WORK

MEASUREMENT
Rodger Koppa, P.E., Ph.D.
Industrial and Systems
Engineering
 Uses of Work Measurement
1. Compare efficiency of alternative
methods
2. Balance work among team members
3. Optimize number of machines per
operator (e.g., in a work cell)
4. Establish basis for
• Production planning and control
• Layout
• Process planning
• JIT
 More Uses
1. Pricing estimation
2. Standards for labor performance
and machine use for 1-5 and for
incentives
3. Information for labor cost control –
enable standard costs to be fixed
and maintained
 Basic Six Pack
 SELECT what to study
 RECORD that activity or operation
 EXAMINE the recorded data and modify
procedures/task allocation/layout using
Work Study to get the best method
 MEASURE quantity of work with respect to
time with the best method or ESTIMATE
using predetermined time data
 COMPILE a standard time for activity,
including allowances
 DEFINE activity and standard time
Work Measurement Techniques
1. Work Sampling
2. Structured Estimation
3. Time Study
4. Predetermined Motion Time
Standards (PMTS)
5. Standard Data Systems (SDS)
Technique 1: Work Sampling
Definition—Work Sampling
 Work sampling is a method of finding the
percentage occurrence of a given activity
by statistical sampling and random
observations
 Also known as:
 Activity sampling
 Ratio-delay study
 Random observation
 Snap-reading method
 Observation ratio study
When to Use Work Sampling
 Lots of time available (weeks)
 More than one worker and/or
machine
 Long cycle times
 Non-repetitive work cycles (but
must be distinct number of
categories)
Statistical Approach
 Best Case: observe activity all the
time
 Worst Case: observe activity once
and jump to conclusions based on
that one experience
 Realistic Case: observe often
enough to draw some conclusions
with a given level of confidence
(80%, 90%, 95%, 99%.....)
 How Often?
Setting How Often
 How much confidence you need
determines how many times you
must observe and go through the
six-pack
 Sometimes the target operation will
be going on, sometimes not
 Spend a period of hours or visit 5
times or more to estimate % time
activity happens
Sample Size Estimation
Where
pq
σp = SE of σp =
proportion n
p = % idle time
q = % working time
n = Number of
observations
needed (sample
size)
Sample Size Estimation (Cont’d)
 Suppose 95% confidence level
 10% margin of error
 Then 1.96 x (σp) = 10; so σp ≈ 5
 Preliminary study says machines
idle 25%
 Substitute these values of σp, p,q in
binominal sample equation and
solve for n
 n = 75 observations with margin of
+/- 10% (if +/- 5%, you need 300
observations!)
Randomized Observations
(Play the game right)

 Randomize with respect to time

 Divide shift into time slots
 Use random number table (or Excel)
and assign random numbers to each
time period, re-order time slots 1-n
 Observe in that order (will take
quite a few days or maybe weeks)
For Each Observation
 Record what is happening to level of
detail required:
 Machine working?
 Cutting
 Boring
 Grinding
 Machine Idle?
 Maintenance
 Waiting for materials
 Worker in restroom
Rated Work Sampling
 Equal-appearing rating (≤ 10
intervals) can be applied to pace of
operation if machine not idle
 Can set fixed intervals (no random
sampling) and rate pace at those
times
 Interval must be short with respect
to total cycle time
 Can be used with more than one
worker and/or machines
Work Sampling: So What?
 Simple technique usable in plants,
service operations, offices
 Low cost
 Avoids controversial aspects of time
study
 Management gets good idea of
where inefficiencies may lie
 Can trigger method studies, travel
studies
Work Measurement Techniques
• Work Sampling
• Structured Estimation
• Time Study
• Predetermined Motion Time
Standards (PMTS)
• Standard Data Systems (SDS)
Str uct ur ed Est imation

 Most widely used and oldest approach

 Based on past experience with
same/similar operations
 Very cheap to apply, but you get what
you pay for
 Much used for jobs/operations not yet
implemented
An al ytical A ppr oac h t o
Str uct ur ed Est imation
 Estimator should have experience in type
of job being considered and in work study
techniques (tall order)
 Alternatively the estimator derives
times/rates of production from
experienced workers by debriefing
An al ytical A ppr oac h

