RADIO TRANSMITTERS LAURENCE GRAY RICHARD GRAHAM Transmission Laboratory, ITT Laboratories McGRAW-HILL BOOK COMPANY New York Toronto London 1961RADIO TRANSMITTERS Copyright © 1961 by the McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. Printed in the United States of America, All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form without permission of the publishers. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 60-8834 56789-MP-98 24240PREFACE There is a wealth of published information covering the circuitry used in radio transmitters. Similarly there are a number of books devoted entirely to the subject of modulation, oscillators, measurements, etc. However, there has been a lack of books which present the transmitter engineer or operator with a comprehensive discussion of those areas which are of immediate interest to him, and which are arranged to present this material from the “transmitter”? viewpoint. It is the purpose of this book to collate this material which is of particular interest to transmitter design engineers and which will be useful to those engaged in transmitter operation and maintenance. Certain portions should also be of interest to the advanced amateur. It is assumed that the reader has at least attained the necessary knowl- edge required to obtain a commercial operator’s license. Therefore no attempt has been made to go into the elementary principles of electricity. Conversely, the book does not give mathematical derivations of the equa- tions presented throughout the text. The general scope of the work does not permit this. Rather the book is intended to present a practical analysis of transmitter operation in all its various phases, together with usable information pertaining to specific problems in transmitter opera- tion. Thus for those whose problems demand a more complete analysis or additional mathematical support, the reference lists provided at the end of each chapter will indicate additional source material. The analysis of transmitter operation has been developed by first grouping and discussing circuits and components common to all trans- mitting equipment. Chapter 12 is devoted to the discussion of the particular characteristics of transmitters in specific services. Measure- ment techniques particularly applicable to transmitters are described in Chap. 13, and finally a brief summary of hazards associated with trans- mitters is given in Chap. 14. We wish to thank the many manufacturers and organizations who con- tributed material. We also wish to thank ITT Laboratories for permis- sion to include some previously unpublished material. Acknowledg- ment of the sources of illustrations has been given individually. We are appreciative of the many valuable suggestions and criticisms made by W. Glomb, A. L. Gray, W. Jacobus, R. McSweeny, A. H. Morgan, J. R. Popkin-Clurman, Dr. H. P. Schwan, and W. Sichak. Laurence Gray Richard GrahamCONTENTS Preface. 1 1 0 we Chapter 1. Introduction 1-1. Definition 1-2. Licensing and Identification 1-3. Classification of Transmitters 1-4, Signal-transmission Terms 1-5. Transmission Frequencies . 1-6. Radiated Power Levels. 1-7. Modulation 1-8. Power Supplies, Control Circuits, ‘and Cooling Chapter 2. Frequency-control Techniques 2-1, Basic Methods of Control . 2-2. Inductance-Capacitance Oscillators . 23. Quartz Crystals 2-4. Crystal Mountings . 2-5. Crystal Ovens . 2-6. Crystal-frequency Correlation. 2-7, Military Standard Crystal Units 2-8. Crystal-oscillator Circuits . 2-9. Parallel-resonant Circuits . 2-10. Series-resonant Circuits 2-11. Drive Level 2-12. Variable-frequency Crystal Oseillators 2-13. Frequency Stability of Crystal Oscillators 2-14. Frequency Control in F-M Transmitters 2-15, Frequency Control of Microwave Oscillators 2-16. Frequency Synthesizers 2-17, Frequency Multipliers a and Dividers . 2-18. Mixers 2-19. Filters . 2-20. Drift-canceled Oscillator 2-21. Synthesizing Systems . Chapter 8. R-F Power Amplifiers 3-1. General Amplifier Considerations. 3-2, Amplifier Classifications 3-3. Dynamic Operating Conditions 3-4. Amplifier Configurationsviii 3-5. 3-6. 3-7. 3-8. 3-9. 3-10. 3-11. 3-12, 3-13. 3-14. 315. 3-16. 3-17. 3-18. 3-19. CONTENTS Amplifier Efficiency Efficiency and Plate-current Conduction Angle. The Characteristics of the Class A Amplifier The Characteristics of the Class B Amplifier The Characteristics of the Class C Amplifier A Simplified Method of Amplifier Design The Grounded-cathode Amplifier. The Grounded-grid Amplifier, General Characteristics The Grounded-plate Amplifier . Amplifier Output Load Resistance Amplifier Stabilization The Linear Amplifier Wideband Amplifier Frequency Multipliers . Practical Circuit Considerations Chapter 4. Power Tubes . 4-10, . Transmitting-tube Construction . . The Cathode . Grids . Anodes . General Types of ‘Transmitting Tubes . Klystron Amplifier Tubes . . Reflex Klystrons . Traveling-wave Tubes . . Magnetrons . Platinotrons, Amplitrons, and Stabilotrons . Chapter 6. Coupling Circuits. 2. . . . . . . . 5-1. 5-2. 5-3. 5-4, 5-5. 5-6. 5-7. 5-8. 5-9. 5-10. 5-11. 5-12. 5-13. 5-14. 5-15. 5-16. 5-17. Coupling Networks. Parallel-tuned Circuits Series-tuned Circuits The Double-tuned Circuit Envelope Delay. . Matching Network Configurations . The Basis of the L, , and T Matching Networks The L Network . oe The Network The T Network The 7-L Network Reactive Load Impedances Link-coupled Circuits . Balanced-to-unbalanced Coupling Networks Matching-network Efficiency . Impedance Matching in Transmission Lines Impedance Matching in Waveguide Circuits Chapter6. Amplitude Modulation . . . . . . . 6-1. 6-2. Amplitude Modulation. Sidebands . . . 