer-aided process planning:
1) Variant CAPP method
2) Generative CAPP method
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. Anlaan
1996
The Variant CAPP Method:
process plan is developed for a master part which represent the
common features of a family of parts
a process plan for a new part is created by recalling, identifying, and
retrieving an existing plan for a similar part and making necessary
modifications for the new part
to use the method efficiently, parts classifying coding system must be
used
Advantages of variant process planning:
efficient processing and evaluation of complicated activities and
decisions, thus reducing the time and labor requirements
standardized procedures by structuring manufacturing
knowledge of the process planers to companys needs
lower development and hardware costs and shorter development
times
Disadvantages of variant process planning:
maintaining consistency in editing is difficult
it is difficult to adequately accommodate various combinations
of
material,
geometry,
size,
precision,
quality,
alternative processing sequences,
machine loading
The quality of the final process plan generated depends to a large
extent on the knowledge and the experience of the process
planners
The Generative CAPP Method:
In a generative approach, process plans are generated by means of
decision logic
formulas
technology algorithm
geometry based data
76
to perform uniquely the many processing decisions for converting a part
from raw material to a finished state
77
. Anlaan
1996
There are basically two major components of generative process planning
system:
a geometry based coding scheme
process knowledge in the form of decision logic and data
Geometry Based Coding Scheme:
The objective is to define all geometric features for all process-related
surfaces together with feature dimensions, locations, and tolerances, and
the surface finish desired on the features.
The level of details is much greater in a generative system than a variant
system.
Process Knowledge in the Form of Decision Logic and Data:
In this phase, part geometry requirement is matched with manufacturing
capabilities in the form of decision logic and data.
Selection of
processes
machine tools
tools
jigs and fixtures
inspection equipment
sequence of operations
are achieved.
Finally, operation instruction sheets (for manual operations) or NC
codes (for CNC) machines are generated.
DECISION TABLES:
Decision tables provide a convenient way to document manufacturing
knowledge.
EXAMPLE:
Consider the problem of the selection of lathes or grinding machines for
jobs involving turning or grinding operations. Data on conditions such as
lot size, diameter, surface finish and tolerance desired are available.
78
. Anlaan
1996
They are compiled in form of a decision table as shown below.
Conditions Rule
1
Rule
2
Rule 3 Rule 4
LS< = 10 X
LS>= 50 X X
LS>= 4000 X
Relatively large diameter
Relatively small diameters X X X X
SF 2-3 m
X
SF 1-2 m
X X X
+-0.05 < tol <+- 0.1 mm X
+-0.01 < tol <+- 0.05 mm X
+-0.005 < tol <+- 0.01 mm X X
Engine lathe X 1
Turret Lathe X
Automatic screw machine X
Centerless grinding machine 2
FUTURE TRENDS IN COMPUTER-AIDED PROGESS PLANNING:
One of the major strategies for reducing cost and lead time is to integrate
various functional areas such as design, process planning, manufacturing,
and inspection.
There are a number of difficulties in achieving the goal of complete
integration.
For example, each functional area has its own stand-alone relational
database and associated database management system. The software and
hardware incompatibilities among these systems pose difficulties in full
integration. There is a need to develop a single-database technology to
address these difficulties.
Other challenges include automated translation of the design dimensions
and tolerances into manufacturing dimensions and tolerances considering
process capabilities and dimensional chains, automatic recognition of
features, and making the CAPP systems affordable to the small and
medium-scale manufacturing companies.
79
INTEGRATIVE
MANUFACTURING
PLANNING
AND
CONTROL
80
MANUFACTURING PLANNING AND CONTROL SYSTEM:
The primary objective of an manufacturing planning and control system
(MPCS) in any organization is to ensure that the desired products are
manufactured
at the right time,
in the right quantities,
meeting quality specifications, and
at minimum cost.
The manufacturing planning and control system (MPCS) in a company is
achieved by integrating the activities as:
determining product demand,
translating product demand into feasible manufacturing plans,
establishing detailed planning of material flows,
capacity to support the overall manufacturing plans, and
helping to execute these plans by such actions as
detailed cell scheduling
purchasing
The benefits achieved through the use of integrated MPCS are:
reduced inventories
reduced capacity
reduced labor costs
reduced overtime costs
shorter manufacturing lead time
faster responsiveness to internal and external changes as:
machine and other equipment failure
product mix
demand changes
etc.
The major elements of a integrated MPCS are:
Demand management
Aggregate production planning
Master production scheduling
Rough-cut capacity planning
Material requirement planning
Capacity planning
81
Order release
Shop floor scheduling and control
The flow of information among various elements of an MPCS:
DEMAND MANAGEMENT:
Demand for products is the driving force for any production activity.
Demand management is therefore an important input to production
planning.
Demand management contains activities as:
demand forecasting
order transaction entry
customer-contact activities
physical distribution management
Demand forecasting:
Forecasting is concerned with estimating future demand ( or requirement)
for products.
Forecasting is necessary for production planning.
There are three approaches to forecasting:
Customer
orders
Aggregate production
planning
Engineering
changes
Master
production
Schedule
Engineering
design
Demand
management
Rough-cut
capacity
Planning
Material
requirement
planning
Bill of
materials
Inventory
management
Shop-floor
control
Detailed
capacity
planning
Process
planning
Purchasing
Vendors
Finished
products
82
1. The qualitative approach
2. The explanatory approach
3. The descriptive approach
1. Qualitative approaches rely on the opinion of experts to predict certain
events of interest.
Example: What kind of technological breakthroughs are possible in the
field of personal computers by the year 2020?
There are some prediction techniques for long range planning, like, 5, 10,
15 or 20 years.
2. Econometric models are example for explanatory approaches. Causal
relationship is an important aspect of this approach.
Example: Growth in economic activity increases employment, which in
turn increases the buying power of the people, which in turn increases
the demand.
Econometric models have been used successfully for planning and
resource allocations for national economies.
3. Descriptive approaches to forecasting include statistical models.
The basic assumption in these approaches is that the underlying demand-
generating process is an extension of its past performance into the near
term future. Planning horizon normally varies from months to a year.
The demand history in the form of time series is used to predict the
future.
83
Moving average:
A simple time series model may be:
x
t
= a
0
+
t
a
0
= constant (average
value)