 Break job into elements than can

estimated for time
 Apply available estimates (experience,
Dodge Manual, other labor statistics)
 Time similar task elements or use
mockup/simulated workplaces
 SWAG
Work Measurement Techniques
• Work Sampling
• Structured Estimation
• Time Study
• Predetermined Motion Time
Standards (PMTS)
• Standard Data Systems (SDS)
What is a “Time Study?”
“Time study is a work measurement technique for
recording the times of performing a certain specific
job or its elements carried out under specified
conditions, and for analyzing the data so as to obtain
the time necessary for an operator to carry it out at a
defined rate of performance”
Introduction to Work Study 4th Ed
G. Kanawaty (Ed.) International Labor
Office, Geneva Switzerland 1992
Basic Time Study Approach
 Except for a Q&D study, don’t bother with a stop
watch
 Heisenberg principle
 Requires practice and multiple runs
 Acquire and use a video camera
 Digital video camera best and getting cheaper every
year
 Many digital (still) cameras have “movie” mode that
suffices for short cycles (5 min or less)
 “Movie Maker” software to analyze
Data Collection
 Can make up your own or use a spreadsheet
 Basic sheet layout sketched in next slide
 Summary sheet also can be hand-hacked or
produced on a spreadsheet (much prefer
using a spreadsheet!)
When to Do a Time Study
 Don’t bother with time study until Method
Study is done and as much inefficiency is
wrung out as possible
 Must optimize method before setting a
standard!
 Aim for what a “qualified” worker can do
without “undue” fatigue (engineering
judgment)
Caution
 Don’t try to do covert observations either with
stopwatch or with camera
 Invasion of personal privacy
 May or may not meet criterion of “motivated”
worker
 Duck image of “efficiency expert”
8 Basic Steps
1. Identify background, operator,
environmental factors that pertain to work
2. Do a Task Description down to “element”
level of detail
3. Do a Methods Study and optimize the task
4. Time each task element from video data or
by direct observation with a stopwatch
8 Basic Steps (Cont’d)
• Assess observed pace vs expected pace (IF
past experience/standard times exist)
• Extend observed times to Basic Times
• Determine Allowances
• Establish Standard Times
1. Background Information
 Retrieval/catalog information
 Study number
 Analyst and approvals (if needed)
 Date, time, location
 Product/part identification
 Process, method, plant, machine identification
 Worker’s identification or designation (do you really
need this?)
 Study duration
 Working conditions (temperature, humidity, lighting,
noise)
2/3. Task Description & Methods
Study
 Element: lowest component of a specified job
being timed, selected for convenience of
observation, measurement, and analysis
 Work Cycle: sequence of elements required
to perform a job or yield a unit of production
2/3. Task Description & Methods
Study (Cont’d)
 Observe task being done several times
 Debrief worker based on observations to identify
subtasks and/or study videos
 Perform Methods Study
 Optimize task based on results of Methods Study
 Train worker(s) to perform optimized task
 Repeat task cycle until performance becomes
asymptotic in skill and time
 Complete task description down to element level
2/3. Task Description & Methods
Study (Cont’d)
Types of Elements:
 Repetitive – comes up each cycle
 Irregular – comes up every now and then
 Constant – takes same time every time
 Variable – basic time varies with respect to some characteristics
of product
 Manual – done by worker
 Machine – automatic once started, can only be terminated by
operator
 Governing – Takes more time than any other element within
work cycle performed concurrently
2/3. Task Description & Methods
Study (Cont’d)
Picking elements to study:
 Define break points—distinct segments
 Elements should be 2-3 sec or longer
For timing purposes:
 Separate manual and machine elements
 Separate constant from variable elements
 Separate repetitive from irregular elements
4. Perform Time Study
How many repetitions to time or video?
2 Approaches:
3. Statistical estimation of sample size
4. Industrial practice (preferred)
Industrial Practice (source: General Electric)
 The shorter the cycle time, the larger the sample
size (Number of reps)
 Vary from 0.10 min = 200 reps to 40 or more min =
3 reps
Timing Each Element
 Video Recording:
 Record as many cycle reps as needed for sample
 Use time scale in software (Windows Movie Maker)
 Stopwatch (ugh):
 Cumulative timing: note start time of cycle and then
note time at end of each element
 Flyback timing: watch reset (but not stopped) at end of
each element and time noted
 Digital watch MUCH easier than analog
 Will have to go through cycle as many times as needed
for sample size and repeat for each concurrent
element
Time Study Rating
 Very subjective and full of pitfalls
 Helps if observation is as unobtrusive as
possible without being covert
 Helps if enough reps done so worker forgets
you are observing him AND if the worker is
“qualified”
Qualified?
A qualified worker is one who has acquired the
skills, knowledge and other (?) attributes to
carry out the work in hand to satisfactory
standards of quality, quantity, and safety
Bootstrap?
You bet!
Experience to Become Qualified
 May take only 1 shift
 May require 10,000 cycles for a complex
operation
 Motivation of worker key element
 Adversarial image of industrial engineer an
impediment:
 How do you make a win-win situation?
 How much do you know about the operation?
Fair Time
 Come up with factor to multiply observed
mean time to estimate “fair time”
 “Standard performance” is what can be
expected of an “average” worker over the
shift period, assuming:
 Knowledge of the job (qualified)
 Motivation to do work in professional manner