89 89 89 93 93 95 95 99 100 103, 104 108 108 108 lll 112 115 115 116 U7 118 120 121 122 122 125 128 129 132 134 134 1346-3. 6-5. 6-22. 6-23. 6-24. CONTENTS Double-sideband Amplitude Modulation . On-ofi Keying Diode Modulator . Plate Modulation . Grid Modulation . . Amplification of Modulated R-F Voltages . Carrier-suppression Techniques . Vestigial-sideband ‘Transmission Phase-to-amplitude Modulation Negative Feedback . Single Sideband . Advantages of Single Sideband . Methods of Generating an SSB Signal . The Balanced Modulator Quartz Crystal Filters . . Mechanical Filters ). Audio Phase-shift Networks ). R-F Phase-shift Networks . Frequency Translation in SSB ‘Transmitters Linearity Measurement in SSB Transmitters Signal-to-distortion Ratio Sideband Suppression Chapter 7. Angle and Pulse Modulation 7-1. 7-2. 7-3. 7-4. 7-5. 7-6. 7-7. 7-8. 7-9. 7-10. 7-1. 7-12. 7-13. 7-14, ‘Angle Modulation . Sidebands Produced by Angular Modulation Sideband Characteristics : P-M to F-M Conversion : Methods of Generating Phase Modulation Direct Generation of Frequency Modulation Pulse Modulation . Sidebands Produced by Pulse ‘Modulation Pulse Generators Pulse-amplitude Modulation . Pulse-duration Modulation Pulse-position Modulation Pulse-code Modulation Delta Modulation Chapter 8. Power Supplies 1. 8-2. 3-3. 8-4. 85. 8-6. 8-7. 8-8. 8-9. 8-10. A-C Voltage Regulators Power-supply Voltage Control Power-supply Circuits Rectifiers : Power-supply Filter Circuits . Transformers and Chokes Corona : Filament Starting D-C Regulators D-C to D-C Power Supplies 172 174 177 178 181 181 182 183 184 186 189 193 194 195 198 199 200 200 201 206 206 213 215 218 224 228 231 232 236 238x CONTENTS Chapter 9. Control and Protective Circuits. 9-1. 9-2. 9-3. 9-4. 9-5. 9-6. 9-7. 9-8. 9-9. 9-10. oll. 9-12. 9-13. 9-14. 9-15. 9-16. 9-17. Control and Protective Circuits Functions of the Control Circuits Power Control ‘Transmitter Sequencing and Interlocking Circuits . Indication and Alarms . Transmitter Recycling Circuits Remote Control. : Transmitter Telemetering . . Automatic Tuning of Transmitters Protective-circuit Functions Protective-cireuit Philosophy . The Fuse. . The Circuit Breaker : Circuit-breaker Applications Electronic Crowbar. R-F Overload Protection . Across-the-line Diagrams . Chapter 10. Cooling 10-1. 10-2. 10-3. 10-4. 10-5. Transmitter Cooling Forced-air Cooling of Tubes Liquid Cooling of Tubes : Tube Temperature Measurement. Genera) Cabinet Cooling Chapter 11. R-F Components 11-1. 11-2. 11-3. 11-4. 11-5. 11-6. 1167. 11-8. 11-9, 11-10. 11-11. 11-12, 11-13, L1-14, 11-15, 11-16. R-F Components Directional Coupiers Coe Dummy Loads. . Foe Lossy Dielectric Loads . R-F Filters . Vestigial-sideband Filter Diplexers. soe The MagicT . . The Coaxial Hybrid Ring . Common Frequency Diplexing of Transmitters. Special Adjustment of Combined Transmitters Power Dividers . Transmission-line Switching Microwave Ferrites. 2 2 1. Isolators . Circulators Chapter 12. Transmitter Characteristics 12-1. 12-2, 12-3. 12-4, 12-5. 12-6. ‘Transmitter Applications : Navigation Radar fone Telegraph ‘Transmitters nr Telephone Transmitters Mobile Transmitters 244 244 244 244 247 249 251 254 257 259 260 260 262 263 263 265 266 268 270 270 270 277 281 281 283 283 283 290 291 292 293 294 297 298 298 300 301 303, 305 305, 306 309 309 309 310 312 316 317CONTENTS 12-7. Telemetry Transmitters. 2. 2 . 2 1. . 1. ww 12-8, Broadcast Transmitters © 2 2... ww ee 12-9. Television Transmitters. . BP 12-10. Broadcast Repeaters and Translators oe coe 12-11. R-F Generation for Noncommunication Purposes . Chapter 13. Transmitter Measurement Techniques . 13-1. Transmitter Measurements 13-2. Power Measurements . . - 2. - . 1. 7 we 13-3. Frequency Measurements . Se 13-4. Time Measurements . Be 13-5. A-M and F-M Measurements. . 13-6. Demodulated Audio Measurements 18-7. Telegraph Keying Measurements. 13-8. Broadband Radio System Measurements 13-9. Pulse-transmitter Modulation Measurements 13-10. Monochrome Video Modulation Measurements. 13-11. Color Video Measurements fol 13-12. Antenna Measurements 13-13. Spurious Transmitter Output Measurements Chapter 14. Hazards Associated with Transmitters 14-1, Health Hazards. 142. Electric Shock . . 143. Treatment of Electric Shock . 14-4, Precautions against Electric Shock 14-5. Lightning Hazards 14-6, Power-line Shorts . 147. X-ray and R-F Radiation Hazards 14-8. Chemical Hazards . . Appendix Index - Se 318 319 320 328 329 333 333 333 344 359 361 367 372 373 375 375 388, 393,CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1-1. Definition. Radio transmitters, for the purpose of discussion in this book are defined as generators of useful radio-frequency (r-f) energy which are intended to be connected to some form of electromagnetic radiator. The “receiver” of the transmitted energy may be only a few inches away as in the case of induction heating equipment or a diathermy machine, or it may be thousands of miles away. A transmitter is an assembly of an r-f generator, amplifiers, modulator, power supplies, control circuits, and cooling equipment. Each of these items will be discussed in detail. 