t
= a random variable with zero mean and variance of
t
2

(error)
x
t
= demand observations through period t (t = 1, 2, .., T)
The forecast for any future period considering only N recent observations
is given by:
x = M =
1
N

T+ t
$
( )

x
t
t T N
T

_
,

1
M
t
= average of the most recent N observation
EXAMPLE:
In the last 7 days the demand for spark plugs (in boxes) for four cylinder
cars was:
x
1
=20, x
2
=26, x
3
=19, x
4
=24, x
5
=23, x
6
=21, x
7
=28.
Each box contain 250 spark plugs. Develop a forecast for the 8
th
day.
The 7-day moving average is:
M = 23

7

+ + + + + + 20 26 19 24 23 21 28
7
The forecast for the next day is:
x boxs of spark plug
8
$ M
7
23
Now suppose the actual demand for the 8
th
day is 34; then x
1
is dropped
and x
8
is added to obtain the new moving average. Accordingly,
M = 25
8

+ + + + + + 26 19 24 23 21 28 34
7
Therefore, the forecast for the next day is:
x = M = 25 boxe of sparkplugs
9 8
$
84
Exponential smoothing:
In exponential smoothing more weight is attached to the recent data and
the weight decreases with the age of the old data.
( ) S x
x = S
T
T+1 T
$ $
$
$
+


t T
S 1
1
where: x
T
= the actual demand for
period T
S
T
= smoothed statistic for
period T
S
T-1
= average of the demand of
the first (T-1) period
= weight (usually between
0.1 and 0.3)
EXAMPLE:
ABC Company manufactures a large variety of high-pressure steel
cylinders for its domestic and defense market.
ABC wishes to forecast the number of cylinders per week for one of their
recent product.
The data is as follows:
Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Number of
cylinder x
t
200 230 190 220 240 210 240 220 230 210

Forecast the demand for the 11
th
week using exponential smoothing by
using
= 0.2
S = 220
9
$

+ + + + + + + + 200 230 190 220 240 210 20 220 20
9
S (0.2) x + (1- 0.2) S
S (0.2) 210 + (0.8) 220
x = S 218 cylinder
10 10 9
10
11 10
$ $
$
$
$

85
. Anlaan
1996
Auto Regressive (AR) models:
AR(m) model:
x
t
=
1
x
t-1
+
1
x
t-2
++
n


x
t-m
+ a
t
AR(1) model:
x
t
=
1
x
t-1
+ a
t
Model for IBM stocks (random walk):
x
t
= 0.999

x
t-1
+ a
t

Auto Regressive Moving Average (ARMA) Models:
ARMA(m,n)
x
t
=
1
x
t-1
+
1
x
t-2
++
n
x
t-m
+ a
t