 Rating of such performance = 100

Rules of Thumb
 Standard rating (100) is represented by the
speed of motion of the limbs of a person
walking at 4 MPH (6.4 kph)
 Brisk, purposeful walk
 Standard rating, arm motion: Dealing a pack
of cards in 0.375 min
Rating Actual Performance

 100 scale actually 10 scale

 Ordinal scale of measurement
 Rater must be experienced and very familiar
with operation
Intervening Variables
 Variation in quality of materials or
subassemblies
 Changes in efficiency of tools and machines
 Method changes
 Worker attention and motivation
 Working environment
 Speed/accuracy tradeoff
0 – 100 Rating
Rating Performance Walking
50 Very slow, clumsy 2 mph
fumbling, unmotivated
75 Steady, deliberate, 3
unhurried
100 Brisk, businesslike 4
piece work pace
125 Very fast, assured, dexterous 5
coordinated
150 Exceptionally fast, intense 6
concentration, hard to keep up pace
Deriving Standard Times for Elements
 Convert observed times to Basic Times
BT = Observed Time x Observed Rating
Standard Rating (100)
 Derive “representative” BT
 Mean (but consider outliers)
 Median or mode
Variable Elements
 Compute SD as well as Mean
 Continue to observe until SD stabilizes
 Use mean as best estimate of time
Work Measurement Techniques
• Work Sampling
• Structured Estimation
• Time Study
• Predetermined Motion Time
Standards (PMTS)
• Standard Data Systems (SDS)
Predetermined Motion Time
Standards
“ An organized body of information, procedures,
techniques, and motion times employed in the
study and evaluation of manual work elements.
The system is expressed in terms of the motions
used, their general and specific nature, the
conditions under which they occur, and their
previously determined performance times”
--ANSI Standard Z94.11- 1989
History
 1915: PMTS presaged by Gilbreth’s “Therbligs”
 1927: A.B. Segur—”The time required for all
experts to perform the fundamental motions (of
work) is a constant”
 1934: J.H. Quick – Work Factor System
 1946: H.B. Maynard and others develop MTM
(Method-Time Measurement)
 1972: K.B. Zandlin develops Maynard
Operations Sequence Technique (MOST) from
MTM approach
Basic PMTS Approach
1. Do task description in terms of basic motions in a
defined workspace just as in Time Study
2. Perform work studies to improve task (unless task is in
planning stage)
3. Retrieve from data base the basic times associated
with each motion as modified by task conditions and
work variables
4. Sum all of these times to form the basic time for the
task (ratings automatically included)
5. Apply allowances (to be discussed) to arrive at
standard time for the task
PMTS Levels
Level 1: Very elemental motions like
Therbligs, suitable for short cycles
Level 2: Some motions combined, e.g.,
reach and grasp become get
Level 3: May only be 3 or 4 elements, e.g.,
handle, transport, step/foot motions,
bend/rise
A Few PMTS Variants
 Work-Factor (1930’s) WF
 Methods-Time Measurement (MTM-1, MTM-2, MTM-3,
others)
 Basic Motion Time Study (BMTS) based on MTM-1 and
Therbligs
 Master Standard Data (MSD) based on MTM-1
 Maynard Operation Sequence Technique (MOST)
emphasizes production and material handling at Level 1
and 2
 Modular Arrangement of Predetermined Time Standards
(MODAPTS) based on MTM’s and MSD; finger motion
is basic element
Basic MTM
Postulates:
 A given motion has a fundamental time to
accomplish that motion
 Each motion is independent of any other
with respect to time
 Simple chaining can provide a consistent
and accurate prediction of the basic time
of a given operation
Time Units
 Vary from system to system
 Most common: Time Measurement Unit
(tmu) = 0.00001 hour
0.0006 min
0.036 sec
MTM-2
 Most widely used MTM Technique
 15 basic motions
 Modify times by distance moved and
weight
 Not as complicated as it looks but requires
practice
Motions in MTM-2
Refer to handout, MTM-2 Basics
GET– reach, grab, release
GA –No grasp needed
GB – grasp, close hand
GC – thumb, finger only
GW – grasp and move mass
Motions in MTM-2
PUT – Move object from a to b
PA – ballistic motion
PB – Controlled motion
PC – Complex motion, obvious correcting
PW –Moving significant mass
Motions in MTM-2
REGRASP (P) –change mode of grasp
APPLY PRESSURE (A) –Isometric application of force
EYE ACTION (E) – Examine object, search
FOOT MOTION (F) – Shift foot position less than 30 cm
STEP (S) –Displace trunk, leg motion more than 30 cm
BEND & ARISE (B) – Lowering trunk, reach at/below
knees, return
CRANK (C) – Circular motion of handle
MTM -3
 Bare-bones “quick and dirty” analysis
 Only 4 work elements:
 Handle (HA and HB)
 Transport (TA and TB)
 Step and foot motions (SF)
 Bend and rise (B)
 A and B for H and T refer to “light” and “heavy”
loads
MOST
 Maynard Operation Sequence Technique
 Basic MOST
 Motionaggregates concerned with material
handling and moving objects
 General move-object is freely moved through
space
 Controlled move-object is slid or manipulated