1-2. Licensing and Identification. The operation of a transmitter generally requires a license issued by the government having jurisdiction over the location or vehicle in which the transmitter is located. In the United States the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) specifies a value of radiation above which a transmitter license is required. Below this value the equipment is called an incidental or restricted-radiation device. For frequencies above 1,600 ke the radiation field must not exceed 15 wv per m at a distance of 157 ju (f The limiting values for frequencies between 10 and 1,600 ke are given in Table 1-1. No radiation is permitted on the international distress frequency which is 500 ke. Tance 1-1, Freup SrrenorH Limits ror UNLICENSED TRANSMITTERS Frequency, | Distance,| Maximum field ke ft || strength, wv/m 10—490 1,000 2,400 Sree 510-1, 600 100 24,000 Se2 RADIO TRANSMITTERS These limits permit the use of “wireless”? microphones and radio- control systems without a license. Radio transmissions are identified by call letters which are assigned when a license is issued. Blocks of call letters are assigned to the various countries by international agreement. A list of call-letter assignments is given in Table A-1 (in the Appendix). Transmitter operation in the United States is governed by the various rules and regulations issued by the FCC (1). 1-3. Classification of Transmitters. For licensing purposes trans- mitters are classified according to the bandwidth, the type of modulation, and the type of intelligence being sent. The classification is identified by combinations of numerals and letters as shown in Table 1-2. Taste 1-2. TransmiItTER Emission CiassiFicaTIoNs Example: 3 A 3 a = ssb telephony \ pO ST Type of ‘Type of Supplementar; Bandwidth, ke / modulation or information characteristics emission System bandwidth A—Continuous O—No keying or No letter given for required for proper wave including modulation full carrier a-m or reproduction at the all types of a-m | 1—Telegraphy any type of f-m. receiver. B—Damped wave without other | a—Single-sideband, Examples (spark) modulation reduced carrier A8a voice—3 ke F—Angular modu- | 2—Telegraphy us- (ssb) A3 voice—6 ke lation ing modulated | b—Independent A5 VSB television— (frequency or earrier. (Car- sideband, 6,000 ke phase) rier may or may reduced carrier For frequencies below | P—Pulsed emission not be keyed) (isb) 10 ke, a maximum 3—Telephony c—Other types of of two significant 4—Facsimile reduced carrier figures may be 5—Television d—Pulse amplitude given after decimal: 6—Muitiplex teleg- modulation Examples raphy (PAM) Al telegraphy, 25 9—Composite and | e—Pulse width wpm—0.1 ke cases not cov- modulation Fl telegraphy, 100 ered above (PWM) wpm—1,25 ke 'f—Pulse position modulation (PPM) 1-4. Signal-transmission Terms. The bandwidth required for a system will depend upon the rate at which information is to be sent, the type of modulation, and the amount of distortion that can be toleratedINTRODUCTION 3 in the reproduced signal. The International Radio Consultative Com- mittee (CCIR) which is a body of the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) makes recommendations concerning the necessary band- width for various types of transmission (2). In the case of telegraph transmission the rate of sending information is given in bauds. In on-off telegraphy, the on, key-down, or radiated- power condition is called the mark, while the off condition is called the space condition. In frequency-shift transmission it is conventional to call the higher frequency the mark. The speed in bauds is the total number of elementary marks and spaces per second. The speed in bauds will be twice the number of cycles per second (eps). In the case of the transmission of business-machine or telemetered data, it is more usual to express the speed in bits or kilobits (1,000 bits) per second. Bits per second and bauds represent equivalent speeds. The information rates for telephony, facsimile, and television are simply given in cycles per second. Table 1-3 gives conversion factors to convert words per minute into bauds or cycles per second for various codes (3). Tasie 1-3, Facrors To CONVERT WPM TO BAUDS OR CPS FOR VARIOUS CoDES Code bauds cps International Mors 0.9 0.45 American Morse... 0.85 0.425 Cable Morse. . 0.4 0.2 Start-stop teleprinti 0.742 0.371 Synchronous teleprinter (no start or + stop pulses). 0.50 0.25 1-5. Transmission Frequencies. The frequencies which are allocated to transmitters in the various classes of service are constantly changed as the state of the art advances, and no attempt will be made in this book to give the specific frequency allocations. The general division of the frequency spectrum is decided at the international telecommunication conventions which are held approximately at 10-year intervals. Fre- quency allocations in the United States are given in vol. 2, part 2 of the FCC “Rules and Regulations” (1). The frequencies of fixed stations throughout the world are recorded by the International Frequency Registration Board (IFRB), which is another body of the ITU, and the information is published in the “Radio Frequency Record.” The useful r-f spectrum is divided into ranges which are given names and band numbers. The band number refers to the power of 10 appli-4 RADIO TRANSMITTERS cable to the high end of each range. Designations given by the CCIR are given in Table 1-4. TasiE 1-4. CCIR Frequency-Rancs DEsIGNATIONS Band number | Frequency range Designation 4 3-30 ke vif, very low 5 30-300 ke HH, low 6 300-3,000 ke | m-f, medium 7 3,000-20,000 ke | h-f, high g 30-300 Me _| vhf, very high 9 300-3,000 Mc _ | ukf, ultrahigh 10 3-30kMe —_| shf, superhigh ret 30-300 kMe | ehf, extremely high 12 300-3,000 kMe | Not named The uhf and shf bands are further broken down into lettered designa- tions which are given in Table 12-1. The allowable tolerance or variation from assigned frequencies is also established by international agreement. In some cases the individual governments may enforce more restrictive tolerances. Observance of the tolerance restrictions is an important factor in permitting the maxi- mum number of transmitters to occupy the frequency spectrum without mutual interference. Methods of frequency control are discussed in detail in Chap. 2. 