-
1
a
t-1
-
2
a
t-2
--
n
a
t-n
ARMA(2,1)
x
t
=
1
x
t-1
+
1
x
t-2
+ a
t
-
1
a
t-1

AGGREGATE PRODUCTION PLANNING:
In a high-variety, discrete manufacturing environment, demand for
product may fluctuate considerably. On the other end, the resources of the
company (number of machines, number of workers, etc.) remain constant
during the planning horizon (normally 12 months). The best approach to
obtain feasible solutions is to aggregate the information being processed.
For aggregation purposes the product demand should be expressed in a
common measurement unit such as production hours. Production
planning is concerned primarily with determining optimal production,
inventory, and work force levels to meet demand fluctuation.
Basic strategies to absorb the demand fluctuations are:
Maintain uniform production rate and absorb demand
fluctuations.
Maintain work force but change the production rate by
permitting planned overtime, idle time and subcontracting.
Change the production rate by changing the size of the work
force through planned hiring and layoffs.
Explore the possibility of planned backlogs if customers are
willing to accept delays in delivery of products .
86
. Anlaan
1996
A suitable combination of these strategies should be explored to develop
an optimal aggregate production plan.
EXAMPLE:
Data on the expected aggregated sales of three products, A, B, and C,
over planning horizon of six 4-week periods are as follows:
Product A Product B Product C
Period Units
Equivale
nt Cell-
hours
Units
Equivale
nt Cell-
hours
Units
Equivalent
Cell-hours
1 60 120 40 80 100 100
2 70 140 50 100 160 160
3 50 100 70 140 210 210
4 55 110 65 130 170 170
5 45 90 55 110 100 100
6 40 80 40 80 80 80
Data on the aggregate demand forecast in cell-hours is given in the table
below:
Period Expected Aggregate Demand
(Equivalent Cell-hours)
Cumulative Aggregate
Demand
(Cell-hours)
1 300 300
2 400 700
3 450 1150
4 410 1560
5 300 1860
6 240 2100
The company has developed machining cell-hours as a common unit for
aggregation purposes.,
Product A 2 cell-hours/unit
Product B 2 cell-hours/unit
Product C 1 cell-hours/unit
The company has the regular production capacity of 300 units/period.
Overtime is allowed up to 60 units/period.
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. Anlaan
1996
Requirements exceeding overtime capacity may be satisfied by
subcontracting.
Two alternative production policies are developed as follows:
PLAN 1: Produce at the constant rate
of 350 units/period for the
entire planning horizon
PLAN 2: Produce at the rate of 400
units/period for the first 4 periods and then at the rate
of 250 units/period for the subsequent periods.
Analyze these two aggregate production plans.
PLAN 1: Uniform Regular Production Rate Policy
Perio
d
Production
rate
Inventory Back
orders
Change in
capacity
Overtime Subcontract
1 350 50 0 +50 50 0
2 350 0 0 0 50 0
3 350 0 100 0 50 0
4 350 0 160 0 50 0
5 350 0 110 0 50 0
6 350 0 0 0 50 0
PLAN 2: Varying Regular Production Rate Policy
Perio
d
Production
rate
Inventory Back
orders
Change in
capacity
Overtime Subcontract
1 400 100 0 +100 60 40
2 400 100 0 0 60 40
3 400 50 0 0 60 40
4 400 40 0 0 60 40
5 250 0 10 -50 50 0
6 250 0 0 0 50 0
MASTER PRODUCTION SCHEDULE:
The primary use of an aggregate production plan is to level the
production schedule so that the production costs are minimized.
88
. Anlaan
1996
However, the output of an aggregate plan does not indicate individual
product. This means that the aggregated plan must be disaggregated into
individual product. The result of such a disaggregation methodologies is
what is known as master production schedule.
Master production schedule does not present an executable manufacturing
plan. Because the capacities and the inventories have not been considered
in this stage. Therefore, further analysis for the material an capacity
requirements is required to develop an executable manufacturing plan.
ROUGH-CUT CAPACITY PLAN:
The objective of rough-cut capacity planning is to ensure that the master
production schedule is feasible. For each product family the average
amount of work needed an key work centers per unit per unit can be
calculated from each items bill of materials and production routings
(process planning sheets).
EXAMPLE:
Consider two families of steel cylinders and the resource profile
developed in standard hours of resources per 200 units of end-product
family as follows:
Work center
Product Family
1
(Standard
Hours per 200
Units)
Product Family
2
(Standard
Hours per 200
Units)
Total resources
required for all
families
1100 14 7 21
2100 7 20 27
3100 6 14 20
4500 25 9 34
6500 9 16 25
The available resources are compared with the resource requirements
profile obtained for all the work centers considering all the product
families. If the available resources are less than required, then decisions
related to overtime, subcontracting, hiring workers must be made.
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MATERIAL REQUIREMENTS PLANNING:
The material requirements planning system is system essentially an
information system consisting of logical procedure for managing
inventories of component assemblies, subassemblies, parts, and raw
materials in a manufacturing environment.
The primary objective of an MRP system is to determine how many of
each item in the bill of materials must be manufactured or purchased and
when.
The key concept used in determining material requirements are:
Product structure and bill of materials
Independent versus dependent demand
Parts explosion
Gross requirement
Common-use items
Scheduled receipts
On-hand inventories
Net requirements
Plant order releases
Lead time
Product structure and Bill of Materials:
Product is the single most important identity in an organization. A
product may be made from one or more assemblies, subassemblies and
components. A bill of material is an engineering document that specifies
that the components and subassemblies required to make each end item
(product).
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EXAMPLE:
Level 0
(end item)