 Tool use-hand tool operations

Basic MOST
General Move
 A – Action Distance: hand translation
loaded or unloaded, feet translation
 B –Body motion sit/stand
 G –Gain control (same as grasp)
 P –Placement: position, orient, lay aside
object
Basic MOST
Controlled Move
Object being moved is constrained (e.g., a contrtol
lever)
 A, B, G as in General Move
 M –Move, controlled: object is moved over a
certain path
 X –Process time associated with machine
 I –Align: motions at end of movement to ready
object for next operation
Basic MOST
Tool Use
 A,B,G,P as in General and Controlled Move
 Additional subtype is the specific use of the tool:
 Fasten, Loosen
 Cut
 Surfacetreat
 Measure
 Record
 Think
Other MOSTs
 MaxiMOST – for long, complex cycles,
e.g., heavy assembly, machine setup
 MiniMOST – Very short cycle, highly
repetitive work (1.6 min or less)
 Clerical MOST – For office operations
MOST for Windows
 Basic, Maxi, or MiniMOST
 2 Modules:
 Quick MOST – Select work methods given
application, canned procedures and times edited by
user as needed. Similar to using standard data
systems
 Direct MOST – User provides data on industry and
work situation, program generates possible work
method. Method refined by user (intelligent system)
Work Measurement Techniques
• Work Sampling
• Structured Estimation
• Time Study
• Predetermined Motion Time
Standards (PMTS)
• Standard Data Systems (SDS)
Standard Data Systems
 Industry or company specific data base
 Common elements from different tasks are
grouped and summarized
 Industry sources may have data that can be
applied to make a good-enough estimate of
cycle/operation times
 MOST for Windows is such a data base

 Semi-quantified experience
Data Base Development
 Decide what to cover, what to omit (otherwise data
base will be too large)
 Break jobs into elements that are common enough
to group together
 Derive times from standard data handbooks,
previous time or PMTS studies on similar
operations, or very limited observations (video tape
if possible) of representative elements in each group
 May need to use mockups or “air guitar” to get a feel for the
times
 Estimates from workers familiar with the tasks can be very
helpful, but NOT sufficient
Elements to Include
 Setup and Production
 Constant and variable

 Worker-paced and machine-paced

 Regular and irregular

Setup and Production
Elements
 How long does it take to set up for any batch
and changeover from one to another?
 Setup elements occur once per batch

 Production elements occur once per unit

output
 Total time to produce a batch is the sum of
setup time plus the product of number of
units in batch times batch time
Constant and Variable
Elements
 Constant: replace bit in drill press; push 4
buttons to initiate process
 Variable: material handling; place work piece
in lathe and secure; unload parts from
container
Worker-paced and Machine-
paced Elements
 Worker-paced: rebuild injector body; lay up
ceramic for firing
 Machine-paced: feed and speed, number of
operations and how controlled
Regular and Irregular Elements
 Regular: happen every cycle
 Irregular: not every cycle, so time must be
prorated based on expected frequency of
occurrence
From Basic Time to Standard
Time
• Once you have basic times from any
of the 5 approaches for each element
of interest you’re not finished yet!
• To derive a standard time for
planning, costing, and payroll,
allowances must be made
• Then basic time is adjusted by
allowances to arrive at standard time
Allowances
1. Individual (e.g., disabilities)
2. Work Factors
3. Environmental Factors
Cycle time is adjusted (longer) by allowances to
obtain Standard Time for cycle or activity
Rest periods may also be built into a shift or the
time prorated over cycles as allowances
PFD Allowance
 Personal, fatigue, and delay allowance
 Personal: 5% or more if stressful
environment
 Fatigue: 5% up to 20% or more for heavy
labor (negotiated or use formulas)
 Delay: (unintentional, caused by
breakdown or inefficiencies) depends on
company experience
Other Allowances
 Contingency: Unscheduled maintenance,
breakdowns, out of tolerance products,
should NOT exceed 5%
 Policy: machine part of cycle, training,
OJT
 Special: Industry specific such as
exposure to toxic materials, radioactivity
Machine Allowance
 A “Policy allowance”
negotiated between
Tstd = Tnt (1 + Apfd ) + Tm (1 + Am )
management and
labor
Where T = worker time during cycle
nt
 Pertains to wage T = machine time during cycle
m