1-6. Radiated Power Levels. The maximum amount of radiated power permitted for each class of service is specified in government regulations. In many cases the particular license for a transmitting station may further limit the radiated power. In some cases, such as in the amateur service and maritime service where it is difficult to standard- ize antenna efficiencies, transmitter power is limited on the basis of input to the final amplifier rather than radiated power. In general it is the policy to limit power levels to the minimum required to perform the desired service. Methods of r-f power amplification are discussed in Chap. 3. Chapter 4 covers power-amplifier tubes, and Chap. 5 discusses methods of coupling power amplifiers to antennas. In Chap. 11 a number of special com- ponents which are associated with the problem of coupling power to antennas at very high frequencies and microwave frequencies are described. It is important that 99 per cent or more of the radiated power lies within the bandwidth permitted for each class of service. Spurious out-of-band radiation can seriously interfere with other services. TheINTRODUCTION 5 most common type of spurious radiation is on frequencies which are multiples or harmonics of the desired frequency. Another type of spurious radiation is the excessive sidebands generated as the result of overmodulation. In a transmitter where the output frequency is derived from a mixer, the unwanted mixer products must be sufficiently attenuated. Similarly, in cases where the output frequency is derived from multipliers, the subharmonics must not be radiated. When there is some degree of coupling between two antennas con- nected to a pair of transmitters operating at one location, intermodulation can occur in each transmitter. For example, if one transmitter is on frequency A and the other is on a higher frequency B, the first transmitter can generate spurious frequencies at A — (B — A), A + 2(B — A), A + 3(B — A), etc. Similarly, the B transmitter can generate spurious outputs at B + (B — A), B + 2(B ~ A), ete. Spurious output frequencies can be attenuated by filters, stubs, or other devices in the transmission line between the transmitter and antenna. It is important that direct radiation of spurious frequencies from the cabinet is kept to a minimum. 1-7. Modulation. Intelligence is imparted to a radio transmitter by the process of modulation. This is a process whereby the characteristics of a wave are modified by means of another, lower-frequency wave. A basic example is the human voice. The mouth cannot be moved at a rate of more than about 10 cps, while the aperture of the human ear is too small to allow reception of this frequency. The vocal chords can generate higher frequencies which the ear can hear, but these frequencies are only converted into intelligence when modulated by the mouth and tongue. The higher frequency is called the carrier wave. Two or more channels of information can be sent on a single carrier by modulating the carrier with subcarriers which, in turn, are modulated with the information to be sent. The type of modulation applied to the carrier may be different from that applied to the subcarriers. The standard notation which indicates modulation types shows the modula- tions in turn from left to right as the information proceeds to the carrier For example, a-m/f{-m’ means that the information to be sent amplitude- modulates the subcarriers, and the subcarriers frequency-modulate the carrier. The principal types of modulation are amplitude, angular, and pulse. Amplitude-modulation methods are taken up in Chap. 6. Angular- (frequency- and phase-) and pulse-modulation methods are described in Chap. 7. No modulation method is optimum for all conditions, and many factors must be considered (4). The choice of the best method for a given appli- 1 Sometimes written as AM/FM.6 RADIO TRANSMITTERS cation will depend on a number of system considerations which are beyond the scope of this book, but the relative merits of a few types will be mentioned. Modulation should not only be considered as a means of superimposing a message onto a carrier but should also be considered as a means of protecting the message from mutilation by noise during transmission. The performance of a communication system is usually expressed in terms of the signal-to-noise ratio (s/n or snr) at the equipment output +60 + a 3 + a Ss + a s Quantization distortion for 5-code pulse {32 Level)pem | i Thresholds for ordinary f-m discriminator Phose-locked loop discriminator con [extend threshold J by amount depending 00 ratio of input to ‘output bandwidth Signal-to-noise ratio ofter detection, db * FS 8 -20 -20 10 0 +10 +20 +30 «+40 +50 +60 Carrier-to-noise ratio before detection, db Fi. 1-1. Comparison of modulation types. terminals. There will be a carrier-to-noise ratio at the input to the receiver detector, which will depend on the power being received from the transmitter and the noise power in the bandwidth which is passed by the receiver filters. In the case of amplitude modulation the demodu- lated signal-to-noise ratio will be no better than the carrier-to-noise ratio. In the case of frequency modulation, on the other hand, there will be an improvement, provided the signal exceeds a certain threshold, that is proportional to the modulation index.! The threshold level can be reduced by means of phase-lock or synchronous detection techniques at the receiver (5). 