Level 1
(subassemblies)
Level 2
(components)
Level 3
(raw materials and other components)
Independent versus Dependent Demand:
The demand for the end item originates from customer order and
forecasts.
Such a demand for end items and spare parts is called independent
demand. The demand by a parent item for its components is called
dependent demand.

EXAMPLE:
X = independent demand (number of end item)
Y = number of components for each end item
XY = dependent demand (number of subassembly demanded)
Parts Explosion:
The process of determining gross requirements for component items, that
is requirements for the subassemblies, components, and raw materials for
a given number of end-item units is known as parts explosion.
Part explosion represents the explosion of parents into their components.
E1
End item
S1 (1) S2 (2)
C1 (1) C2 (2) C3 (2) C4 (3) C5 (1)
Material
M1 (1)
Material
M2 (1)
Material
M3 (2)
Material
M4 (2)
Material
M5 (1)
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Gross Requirements of Component Items:
Gross requirement of component items is the total number of component
items required to manufacture the end products. Gross requirement of
component items is computed by using the information from the product
information and the bill of materials.
EXAMPLE:
If the demand for end-item E1 is 50, determine the gross requirements for
the item components.
Level 0
(end item)

Level 1
(subassemblies)
Level 2
(components)
Level 3
(raw materials and other components)
Demand of S1 = 1 x demand of E1 = 50 units
Demand of S2 = 2 x demand of E1 = 100 units
Demand of C1 = 1 x demand of S1 = 50 units
Demand of C2 = 2 x demand of S1 = 100 units
Demand of C3 = 2 x demand of S2 = 200 units
Demand of C4 = 3 x demand of S2 = 300 units
Demand of C5 = 1 x demand of S2 = 100 units
E1
End item
S1 (1) S2 (2)
C1 (1) C2 (2) C3 (2) C4 (3) C5 (1)
Material
M1 (1)
Material
M2 (1)
Material
M3 (2)
Material
M4 (2)
Material
M5 (1)
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Common-Use Items:
They are the component items which are used different subassemblies of
different end-products. These items must be added to have more
economic purchasing.
On-Hand Inventory, Scheduled Receipts, and Net Requirements:
On-hand inventory is the available items in stock from the previous
period. Scheduled receipt is the items already been ordered but not been
received from the vendors yet. Net requirements is found by subtracting
the on-hand inventory and scheduled receipts from the gross
requirements.
Planned Order Release:
Planned order releases refer to the process of releasing a lot of every
component item for production or purchase. Determination of lot size is
an economic issue. The trade off is between the inventory holding costs
and the set up costs.
Lot sizes in MRP system are determined for component items for each
stage sequentially starting with level 1, then level 2 and so on.
Lead Time and Lead Time Offsetting:
The lead time is the time it takes to produce or purchase a part.
The lead time depends on:
setup time
production time
lot size
sequence of machines on which operations are performed
queuing delays
The purchasing lead time is the time between placing an order with a
vendor and receipt of the order.
The manufacture or purchase of component items must be offset by at
least their lead times to ensure availability of these items for assembly
into their parent items at the desired time.
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EXAMPLE:
Period (weeks)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
End item E1; lead time 3 weeks
Gross
requirements
20 30 10 40 50 30 30 40
On-hand
inventory
(50)
Scheduled
receipt
Net
requirements
10 40 50 30 30 40
Planned order
release
10 40 50 30 30 40
Component item S2; lead time 2 weeks
Gross
requirements
20 80 100 60 60 80
On-hand
inventory
(100)
Scheduled
receipt
100 30
Net
requirements
30 60 80
Planned order
release
30 60 80
Component item C4; lead time 1 weeks
Gross
requirements
90 180 240
On-hand
inventory
(50)
Scheduled
receipt
50 20
Net
requirements
150 240
Planned order
release
150 240
Component item M4; lead time 1 weeks
Gross
requirements
300 480
On-hand
inventory
(150)
Scheduled
receipt
50 300
Net
requirements
100 180
Planned order
release
100 180
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Economic Order Quantity:
In order to balance the costs of keeping the items in
inventory and the costs of setup, the concept of Economic
Order Quantity (EOQ) is introduced.
Normally, the ordering policy is set as displayed below,
where the demand is fairly constant:
Time
Inventory
level
Maximum inventory level
Replenishment
Avereage
inventory
level
Demand rate
Based on this kind of inventory policy, the total annual
inventory cost may be written as:
TIC =
C Q
2
+
C D