incentive program A = PFD allowance

pfd

A = Machine allowance
m

 Machine time
(automatic)
“significant” part of
cycle time
Allowance Example
Assembly of a framus
 Cycle basic time is 10 min
 PFD allowance is 10% (no definite breaks,
worker is free to go to restroom, water cooler)
 Contingency allowance is 10% (junky equipment
up the line)
 Machine allowance is 0 (hand and pneumatic
tools only in this operation)
 Training allowance is 5% (high turnover)

Standard time = 10 x 1.25 = 12.5 min

Worker-Machine Standard Times

Some terminology:
 Unrestricted work: hand/power tool work
where output affected by factors under
worker control during cycle. Person-
machine relationship
 Restricted work: Machine does some to
most of work done, worker initiates,
terminates, but cannot change machine
part of cycle. Person-machine system
Basic Concepts
• Machine maximum time—time machine available
during given period
• Machine idle time—machine theoretically available, but
other factors preclude use
• Machine ancillary time—machine out for cleaning,
setting, programming
• Machine down time—machine out for breakdown,
maintenance, repair
• Machine running time—time during which it is actually
running/producing (Trt = 1 – (2,3,4)
• Machine running time standard—(2,3,4) minimized
3 Indices
• Machine Utilization Index: Running Time
Avail Time
2. Machine Efficiency Index: RT Standard
RT
3. Machine Effective Utilization Index:
RT Standard
Avail Time
Approach to Improving Restricted
Work
 Maximize 3 indices (approx. 1)
 Do methods study with machine time in
cycle fixed
 Worker does part of work in cycle while
machine stopped (“outside” work)
 Worker does part of work while machine
does its thing (“inside” work)
 What outside work could be shifted to
inside work, thus shortening cycle time?
Allowances in Restricted Work
 Personal needs PN – based on total cycle time,
worker is at workplace even if he/she not
actually doing anything
 Fatigue FA—based on time (inside/outside)
worker actually is doing something productive
 Try to allocate during machine part of cycle
 BUT consider whether machine can be left
unattended, if not “floaters” may be necessary
 Most often, personal need times must be outside
cycle (cycle time too short to run to restroom!)
Fatigue Allowance (FA)
 If 90 sec or more unoccupied time, charge
it to FA
 If 30-90 sec unoccupied time, deduct 30
sec and multiple by 1.5
4 Basic Situations
1. All PN and FA taken outside cycle
2. PN outside, FA inside
3. PN and some FA outside, some FA
inside
4. PN and FA inside
Try to work DOWN this list to achieve # 4 by
method study
Unoccupied Time “Allowance”
 On some person-machine systems worker is
unoccupied during the machine portion of a
cycle much more than on other systems
 Should worker be paid the same when he/she is
working vs not working during cycle?
 Paying same leads to perceived inequities in pay
between high-manual vs high-machine jobs
 Pay rate may be different for “work” vs.
“unoccupied” time to compensate
Multiple Machines
 1 worker may tend more than 1 machine
 2 or more workers may tend 1 machine (e.g.,
power plant)
 To study cycle, IE must do timelines for each
worker and each machine in cycle
 “Load factor” = proportion of cycle time required
by worker to carry out necessary work during
machine process cycle
 Reciprocal of Load Factor ~ Number of
machines worker “could” tend during cycle
 Resources
Beside the WEB, consider these publications:
1. Groover, M.P. Work Systems and the Methods,
Measurement, and Management of Work
Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007
2. Kanawaty, G. (Ed) Introduction to Work Study
(4th Ed) International Labour Office, Geneva,
Switzerland, 1992
3. Mundell, M.E. and Danner, D.L. Motion and
Time Study: Improving Productivity (7th Ed)
Prentice Hall 1994