1 See Sec. 7-1 for definition of modulation index.INTRODUCTION 7 A more rapid improvement in the output signal-to-noise ratio can be achieved by the use of certain types of pulse modulation. Figure 1-1 shows typical values of signal-to-noise ratio after detection as related to carrier-to-noise ratios before detection for frequency modulation and also for pulse-code modulation. The noise in each case is that measured over the bandwidth being used. For random noise, the noise power will be proportional to the bandwidth in which the measurement is taken. Other methods of improving receiver output signal-to-noise ratios for a given transmitter power include the use of preemphasis (accentuation of high frequencies) in the transmitter with subsequent deemphasis in the receiver. Also peak compression at the transmitter with subsequent expansion in the receiver (compandor) can be used. These techniques will not be discussed as they are not related to transmitter design other than the selection of the output power for a given application. The methods of establishing necessary transmitter power outputs for a required type of service involve many systems considerations and will not be discussed (6). 1-8. Power Supplies, Control Circuits, and Cooling. A transmitter could be described as a piece of hardware which converts a-c or d-c power intor-f power. The a-c or d-c input voltage must usually be converted to higher and lower voltages for proper operation of the various circuits in a transmitter, and Chap. 8 describes methods of doing this. Control and protection of power supplies and other circuits is discussed in Chap. 9. A certain amount of power is always lost in the form of heat in power supplies and amplifiers. Cooling methods are discussed in Chap. 10. REFERENCES 1. Federal Communications Commission: ‘Rules and Regulations,” Superintendent of Documents, Washington D.C. Vol. I: part 0, Statement of Organization, Delegations of Authority and Other Information; part 1, Practice and Procedure; part 13, Commercial Radio Operators; part 17, Construction, Marking and Light- ing of Antenna Structures. Vol. II: part 2, Frequency Allocations and Radio Treaty Matters; General Rules and Regulations; part 5, Experimental Radio Services (other than broadcast); part 15, Incidental and Restricted Radiation Devices; part 18, Industrial, Scientific and Medical Service. Vol. III: part 3, Radio Broadcast Services; part 4, Experimental, Auxiliary and Special Broadcast Services. Vol. IV: part 7, Stations on Land in Maritime Services; part 8, Sta- tions on Shipboard in the Maritime Services; part 14, Public Fixed Stations and Stations of the Maritime Services in Alaska. Vol. V: part 9, Aviation Services; part 10, Public Safety Radio Services; part 11, Industrial Radio Services; part 16, Land Transportation Radio Services; Vol. VI: part 12, Amateur Radio Service; part 19, Citizens Radio Services; part 20, Disaster Communications Service. Vol. VII: part 6, International Fixed Public Radio-communication Services; part 21, Domestic Public Radio Services (other than maritime mobile); (Note: Volumes VIII, IX, and X relate to accounts, reports, and tarifis and do not cover equipment.)8 RADIO TRANSMITTERS 2. “Reference Data for Radio Engineers,” 4th ed., pp. 21-23, International Tele- phone & Telegraph Corporation, 1956. 3. Sce Ref. 2, p. 846. 4, Kelley, G. J.: Choosing the Optimum Type of Modulation: A comparison of several communication systems, IRE Trans. on Commun, Systems, vol. CS-6, pp. 14-21, June, 1958. 5. McAleer, H. T.: A New Look at the Phase-locked Oscillator, Proc. IRE, vol. 47, pp. 1137-1143, June, 1959. 6. Walker, A. P.: “NAB Engineering Handbook,” Section 2, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., New York, 1960.CHAPTER 2 FREQUENCY-CONTROL TECHNIQUES 2-1. Basic Methods of Control. The importance of the stability of the output frequency of a radio transmitter was discussed in Chap. L. The following methods of transmitter frequency control are used: 1. Tuned circuit using lumped inductance and capacitance, trans- mission line, or cavity 2. Quartz crystal resonator 3. Frequency synthesizer using crystals or tuning fork as basic stable source Simple tuned-circuit control is useful where equipment is under constant direct control of an operator and where adequate monitoring facilities are available to check that the transmitter output frequency is what is desired. This type of control is in wide use by amateur operators where flexibility is desirable and only short-term stability is needed. High- frequency broadcast transmitters are also frequently controlled by this method. With careful design and control of operating conditions, relatively good stabilities are obtainable. Short-term (1-hr) stabilities of { part in 106 and medium-term (1 day) stabilities of 10 parts in 10° have been reported (1). Crystal Control. Excellent frequency stability is obtainable by directly controlling an oscillator with a quartz crystal. This is the typical method of control for fixed-frequency operation such as broadcasting. Automatic Frequency Control. In many cases, direct frequency control is less practical than a servomechanism type of control where a constantly developed correction voltage is derived from a frequency or phase com- parator. This correction voltage is then applied to a circuit which adjusts the oscillator frequency. One example is in microwave equip- ment where direct-frequency multiplication from a stable source is not economical at driving-power levels. Another example is a reactance- tube-modulated f-m transmitter. Synthesizers. Where a large number of stable output frequencies are required from a transmitter, it becomes impractical to supply a separate crystal for each frequency. A unit called a frequency synthesizer will 910 RADIO TRANSMITTERS generate a large number of stable frequencies from one or a few stable sources. With the increased use of single-sideband operation, close control of both receiver and transmitter are necessary. High-stability synthesizers make this type of operation practical in mobile units (2,3). Another reason for the increased need for synthesizers is that calling and answering procedures are time-consuming and can be avoided by setting the trans- mitter and receiver to the correct frequency before any transmission takes place. 