h
su a
Q
Where: TIC = total annual inventory cost
($/year)
Q = order quantity (pieces/order)
C
h
= holding cost ($/piece/year)
C
su
= cost of setup ($/setup or $/order)
D
a
= annual demand (pieces /year)
D
a
/Q = number of orders per year
(batches of parts produced per year)
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1996
The holding cost C
h
is generally taken to be directly proportional to
the value of the item; that is,
C
h
= h C
p
where: C
p
= cost per piece ($/piece)
h = annual holding cost rate (year
-1
)
The setup cost C
su
includes the cost of idle production equipment
during the changeover time between batches, as well as whatever
labor costs are involved in the setup changes. Thus,
C
su
= T
su
C
dt

where: T
su
= setup or changeover time between batches, (hr)
C
d
= cost rate of machine downtime, ($/hr)
In cases where parts are ordered from an outside vendor, the price
quoted by the vendor usually includes a setup cost, either directly or in
the form of quantity discounts. C
dt
should also include the internal
costs of placing the order to the vendor. If the cost of production of a
part is C
p
, then, the annual cost of part production will be D
a
C
p
.
Then, the annual total cost is:
TC = D C +
C Q
2
+
C D
Q

a p
h
su a
By taking the derivative of both sides, we obtain the economic order
quantity (EOQ) formula, which minimizes the sum of carrying costs
and setup costs:
EOQ =
2 D C
C


a su
h
where: EOQ = economic order quantity (number of parts that should be
produced in the batch)
EXAMPLE:
Annual demand rate is 12,000 units. One unit of product costs $10.00
and the holding cost rate is 24%/year. Setting up to produce a batch of
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products requires changeover of equipment, which takes 4 hr. The cost
of equipment downtime plus labor is $100/hr.
. Anlaan
1996
Determine the economic order quantity and the total inventory costs for
this case.
Solution:
Setup cost C
su
= 4 x $ 100 = $400
Holding cost per unit C
h
= 0.24 x $ I0.00
= $2.40.
Using these values and the annual demand rate in the EOQ formula, we
have:
EOQ =
2 x 12,000 x 400
= 2000 units

24 .
Total inventory costs are given by the TIC equation:
( )
TIC = 0.5 x 2.4 x 2000 + 400 x
12000
2000
= $4800

The annual total production costs :
TC =12,000 x 10 + 4800 = $ 124,800
CAPACITY PLANNING:
The output of MRP does not produce an executable manufacturing
plan, because it contains material requirement information only but
does not contain information about the manufacturing capacity of the
plant.
To develop an executable manufacturing plan, it is essential to establish
the feasibility of the planned order releases obtained from the MRP
system.
Capacity planning is concerned with ensuring the feasibility of
production plans by determining resources such as labor and equipment
97
with a view to developing what is known as an executable
manufacturing plan.
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The process of capacity planning is complex and involves a number of
decisions:
Exploring overtime/multiple shifts/subcontracting options
Developing alternative process plans for effective resource
utilization
Splitting lots
Increasing or decreasing employment levels to respond to
capacity changes
Inventory options
Increasing capacity by adding capital equipment such as
machine tools
ORDER RELEASE:
Once an executable manufacturing plans are obtained, the orders are
released to the shop floor. Order release documents should include:
Material inventories allocated to the order.
Routing sheets having information on:
operation sequences,
machines,
work centers,
tool and fixture allocations,
batch sizes,
standard machine time allowed for each
operation, etc.
Appropriate shop floor records such as cards, move cards,
and part lists for assembly jobs.
The order release triggers a number of activities at the shop floor:
Scheduling of job orders on the work centers.
Sequencing of jobs on a work center.
Allocation of jigs and fixture.
Loading of work centers considering optimal cutting
conditions (cutting speeds, feed rates, depth of cuts).
Coordination of material handling, storage, warehousing,
and machine tools.
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SHOP FLOOR CONTROL:
When the planned orders are released to the shop floor for
manufacturing, the primary objective is to deliver the product at the
right time, in the right quantities, meeting quality specifications. But
some unexpected event (machine breakdown for example) may cause
delays.
In order to take action (changing the scheduling for example), the up to
date information from the shop floor must be send to the management a
fast and a steady manner.
A number of methods are used for data collection in industries, such as:
Hand written reports.
Manual data entry terminals.
Bar code readers and sensors such as optical and
magnetic reading devices that automatically update an
items progress through the shop floor.
Voice data entry system.
The major functions of a shop-floor control system are
to schedule job orders on the work centers,
to sequence the jobs in order on a work center,
to provide accurate and timely order status information.
The work order status information includes:
order batch sizes
job completion
remaining jobs and operations
The work order status information is used:
To monitor the progress of manufacturing
activities.
To determine priorities for scheduling jobs in the
shop in response to changes in job order status.
To maintain and control work in process.
To provide output data for capacity control
purposes.
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Operation scheduling:
There are two major activities to be performed when work orders are
released to the shop floor:
1. The work orders are assigned to the work centers such that
due dates are satisfied. Allocation of jobs to work centers
is referred to as machine loading.
2. The sequence of each work order through each work
center is determined. This process is referred to as job
sequencing.
The objectives of operation scheduling are:
Meeting due dates.
Minimizing manufacturing throughput time.
Minimizing work-in-process.
Maximizing work center utilization.
To achieve these objectives may be conflicting sometimes.
For example if we add extra machining centers:
Meeting due dates improves
Minimizing manufacturing
throughput time improves
Minimizing work-in-process improves
Maximizing work center utilization get worse
The loading time is calculated as:
Loading time = setup time + Q * unit run time
The average manufacturing throughput time (MTT) is calculated as:
MTT = setup time + Q * unit run time + move and queue time
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EXAMPLE:
Part no: XYZ1000 Order no: XYZ-10
Quantity:1000
Due Date: Week 12, day1 Start Date: Week 8, day 1
1 Week = 5 days
Standard hours available for each day = 12 hrs (2 shift)
Move and Queue Time = 1 work day
Work Center Setup Time (hr) Unit Run Time
(hr)
Loading Time
(Setup + Run
Time) (hr)
Turning 3 0.02 23
Drilling 2 0.01 12
Face Milling 5 0.03 35
Hobbing 9 0.05 59
Broaching 6 0.04 46
Inspection 5 0.005 10
Develop a detailed scheduling and loading plan.
Work
Center
Setup
Time (hr)
Unit Run
Time (hr)
Loading
Time
(Setup +
Run Time)
(hr) Start Date Due date
Turning 3 0.02 23 Week 7
day 5
Week 8
day 2
Drilling 2 0.01 12 Week 8
day 3
Week 8
day 4
Face Milling 5 0.03 35 Week 8
day 5
Week 9
day3
Hobbing 9 0.05 59 Week 9
day 4
Week 10
day 4
Broaching 6 0.04 46 Week 10
day 5
Week 11
day 4
Inspection 5 0.005 10 Week 11
day 5
Week 12
day 1
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Job Sequencing and Priority Rules:
Normally, the total number of jobs exceed the number of work centers.
Therefore, priority rules should be develop to determine the sequencing
of machining operations.
Some of the simple rules used in industry are:
1. First-come, first served (FCFS) rule assign jobs on a first-come, first-
served bases. This rule is blind with respect to all other information
such as due date and urgent jobs.
2. Shortest processing time (SPT) rule gives the highest priority to the
job with the shortest processing time. This rule results in the shortest
manufacturing lead time, therefore, lowest work-in process inventory.
3. Earliest due date (EDD) rule gives the highest priority to jobs with
the earliest due date.
4. Least slack (LS) rule assign the highest priority to the job
with least slack. The slack is defined as:
Slack = time remaining until due date - process time
remaining
[Link] slack per operation (LSPO) rule assigns priority
based on the smallest value obtained by dividing the slack
by the number of number remaining operations.
[Link] ratio (CR) rule assigns priority based on index
defined as follows:
Critical ratio =
time remining until due date
remaining