2-2. Inductance-Capacitance Oscillators. The stability of simple inductance-capacitance oscillators depends on the extent with which the tuned circuit can be isolated from the associated tube or transistor. It also depends on how well the tuned-circuit components can be made to maintain their values independently of environ- mental conditions. Isolation of the G me tuned circuit from the rest of the equip- ment is achieved by shielding. Isolation of the tuned circuit from the driving tube can be accomplished by using the low-impedance series-tuned oscillator circuit developed by Gouriet and Clapp (4,5). The basic circuit is shown in Fig. 2-1. The minimum condition for oscillation is given by = BICC: m= QC. where gn = transconductance, umhos OB+ Fi, 2-1. Clapp oscillator. (2-1) f = operating frequency, Me C; = grid-to-cathode capacity, puf C2 = cathode-to-ground capactiy, upf Q = Q of tuned circuit which is usually Q of the coil alone in this cireuit C, = capacity in tuned circuit, uuf The circuit will oscillate if g,, is equal to or greater than the above quan- tity. The best stability against tube voltage variations is obtained when C; and C2 have maximum values consistent with continuing oscillation. It can be seen from Eq. (2-1) that C1 and C2 may be increased if Q or gm is increased. The gm required to maintain oscillation increases as the operating frequency is increased, and this type of circuit is not generally used over a frequency range of more than 1.2to1. This ratio is adequate for high-frequency broadcasting, and amateur use where continuous coverage is only needed over restricted ranges.FREQUENCY-CONTROL TECHNIQUES li For highest stability of LC oscillators, low-level operation with some form of automatic level contro) is desirable. This can be done by rectifying a portion of the output and using the direct current obtained to control the oscillator grid-bias voltage. Temperature Compensation. The tuned-circuit components should be stabilized against temperature variations. One method is to install the tuned circuit in an oven and control the temperature. With the circuit shown in Fig. 2-1, the tuned circuit may be separated from the associated tube or other heat-producing components and connected with a coaxial cable. Capacities C, and C2 will usually be much larger than the capacity of a convenient length of coaxial cable. The tuned-circuit components will then remain close to room temperature, and, if the room-temperature changes are small, compensation will not be necessary. If operation over a wide temperature range is necessary, compensation of the inductance, capacitance, or both may be needed (6). If the changes are small, the frequency change is approximately given by Af _ AC | AL —F 36+ Sr (2-2) where Aj, AC, and AL are the changes in frequency, capacity, and induct- ance over the temperature range being considered. f, C, and L must be expressed in the same units. AC/C and AL/L are called the temperature coefficients and are usually expressed in parts per million per degree centigrade (ppm per °C). Fixed ceramic capacitors are available in a variety of temperature coefficients from +150 ppm per °C to —1,600 ppm per °C. Temperature-compensating inductances are not generally used but can be made by using a variable iron core which is adjusted by some thermally actuated device. A single-turn loop, coupled to the inductor and rotated in response to temperature changes has also been used. In a variable-frequency oscillator where both the capacitor and inductor have temperature coefficients, exact compensation is only obtainable at one frequency. Where the requirements do not justify the use of a temperature-controlling oven, the best compromise is to select a low-coefficient fixed inductance and then to select the tempera- ture coefficients of C1 and C2, considering the circuit of Fig. 2-1, so that a zero frequency-temperature coefficient is obtained at mid-frequency in the tuning range. It is usual practice to make the temperature-com- pensating capacitor a smali percentage of the total capacity and then to use a relatively high temperature coefficient such as 750 ppm per °C. The main section of the capacitor should be a stable type such as silvered mica, Other Circuits. There are many varieties of LC circuits which are covered in detail in a number of textbooks (7). Simplified circuits of the12 RADIO TRANSMITTERS Hartley (tapped inductance), Colpitts (tapped capacitor), electron- coupled, and tuned-plate tuned-grid oscillators are shown in Fig. 2-2. In the Hartley and Colpitts oscillators the effect of the tube on the tuned circuit can be reduced by the insertion of small reactances between the tuned circuit and the tube (8). In the vhf range the tuned circuits may be transmission lines, while in the uhf range the tuned circuit may be a Output Output Be Fia. 2-2. (Top left) Hartley oscillator. (Top right) Colpitts oscillator. (Bottom left) Electron-coupled oscillator. (Bottom right) Tuned-grid-tuned-plate oscillator. resonant cavity (9,10). A traveling-wave tube which is a broadband high- gain amplifying tube may be used for a relatively stable uhf oscillator by using a high-Q resonant cavity in the feedback path (11). 