lead time
where:
Time remaining until due date = due date - now
Lead time = setup + run + move + queue
The least slack, least slack per operation, critical ratio,
and earliest due date rules consider the relative urgency of
the jobs.
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EXAMPLE: Today is 10
Job Types Due Date Remaining
Process Time
Number of
Remaining
Operations
A 17 4 8
B 29 18 18
C 27 8 16
D 26 12 2
First-come, first-served (FCFS) rule: Sequence: A, B, C, D.
Shortest processing time (SPT) rule: Sequence: A, C, D, B.
Earliest due date (EDD) rule: Sequence: A, D, C, B.
Least slack (LS) rule:
Slack = time remaining until due date - process time remaining
Slack for A = (17 - 10) - 4 = 3 days
Slack for B = (29 - 10) - 18 = 1 days
Slack for C = (27 - 10) - 8 = 9 days
Slack for D = (26 - 10) - 12 = 4 days
Sequence: B, A, D, C.
Least slack per operation (LSPO) rule:
LSPO for A = 3/8 = 0.375
LSPO for B = 1/18 = 0.055
LSPO for C = 9/16 = 0.5625
LSPO for D = 4/2 = 2
Sequence: B, A, C, D.
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Critical ratio (CR) rule:
Critical ratio =
time remining until due date
remaining

lead time
CR for A = (17 - 10)/4 = 1.75 days
CR for B = (29 - 10)/18 = 1.05 days
CR for C = (27 - 10)/8 = 2.125 days
CR for D = (26 - 10)/12 = 1.33 days
Sequence: B, D, A, C.
JUST IN-TIME PRODUCTION:
Just-in-time (JIT) is an approach to production that was developed in
Japan to minimize inventories.
Inventory ties up investment funds and takes up space. To reduce this
form of waste, the JIT approach includes a number of principles and
procedures aimed at reducing inventories, either directly or indirectly.
Indeed, the scope of JIT is so broad that it is often referred to as a
philosophy.
Just-in-time procedures have proved most effective in high-volume
repetitive manufacturing, such as the automobile industry. The potential
for in-process inventory accumulation in this type of manufacturing is
significant because both the quantities of products and the number of
components per product are large.
Just-in-time system produces exactly the right number of each
component required to satisfy the next operation in the manufacturing
sequence just when that component is needed just-in-time.
To the Japanese, the ideal batch size is one part. As a practical matter,
more than one part are produced at a time, but the batch size is kept
small. Under JIT, producing too many units is to be avoided as much as
producing too few units. This is a production discipline that contrasts
sharply with traditional U.S. practice, which has promoted use of large
in-process inventories to deal with problems such as machine
breakdowns, defective components, and other obstacles to smooth
production.
The U.S. approach might be described as a just-in-case philosophy.
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Although the principal theme in JIT is inventory reduction, this cannot
simply be achieved. Several requisites must be pursued to make it
possible. These include:
stable production schedules,
small batch sizes and short setup times,
on-time delivery,
defect-free components and materials,
reliable production equipment,
pull system of production control,
a work force that is capable, committed, and
cooperative, and
a dependable supplier base.
Stable Schedule
For JIT to be successful, work must flow smoothly with
minimum perturbations from normal operations.
Perturbations require changes in operating procedures:
increases and decreases in production rate,
unscheduled setups,
variations from the regular work routine, and
other exceptions.
Small Batch Sizes and Setup Reduction Another
requirement for minimizing inventories is small batch sizes
and short setup times.
Some approaches used to reduce setup time include:
perform as much of the setup as possible while
the previous job is still running;
use quick-acting clamping devices instead of
bolts and nuts;
eliminate or minimize adjustments in the
setup; and
use group technology and cellular
manufacturing so that similar part styles are
produced on the same equipment.
106
On-time Delivery, Zero Defects, and Reliable
Equipment
Success of just-in-time production requires near perfection
in on-time delivery, parts quality, and equipment reliability.
The small lot sizes and parts buffers used in JIT require
parts to be delivered before stock-outs occur at downstream
stations. Otherwise, production must be suspend at these
stations for lack of parts. If the delivered parts are
defective, they cannot be used in assembly. This tends to
promote zero defects in parts fabrication.
Workers inspect their own output to make sure it is right
before it proceeds to the next operation.
Low work, in-process also requires reliable production
equipment. Machines that break down cannot be tolerated
in a JIT production system. This emphasizes the need for
reliable equipment designs and preventive maintenance.
Pull System of Production Control
JIT requires a pull system of production control, in which
the order to produce parts at a given workstation comes
from the downstream station that uses those parts. As the
supply of parts becomes exhausted at a given station, it
"places an order" at the upstream workstation to replenish
the supply.
This order provides the authorization for the upstream
station to produce the needed parts.
This procedure, repeated at each workstation throughout
the plant, has the effect of pulling parts through the
production system.
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By contrast a push system of production operates by
supplying parts to each station in the plant, in effect
driving the work from upstream stations to downstream
stations.
A push system
A pull system
Flow of parts
Flow of information
MRP is a push system.
The risk in a push system is to overload the factory by scheduling
more work than it can handle. This results in large queues of parts
in front of machines that cannot keep up with arriving work.
One famous pull system is the Kanban system used by Toyota, the
Japanese automobile company.
Kanban (pronounced kahn-bahn) is a Japanese word meaning card.
The Kanban system of production control is based on the use of
cards to authorize production and work flow in the plant.
Process
1
Process
2
Process
3
Process
1
Process
2
Process
3
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There are two types of kanbans:
(1) production kanbans
and
(2) transport kanbans.
A production kanban authorizes production of a batch of parts. The parts
are placed in a container, so the batch must consist of just enough parts
to fill the container. Production of additional parts is not permitted.
The transport kanban authorizes movement of the container of parts to
the next station in the sequence.
QUALITY ASSURANCE:
As production proceeds, the quality of the product must be assured.
The subject of product quality has received a lot of emphasis in recent
years.
Quality is maintained in two ways:
[Link] worker monitors his or her work; and
[Link] inspections are performed by individuals from the
quality control function.
As the importance of producing only good products has become better
understood, firms have emphasized that each worker should be
responsible for checking his or her work. In some firms, whenever
anyone spots a major defect, work stops until the cause is found. This
philosophy will reduce, and even possibly eliminate, in-process
inspection. The result is higher-quality products, lower through-put
times, and lower costs.
Inspection is necessary at several places in the manufacturing process,
including:
1. Inspection of raw materials
2. Inspection of manufactured product:
a. Preprocess
b. In-process
c. Post process
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Inspection of production process parameters:
a. Tools
b. Fixtures
c. Production machinery
d. Verification/calibration:
[Link] fixtures
[Link] gauges
3. Inspection machinery
Ideally, suppliers should provide good products. If the receiving firm can
depend on the quality of the materials, quality assurance will not have to
inspect incoming product.
If inspection is required, statistical sampling techniques are often used.
These procedures are called acceptance sampling and are based on the
premise that a random sample drawn from a batch is representative of
the entire batch. Thus, only the sample is inspected in determining the
quality of the entire batch.
In many companies where the production of high-quality parts is the
company policy, workers inspect the parts during the production process
to ensure that the process is under control.
Some operations involve 100% inspection and some use random
samples.
Statistical process control (SPC) charts may be used to assist in
monitoring the production process.
An SPC chart consists of a centerline (CL) that represents the expected
or target value for a measured characteristic of the process or part and
the control limits: an upper control limit (UCL) and a lower control limit
(LCL).
The control limits denote the extreme values of a measured characteristic
that can occur while the process is in control. If the limits are exceeded,
the process is no longer under control and something should be done.
110
u p p e r t o l e r a n c e l i m i t , U T L
l o w e r t o l e r a n c e l i m i t , L T L
u p p e r c o n t r o l l i m i t , U C L
l o w e r c o n t r o l l i m i t , L C L
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
In recent years there has been growing recognition of the value of SPC
charts, since:
1. Control charts are a proven technique for improving productivity. A
successful
control chart program reduces scrap and rework, which are primary
productivity killers in any operation.
If scrap and rework are reduced:
productivity increases,
cost decreases, and
production capacity (measured as the number of conforming parts per
time period) increases.
[Link] charts are effective in preventing nonconformity. The control
chart helps keep the process in control, which is consistent with the do it
right the first time philosophy.
It is rarely cheaper to sort out good units from bad ones later on than it is
to build them correctly in the first place.
If there is no effective process control, operators are being paid to make
non-conforming product.
[Link] charts prevent unnecessary process adjustments. A control chart
can distinguish between background noise and abnormal variation; no other
device, including a human operator, is as effective in making this
distinction.
111
[Link] charts provide diagnostic information. Frequently, the pattern of
points on the control chart will contain information of diagnostic value to
an experienced operator or engineer. This information allows the
implementation of a change that improves the performance of a process.
5. Control charts provide information about process capability. The control
chart provides information about the value of important process parameters
and their stability over time. This allows an estimate of process capability
to be made. Since quality is an extremely important consideration in global
competitive markets, it is easy to understand why SPC and control charts
are being implemented by many firms.
112