2-3. Quartz Crystals. Quartz, which is silicon dioxide, is the com- monest of minerals, but in its ordinary form it shows no piezoelectric properties. Silicon atoms have positive charges, and oxygen atoms have negative charges. In an ordinary piece of quartz in which the molecules are randomly arranged, physical pressure will move the molecules to new positions in a random manner, and no net change in electric charge between opposite sides occurs. In crystalline quartz, however, the mole- cules and atoms are arranged in exact symmetry, and, if physical pressure is applied which causes deformation along the mechanical avis, an electric charge will be observed between faces which are along the electrical axis.FREQUENCY-CONTROL TECHNIQUES 13 Conversely, if a voltage is applied to these faces, a physical deformation along the mechanical axis will occur. This is known as the piezoelectric effect, and many detailed discussions of the phenomenon will be found in the literature (12,13). Quartz plates will vibrate in synchronism with the frequency of an applied voltage but will vibrate at a vastly increased amplitude when the applied frequency corresponds with the natural mechanical resonant frequency of the plate. Properly designed crystal- 2 controlled oscillators will oscillate Opticot only at the mechanically resonant frequency or its multiples which are called overtones. Figure 2-3 shows M the three axes and the basic operation of a quartz crystal. Crystal Cuts. The physical prop- x Crystalline erties of a quartz crystal vary in different directions through its struc- ture. The natural resonant frequency y lechanical Met pote Ep A Extension Thickness: . Face ‘shear Electrical (or length -width) connection shear Fia. 2-3. Transforming energy. (The Fic. 2-4. Useful fundamental modes of Scientific Monthly.) guartz plates. (From Raymond A. Heising, “Quartz Crystals,” D. Van Nostrand Com- pany, Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1946.) of a piece of crystal depends on its dimensions as well as on how it is cut with respect to the different faces. The way in which the resonant frequency varies with temperature also depends on the cut. The performance characteristics of a crystal also depend on the particu- lar mode of vibration. There are four basic modes of mechanical vibra- tion, of which three are in commercial use. These are the flexure, shear, and longitudinal or extensional modes. The fourth which is seldom used is the torsional mode. Crystals operating in the thickness-shear mode ean be made to operate on odd overtones. Such operation may be referred to as third-mode or fifth-mode operation. Seventh- and higher- overtone oscillation is possible but is seldom used commercially. Crystal14 RADIO TRANSMITTERS cuts are divided into two groups which are described as rotated X-cut and rotated Y-cut crystals. Figure 2-4 illustrates the type of vibration, and Fig. 2-5 shows the approximate locations of the various cuts in a crystal. The most widely used cut is the AT. This cut has a frequency factor (frequency in megacycles times thickness in thousandths of an inch) of 66.4, which makes it nearly the thinnest band for its frequency of any Zero termperature coefficient High-frequency oscillators Low frequency oscillators y x Filters Harmonie ostillators Fic. 2-5. Common crystal cuts. (Standard Crystal Co.) cut. The GT cut has the best temperature coefficient. This cut is a good example of the fact that the associated circuit cannot always be chosen without regard to the cut. It is intended to operate in the width mode, but, if it is plugged into an untuned oscillator such as the Pierce, it may oscillate on the length mode which will be about 14 per cent lower in frequency than desired. Furthermore, the temperature coefficient is much poorer in the length mode. The lower-frequency X cuts are more widely used for crystal filter work than for crystal oscillators. 2-4. Crystal Mountings. Crystal plates are generally mounted in crystal holders which refer to the mounting and housing assemblies. AFREQUENCY-CONTROL TECHNIQUES 15 crystal unit refers to the assembly of holder and crystal. The crystal unit may in turn be mounted in a crystal oven for maintaining a constant temperature. 0312 0 4 £0005 eo 00650010 L 0.050 a 0141 +0010 ordi 020m —Ao23e’Ohie [EIA ] [A 0345— 0486 4 [HCA47U 5 YEN +0009 £0008 HC-6/U [0.765#0.01 0005 0750 HC=15/U 82 Fra. 2-6. Dimensions of EIA crystal holders 4, 5, and 6. (EIA.) There are many methods of mounting crystals, but the two in most general use are the wire and pressure mountings. The wire-mounted crystals are cemented to support- ing wires which provide a firm but os, 01430007 flexible mounting to protect the - : | | r erystal against external vibration osts*0s and shock. The wire-mounted t crystal is housed in a sealed glass +i or metal container. Most sealed odds yh units are sealed in dry air; but | [ £0005 ‘5 min or7*.002 for optimum performance of cer- jr ~0000 tain types such as those operating in the flexure mode, the housing = isevacuated. The damping effect = 0192 #0008 +0000 £0176 O19 of the air is avoided in such a a housing. Pressure-mounted crys- 0000 tals are generally housed in plas- EIA holder 24 . . . MIL HC-18/U tic holders which are sealed with Fic. 27. Dimensions of EIA crystal neoprene gaskets. The Elec- holder 24. (EIA.) tronic Industries Association has standardized a number of crystal holders in their standard RS-192 (14), entitled “Definitions and Dimensional Characteristics of Quartz Crystal Units.” The dimensions of the most commonly used holders are given in Figs. 2-6 and 2-7. Most crystal manufacturers make a practice of identifying the complete unit which includes both the holder and the crystal.16 RADIO TRANSMITTERS 2-5. Crystal Ovens. Where high stability is required, the temperature of the air surrounding the crystal unit is maintained at some value higher than the highest ambient temperature expected. As crystal-grinding techniques have advanced, it has been possible to control the tempera- ture coefficient with a consequent reduction in the required accuracy of temperature control for a given stability. It is possible to cut crystal plates in such a way that the temperature coefficient can be made to change from positive to negative at a selected temperature. The tem- perature at which the temperature coefficient goes through zero is referred to as the turning point, and to obtain best stability the turning point will be placed at the operating temperature of the oven. The type of crystal oven most commonly encountered is the small plug-in type of unit intended for mounting in standard tube sockets. For fixed station transmitters or for frequency standards, the erystal ovens may be large compartments housing the entire oscillator circuit (15). Such boxes may employ thermistor-bridge thermostats with electronic amplification. The small plug-in ovens generally are controlled by bimetallic thermo- stats, which turn the heater power on an off directly. A front-panel indicator lamp is usually connected across the crystal heater, and the constant flashing of the lamp indicates normal operation. 2-6. Crystal-frequency Correlation. The frequency at which a crystal-controlled oscillator operates depends not only upon the physical dimensions of the crystal but on the associated circuit. At one time it was the usual practice for equipment manufacturers to supply the crystal manufacturers not only with the circuit diagram but often with the actual oscillator section of the equipment as well. This procedure had many disadvantages, and a system for crystal-frequency correlation using standard test sets and MIL or EIA specifications was developed. For example, a military type CR-18/U crystal unit operates within 0.005 per cent of its nameplate frequency when used in a parallel-resonant circuit with a load capacitance of 32 uyf. If the same crystal were to be used in a circuit which permitted the crystal to oscillate at its series- resonant frequency, the oscillator output frequency would be lower. A type CR-19/U crystal unit would be properly specified for the series- resonant circuit. 2-7. Military Standard Crystal Units. A list of the military crystal specifications from specification MIL-C-3098C (16) is given in Table 2-1. The categories shown refer to the permissible uses assigned for military equipment as of 1959 (17). The categories are as follows: 1. Recommended for use in new equipment 2. Recently developed and not yet standardized 3. Allowed for replacement purposes 4. Used in past but no longer considered suitableTaste 2-1. Mititary Stanparp Crystau Unrrs* Fre- Fre- Cryatel MIL | queney | queney | Temperature | Reso- |eapaci-| yyy, | Cate type holder | range, | toler. range,°C | nanee | tance, gory ke _| ance, % auf CRAIA/AR |CR-41A | 3,600- | £0.02 | —55to + 90 |Parellel | 35 | Funda- 3 15,000 mental cr2ju | HC-17/U | 200 | 40.009 | —40to + 70 | Parallel] 125 | Funda- 3 mental cr2ju | He-17/0 | 500 | +0.004 | —40t0 + 70 | Parallel | 64 | Funds- 3 —0.013 mental cR32/U | HC-17/U | 300-600 | +0.02 | —40 to + 70 | Parallel Funda- 3 mental cR-4/U | HC-17/U |s00-1,200| +0.03 | —40 to + 70 | Parallel Funda- 3 mental cR-5/U | FT-243 | 2,000- | +0.02 | —55to + 90 | Parallel 25 | Funda- 3 10,000 mental; cr-ofu | ¥r-243 | 2,000- | 40.02 | —40t0 + 70 | Parallel! 13 | Funda | 3 10,000 i mental | CR-7/U | Not used 14 CR-8/U FT-243 1,000— +£0.02 —40 to + 70 | Series Funda- 3 10,000 mental | cR-9/U | Replaced by CR-24/U _i4 CR-10/U | FT-243 | 5,000 | +0.005| —40to + 70 | Parallel | 25 i 3 CR-U1/U | Western | 1.8-60 4 Electric I CR-12/U | Not used ia CR-13/U FT-243 |455-5,250| + 0.02 —40 to + 70. Series Funda- 3 i mental | cR-14/U | Not used ig CR-15B/U_ | HC-21/U 80-200 £0.01 —40 to + 70 | Parallel 32 | Funda- 1 mental | CR-16B/U | HC-21/U | 80-200 | 40.01 | —40 to + 70 | Series Funda- 1 | mental CR-17/U | Replace by CR-24/U 4 CRA8A/U |HC-6/U | 800- | £0,005 | —55to +105 | Parallel | 32 |Punda } 1 20,000 mental oR-194/0 |HC-2/U | 800- | +0.005 | —55 to +105 | Series Funda | 1 20,000 |_ mental CR-20/U |1i-pin base| 422.5 75 No longer apecified 4 CR-21/U | Not used CR-22/U | Not used CR-23/U__| Replace by CR-51U, CR-52/U, CR-53/U, or CR-54/U | 4 CR-24/U | HC-10/0 | 18,000- | 40.005 | —55 to +108 | Series 3rd (15-25) | 1 50,000 Sth (25-50) cR-254/U | HC-6/U | 200-500 | +0.01 | —40 to + 70 | Series Funds- 1 mental cR-26A4/U | HC-6/U | 200-600 | +0.002 | +70 to + 80 | Series Funda- 1 mental cr27a/u | HC6/U | 800- | +0.002 | +70to + 80| Parallel | 32 | Funda. 1 20,000 mental cR-28a/u |HC-6/U | s800- | +0.002 | +70 to + 80 | Series Funda- 1 20,000 mental cr-294/u | Hc-21/U | 80-200 | +0.002 | +70to + 80 | Parallel | 32 | Funda- 1 mental cR-20A/U | HC-21/U | 80-200 | +0.002 | +70 to + 80 | Series Funda- 1 mental CR-31/U | Not used 4 CR-32A/U |HC-6/U | 10,000- | £0.02 | +70 to + 80 | Series 3rd (10-52) | 1 75,000 Sth (52-75) R-33A/U | HC-6/U | 10,000- | +0.005 | -55to +105 | Parallel | 32 | ard 2 25,000 * Courtesy of Armed Services Electro Standards Agency. 17